Jean-Philippe Bernardy

Also published as: Jean-philippe Bernardy


2022

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Conditional Language Models for Community-Level Linguistic Variation
Bill Noble | Jean-philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on Natural Language Processing and Computational Social Science (NLP+CSS)

Community-level linguistic variation is a core concept in sociolinguistics. In this paper, we use conditioned neural language models to learn vector representations for 510 online communities. We use these representations to measure linguistic variation between commu-nities and investigate the degree to which linguistic variation corresponds with social connections between communities. We find that our sociolinguistic embeddings are highly correlated with a social network-based representation that does not use any linguistic input.

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A Neural Model for Compositional Word Embeddings and Sentence Processing
Shalom Lappin | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the Workshop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics

We propose a new neural model for word embeddings, which uses Unitary Matrices as the primary device for encoding lexical information. It uses simple matrix multiplication to derive matrices for large units, yielding a sentence processing model that is strictly compositional, does not lose information over time steps, and is transparent, in the sense that word embeddings can be analysed regardless of context. This model does not employ activation functions, and so the network is fully accessible to analysis by the methods of linear algebra at each point in its operation on an input sequence. We test it in two NLP agreement tasks and obtain rule like perfect accuracy, with greater stability than current state-of-the-art systems. Our proposed model goes some way towards offering a class of computationally powerful deep learning systems that can be fully understood and compared to human cognitive processes for natural language learning and representation.

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UniMorph 4.0: Universal Morphology
Khuyagbaatar Batsuren | Omer Goldman | Salam Khalifa | Nizar Habash | Witold Kieraś | Gábor Bella | Brian Leonard | Garrett Nicolai | Kyle Gorman | Yustinus Ghanggo Ate | Maria Ryskina | Sabrina Mielke | Elena Budianskaya | Charbel El-Khaissi | Tiago Pimentel | Michael Gasser | William Abbott Lane | Mohit Raj | Matt Coler | Jaime Rafael Montoya Samame | Delio Siticonatzi Camaiteri | Esaú Zumaeta Rojas | Didier López Francis | Arturo Oncevay | Juan López Bautista | Gema Celeste Silva Villegas | Lucas Torroba Hennigen | Adam Ek | David Guriel | Peter Dirix | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Andrey Scherbakov | Aziyana Bayyr-ool | Antonios Anastasopoulos | Roberto Zariquiey | Karina Sheifer | Sofya Ganieva | Hilaria Cruz | Ritván Karahóǧa | Stella Markantonatou | George Pavlidis | Matvey Plugaryov | Elena Klyachko | Ali Salehi | Candy Angulo | Jatayu Baxi | Andrew Krizhanovsky | Natalia Krizhanovskaya | Elizabeth Salesky | Clara Vania | Sardana Ivanova | Jennifer White | Rowan Hall Maudslay | Josef Valvoda | Ran Zmigrod | Paula Czarnowska | Irene Nikkarinen | Aelita Salchak | Brijesh Bhatt | Christopher Straughn | Zoey Liu | Jonathan North Washington | Yuval Pinter | Duygu Ataman | Marcin Wolinski | Totok Suhardijanto | Anna Yablonskaya | Niklas Stoehr | Hossep Dolatian | Zahroh Nuriah | Shyam Ratan | Francis M. Tyers | Edoardo M. Ponti | Grant Aiton | Aryaman Arora | Richard J. Hatcher | Ritesh Kumar | Jeremiah Young | Daria Rodionova | Anastasia Yemelina | Taras Andrushko | Igor Marchenko | Polina Mashkovtseva | Alexandra Serova | Emily Prud’hommeaux | Maria Nepomniashchaya | Fausto Giunchiglia | Eleanor Chodroff | Mans Hulden | Miikka Silfverberg | Arya D. McCarthy | David Yarowsky | Ryan Cotterell | Reut Tsarfaty | Ekaterina Vylomova
Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference

The Universal Morphology (UniMorph) project is a collaborative effort providing broad-coverage instantiated normalized morphological inflection tables for hundreds of diverse world languages. The project comprises two major thrusts: a language-independent feature schema for rich morphological annotation, and a type-level resource of annotated data in diverse languages realizing that schema. This paper presents the expansions and improvements on several fronts that were made in the last couple of years (since McCarthy et al. (2020)). Collaborative efforts by numerous linguists have added 66 new languages, including 24 endangered languages. We have implemented several improvements to the extraction pipeline to tackle some issues, e.g., missing gender and macrons information. We have amended the schema to use a hierarchical structure that is needed for morphological phenomena like multiple-argument agreement and case stacking, while adding some missing morphological features to make the schema more inclusive.In light of the last UniMorph release, we also augmented the database with morpheme segmentation for 16 languages. Lastly, this new release makes a push towards inclusion of derivational morphology in UniMorph by enriching the data and annotation schema with instances representing derivational processes from MorphyNet.

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Fine-grained Entailment: Resources for Greek NLI and Precise Entailment
Eirini Amanaki | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis | Robin Cooper | Simon Dobnik | Aram Karimi | Adam Ek | Eirini Chrysovalantou Giannikouri | Vasiliki Katsouli | Ilias Kolokousis | Eirini Chrysovalantou Mamatzaki | Dimitrios Papadakis | Olga Petrova | Erofili Psaltaki | Charikleia Soupiona | Effrosyni Skoulataki | Christina Stefanidou
Proceedings of the Workshop on Dataset Creation for Lower-Resourced Languages within the 13th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference

In this paper, we present a number of fine-grained resources for Natural Language Inference (NLI). In particular, we present a number of resources and validation methods for Greek NLI and a resource for precise NLI. First, we extend the Greek version of the FraCaS test suite to include examples where the inference is directly linked to the syntactic/morphological properties of Greek. The new resource contains an additional 428 examples, making it in total a dataset of 774 examples. Expert annotators have been used in order to create the additional resource, while extensive validation of the original Greek version of the FraCaS by non-expert and expert subjects is performed. Next, we continue the work initiated by (CITATION), according to which a subset of the RTE problems have been labeled for missing hypotheses and we present a dataset an order of magnitude larger, annotating the whole SuperGlUE/RTE dataset with missing hypotheses. Lastly, we provide a de-dropped version of the Greek XNLI dataset, where the pronouns that are missing due to the pro-drop nature of the language are inserted. We then run some models to see the effect of that insertion and report the results.

2021

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Semantic Classification and Learning Using a Linear Tranformation Model in a Probabilistic Type Theory with Records
Staffan Larsson | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the Reasoning and Interaction Conference (ReInAct 2021)

Starting from an existing account of semantic classification and learning from interaction formulated in a Probabilistic Type Theory with Records, encompassing Bayesian inference and learning with a frequentist flavour, we observe some problems with this account and provide an alternative account of classification learning that addresses the observed problems. The proposed account is also broadly Bayesian in nature but instead uses a linear transformation model for classification and learning.

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Why Should I Turn Left? Towards Active Explainability for Spoken Dialogue Systems.
Vladislav Maraev | Ellen Breitholtz | Christine Howes | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the Reasoning and Interaction Conference (ReInAct 2021)

In this paper we argue that to make dialogue systems able to actively explain their decisions they can make use of enthymematic reasoning. We motivate why this is an appropriate strategy and integrate it within our own proof-theoretic dialogue manager framework based on linear logic. In particular, this enables a dialogue system to provide reasonable answers to why-questions that query information previously given by the system.

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Can the Transformer Learn Nested Recursion with Symbol Masking?
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Adam Ek | Vladislav Maraev
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL-IJCNLP 2021

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SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Morphological Reinflection: Generalization Across Languages
Tiago Pimentel | Maria Ryskina | Sabrina J. Mielke | Shijie Wu | Eleanor Chodroff | Brian Leonard | Garrett Nicolai | Yustinus Ghanggo Ate | Salam Khalifa | Nizar Habash | Charbel El-Khaissi | Omer Goldman | Michael Gasser | William Lane | Matt Coler | Arturo Oncevay | Jaime Rafael Montoya Samame | Gema Celeste Silva Villegas | Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Andrey Shcherbakov | Aziyana Bayyr-ool | Karina Sheifer | Sofya Ganieva | Matvey Plugaryov | Elena Klyachko | Ali Salehi | Andrew Krizhanovsky | Natalia Krizhanovsky | Clara Vania | Sardana Ivanova | Aelita Salchak | Christopher Straughn | Zoey Liu | Jonathan North Washington | Duygu Ataman | Witold Kieraś | Marcin Woliński | Totok Suhardijanto | Niklas Stoehr | Zahroh Nuriah | Shyam Ratan | Francis M. Tyers | Edoardo M. Ponti | Grant Aiton | Richard J. Hatcher | Emily Prud’hommeaux | Ritesh Kumar | Mans Hulden | Botond Barta | Dorina Lakatos | Gábor Szolnok | Judit Ács | Mohit Raj | David Yarowsky | Ryan Cotterell | Ben Ambridge | Ekaterina Vylomova
Proceedings of the 18th SIGMORPHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology

This year’s iteration of the SIGMORPHON Shared Task on morphological reinflection focuses on typological diversity and cross-lingual variation of morphosyntactic features. In terms of the task, we enrich UniMorph with new data for 32 languages from 13 language families, with most of them being under-resourced: Kunwinjku, Classical Syriac, Arabic (Modern Standard, Egyptian, Gulf), Hebrew, Amharic, Aymara, Magahi, Braj, Kurdish (Central, Northern, Southern), Polish, Karelian, Livvi, Ludic, Veps, Võro, Evenki, Xibe, Tuvan, Sakha, Turkish, Indonesian, Kodi, Seneca, Asháninka, Yanesha, Chukchi, Itelmen, Eibela. We evaluate six systems on the new data and conduct an extensive error analysis of the systems’ predictions. Transformer-based models generally demonstrate superior performance on the majority of languages, achieving >90% accuracy on 65% of them. The languages on which systems yielded low accuracy are mainly under-resourced, with a limited amount of data. Most errors made by the systems are due to allomorphy, honorificity, and form variation. In addition, we observe that systems especially struggle to inflect multiword lemmas. The systems also produce misspelled forms or end up in repetitive loops (e.g., RNN-based models). Finally, we report a large drop in systems’ performance on previously unseen lemmas.

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Training Strategies for Neural Multilingual Morphological Inflection
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the 18th SIGMORPHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology

This paper presents the submission of team GUCLASP to SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Generalization in Morphological Inflection Generation. We develop a multilingual model for Morphological Inflection and primarily focus on improving the model by using various training strategies to improve accuracy and generalization across languages.

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From compositional semantics to Bayesian pragmatics via logical inference
Julian Grove | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis
Proceedings of the 1st and 2nd Workshops on Natural Logic Meets Machine Learning (NALOMA)

Formal semantics in the Montagovian tradition provides precise meaning characterisations, but usually without a formal theory of the pragmatics of contextual parameters and their sensitivity to background knowledge. Meanwhile, formal pragmatic theories make explicit predictions about meaning in context, but generally without a well-defined compositional semantics. We propose a combined framework for the semantic and pragmatic interpretation of sentences in the face of probabilistic knowledge. We do so by (1) extending a Montagovian interpretation scheme to generate a distribution over possible meanings, and (2) generating a posterior for this distribution using a variant of the Rational Speech Act (RSA) models, but generalised to arbitrary propositions. These aspects of our framework are tied together by evaluating entailment under probabilistic uncertainty. We apply our model to anaphora resolution and show that it provides expected biases under suitable assumptions about the distributions of lexical and world-knowledge. Further, we observe that the model’s output is robust to variations in its parameters within reasonable ranges.

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Semantic Learning in a Probabilistic Type Theory with Records
Staffan Larsson | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Robin Cooper
Proceedings of the ESSLLI 2021 Workshop on Computing Semantics with Types, Frames and Related Structures

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Can predicate-argument relationships be extracted from UD trees?
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis
Proceedings of the Joint 15th Linguistic Annotation Workshop (LAW) and 3rd Designing Meaning Representations (DMR) Workshop

In this paper we investigate the possibility of extracting predicate-argument relations from UD trees (and enhanced UD graphs). Con- cretely, we apply UD parsers on an En- glish question answering/semantic-role label- ing data set (FitzGerald et al., 2018) and check if the annotations reflect the relations in the resulting parse trees, using a small number of rules to extract this information. We find that 79.1% of the argument-predicate pairs can be found in this way, on the basis of Ud- ify (Kondratyuk and Straka, 2019). Error anal- ysis reveals that half of the error cases are at- tributable to shortcomings in the dataset. The remaining errors are mostly due to predicate- argument relations not being extractible algo- rithmically from the UD trees (requiring se- mantic reasoning to be resolved). The parser itself is only responsible for a small portion of errors. Our analysis suggests a number of improvements to the UD annotation schema: we propose to enhance the schema in four ways, in order to capture argument-predicate relations. Additionally, we propose improve- ments regarding data collection for question answering/semantic-role labeling data.

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Applied Temporal Analysis: A Complete Run of the FraCaS Test Suite
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis
Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Computational Semantics (IWCS)

In this paper, we propose an implementation of temporal semantics that translates syntax trees to logical formulas, suitable for consumption by the Coq proof assistant. The analysis supports a wide range of phenomena including: temporal references, temporal adverbs, aspectual classes and progressives. The new semantics are built on top of a previous system handling all sections of the FraCaS test suite except the temporal reference section, and we obtain an accuracy of 81 percent overall and 73 percent for the problems explicitly marked as related to temporal reference. To the best of our knowledge, this is the best performance of a logical system on the whole of the FraCaS.

2020

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How Much of Enhanced UD Is Contained in UD?
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Parsing Technologies and the IWPT 2020 Shared Task on Parsing into Enhanced Universal Dependencies

In this paper, we present the submission of team CLASP to the IWPT 2020 Shared Task on parsing enhanced universal dependencies. We develop a tree-to-graph transformation algorithm based on dependency patterns. This algorithm can transform gold UD trees to EUD graphs with an ELAS score of 81.55 and a EULAS score of 96.70. These results show that much of the information needed to construct EUD graphs from UD trees are present in the UD trees. Coupled with a standard UD parser, the method applies to the official test data and yields and ELAS score of 67.85 and a EULAS score is 80.18.

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Composing Byte-Pair Encodings for Morphological Sequence Classification
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Universal Dependencies (UDW 2020)

Byte-pair encodings is a method for splitting a word into sub-word tokens, a language model then assigns contextual representations separately to each of these tokens. In this paper, we evaluate four different methods of composing such sub-word representations into word representations. We evaluate the methods on morphological sequence classification, the task of predicting grammatical features of a word. Our experiments reveal that using an RNN to compute word representations is consistently more effective than the other methods tested across a sample of eight languages with different typology and varying numbers of byte-pair tokens per word.

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Dialogue management with linear logic: the role of metavariables in questions and clarifications
Vladislav Maraev | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Jonathan Ginzburg
Traitement Automatique des Langues, Volume 61, Numéro 3 : Dialogue et systèmes de dialogue [Dialogue and dialogue systems]

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How does Punctuation Affect Neural Models in Natural Language Inference
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis
Proceedings of the Probability and Meaning Conference (PaM 2020)

Natural Language Inference models have reached almost human-level performance but their generalisation capabilities have not been yet fully characterized. In particular, sensitivity to small changes in the data is a current area of investigation. In this paper, we focus on the effect of punctuation on such models. Our findings can be broadly summarized as follows: (1) irrelevant changes in punctuation are correctly ignored by the recent transformer models (BERT) while older RNN-based models were sensitive to them. (2) All models, both transformers and RNN-based models, are incapable of taking into account small relevant changes in the punctuation.

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When is Multi-task Learning Beneficial for Low-Resource Noisy Code-switched User-generated Algerian Texts?
Wafia Adouane | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the The 4th Workshop on Computational Approaches to Code Switching

We investigate when is it beneficial to simultaneously learn representations for several tasks, in low-resource settings. For this, we work with noisy user-generated texts in Algerian, a low-resource non-standardised Arabic variety. That is, to mitigate the problem of the data scarcity, we experiment with jointly learning progressively 4 tasks, namely code-switch detection, named entity recognition, spell normalisation and correction, and identifying users’ sentiments. The selection of these tasks is motivated by the lack of labelled data for automatic morpho-syntactic or semantic sequence-tagging tasks for Algerian, in contrast to the case of much multi-task learning for NLP. Our empirical results show that multi-task learning is beneficial for some tasks in particular settings, and that the effect of each task on another, the order of the tasks, and the size of the training data of the task with more data do matter. Moreover, the data augmentation that we performed with no external resources has been shown to be beneficial for certain tasks.

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Identifying Sentiments in Algerian Code-switched User-generated Comments
Wafia Adouane | Samia Touileb | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the Twelfth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference

We present in this paper our work on Algerian language, an under-resourced North African colloquial Arabic variety, for which we built a comparably large corpus of more than 36,000 code-switched user-generated comments annotated for sentiments. We opted for this data domain because Algerian is a colloquial language with no existing freely available corpora. Moreover, we compiled sentiment lexicons of positive and negative unigrams and bigrams reflecting the code-switches present in the language. We compare the performance of four models on the task of identifying sentiments, and the results indicate that a CNN model trained end-to-end fits better our unedited code-switched and unbalanced data across the predefined sentiment classes. Additionally, injecting the lexicons as background knowledge to the model boosts its performance on the minority class with a gain of 10.54 points on the F-score. The results of our experiments can be used as a baseline for future research for Algerian sentiment analysis.

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Improving the Precision of Natural Textual Entailment Problem Datasets
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis
Proceedings of the Twelfth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference

In this paper, we propose a method to modify natural textual entailment problem datasets so that they better reflect a more precise notion of entailment. We apply this method to a subset of the Recognizing Textual Entailment datasets. We thus obtain a new corpus of entailment problems, which has the following three characteristics: 1. it is precise (does not leave out implicit hypotheses) 2. it is based on “real-world” texts (i.e. most of the premises were written for purposes other than testing textual entailment). 3. its size is 150. Broadly, the method that we employ is to make any missing hypotheses explicit using a crowd of experts. We discuss the relevance of our method in improving existing NLI datasets to be more fit for precise reasoning and we argue that this corpus can be the basis a first step towards wide-coverage testing of precise natural-language inference systems.

2019

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Normalising Non-standardised Orthography in Algerian Code-switched User-generated Data
Wafia Adouane | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Simon Dobnik
Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2019)

We work with Algerian, an under-resourced non-standardised Arabic variety, for which we compile a new parallel corpus consisting of user-generated textual data matched with normalised and corrected human annotations following data-driven and our linguistically motivated standard. We use an end-to-end deep neural model designed to deal with context-dependent spelling correction and normalisation. Results indicate that a model with two CNN sub-network encoders and an LSTM decoder performs the best, and that word context matters. Additionally, pre-processing data token-by-token with an edit-distance based aligner significantly improves the performance. We get promising results for the spelling correction and normalisation, as a pre-processing step for downstream tasks, on detecting binary Semantic Textual Similarity.

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Two experiments for embedding Wordnet hierarchy into vector spaces
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Aleksandre Maskharashvili
Proceedings of the 10th Global Wordnet Conference

In this paper, we investigate mapping of the WORDNET hyponymy relation to feature vectors. Our aim is to model lexical knowledge in such a way that it can be used as input in generic machine-learning models, such as phrase entailment predictors. We propose two models. The first one leverages an existing mapping of words to feature vectors (fastText), and attempts to classify such vectors as within or outside of each class. The second model is fully supervised, using solely WORDNET as a ground truth. It maps each concept to an interval or a disjunction thereof. The first model approaches but not quite attain state of the art performance. The second model can achieve near-perfect accuracy.

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Bayesian Inference Semantics: A Modelling System and A Test Suite
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Rasmus Blanck | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis | Shalom Lappin | Aleksandre Maskharashvili
Proceedings of the Eighth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (*SEM 2019)

We present BIS, a Bayesian Inference Semantics, for probabilistic reasoning in natural language. The current system is based on the framework of Bernardy et al. (2018), but departs from it in important respects. BIS makes use of Bayesian learning for inferring a hypothesis from premises. This involves estimating the probability of the hypothesis, given the data supplied by the premises of an argument. It uses a syntactic parser to generate typed syntactic structures that serve as input to a model generation system. Sentences are interpreted compositionally to probabilistic programs, and the corresponding truth values are estimated using sampling methods. BIS successfully deals with various probabilistic semantic phenomena, including frequency adverbs, generalised quantifiers, generics, and vague predicates. It performs well on a number of interesting probabilistic reasoning tasks. It also sustains most classically valid inferences (instantiation, de Morgan’s laws, etc.). To test BIS we have built an experimental test suite with examples of a range of probabilistic and classical inference patterns.

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Neural Models for Detecting Binary Semantic Textual Similarity for Algerian and MSA
Wafia Adouane | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Simon Dobnik
Proceedings of the Fourth Arabic Natural Language Processing Workshop

We explore the extent to which neural networks can learn to identify semantically equivalent sentences from a small variable dataset using an end-to-end training. We collect a new noisy non-standardised user-generated Algerian (ALG) dataset and also translate it to Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) which serves as its regularised counterpart. We compare the performance of various models on both datasets and report the best performing configurations. The results show that relatively simple models composed of 2 LSTM layers outperform by far other more sophisticated attention-based architectures, for both ALG and MSA datasets.

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Language Modeling with Syntactic and Semantic Representation for Sentence Acceptability Predictions
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Shalom Lappin
Proceedings of the 22nd Nordic Conference on Computational Linguistics

In this paper, we investigate the effect of enhancing lexical embeddings in LSTM language models (LM) with syntactic and semantic representations. We evaluate the language models using perplexity, and we evaluate the performance of the models on the task of predicting human sentence acceptability judgments. We train LSTM language models on sentences automatically annotated with universal syntactic dependency roles (Nivre, 2016), dependency depth and universal semantic tags (Abzianidze et al., 2017) to predict sentence acceptability judgments. Our experiments indicate that syntactic tags lower perplexity, while semantic tags increase it. Our experiments also show that neither syntactic nor semantic tags improve the performance of LSTM language models on the task of predicting sentence acceptability judgments.

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A Wide-Coverage Symbolic Natural Language Inference System
Stergios Chatzikyriakidis | Jean-Philippe Bernardy
Proceedings of the 22nd Nordic Conference on Computational Linguistics

We present a system for Natural Language Inference which uses a dynamic semantics converter from abstract syntax trees to Coq types. It combines the fine-grainedness of a dynamic semantics system with the powerfulness of a state-of-the-art proof assistant, like Coq. We evaluate the system on all sections of the FraCaS test suite, excluding section 6. This is the first system that does a complete run on the anaphora and ellipsis sections of the FraCaS. It has a better overall accuracy than any previous system.

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Predicates as Boxes in Bayesian Semantics for Natural Language
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Rasmus Blanck | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis | Shalom Lappin | Aleksandre Maskharashvili
Proceedings of the 22nd Nordic Conference on Computational Linguistics

In this paper, we present a Bayesian approach to natural language semantics. Our main focus is on the inference task in an environment where judgments require probabilistic reasoning. We treat nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. as unary predicates, and we model them as boxes in a bounded domain. We apply Bayesian learning to satisfy constraints expressed as premises. In this way we construct a model, by specifying boxes for the predicates. The probability of the hypothesis (the conclusion) is evaluated against the model that incorporates the premises as constraints.

2018

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A Comparison of Character Neural Language Model and Bootstrapping for Language Identification in Multilingual Noisy Texts
Wafia Adouane | Simon Dobnik | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Nasredine Semmar
Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Subword/Character LEvel Models

This paper seeks to examine the effect of including background knowledge in the form of character pre-trained neural language model (LM), and data bootstrapping to overcome the problem of unbalanced limited resources. As a test, we explore the task of language identification in mixed-language short non-edited texts with an under-resourced language, namely the case of Algerian Arabic for which both labelled and unlabelled data are limited. We compare the performance of two traditional machine learning methods and a deep neural networks (DNNs) model. The results show that overall DNNs perform better on labelled data for the majority categories and struggle with the minority ones. While the effect of the untokenised and unlabelled data encoded as LM differs for each category, bootstrapping, however, improves the performance of all systems and all categories. These methods are language independent and could be generalised to other under-resourced languages for which a small labelled data and a larger unlabelled data are available.

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Improving Neural Network Performance by Injecting Background Knowledge: Detecting Code-switching and Borrowing in Algerian texts
Wafia Adouane | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Simon Dobnik
Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Approaches to Linguistic Code-Switching

We explore the effect of injecting background knowledge to different deep neural network (DNN) configurations in order to mitigate the problem of the scarcity of annotated data when applying these models on datasets of low-resourced languages. The background knowledge is encoded in the form of lexicons and pre-trained sub-word embeddings. The DNN models are evaluated on the task of detecting code-switching and borrowing points in non-standardised user-generated Algerian texts. Overall results show that DNNs benefit from adding background knowledge. However, the gain varies between models and categories. The proposed DNN architectures are generic and could be applied to other low-resourced languages.

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A Compositional Bayesian Semantics for Natural Language
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Rasmus Blanck | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis | Shalom Lappin
Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Language Cognition and Computational Models

We propose a compositional Bayesian semantics that interprets declarative sentences in a natural language by assigning them probability conditions. These are conditional probabilities that estimate the likelihood that a competent speaker would endorse an assertion, given certain hypotheses. Our semantics is implemented in a functional programming language. It estimates the marginal probability of a sentence through Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling of objects in vector space models satisfying specified hypotheses. We apply our semantics to examples with several predicates and generalised quantifiers, including higher-order quantifiers. It captures the vagueness of predication (both gradable and non-gradable), without positing a precise boundary for classifier application. We present a basic account of semantic learning based on our semantic system. We compare our proposal to other current theories of probabilistic semantics, and we show that it offers several important advantages over these accounts.

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The Influence of Context on Sentence Acceptability Judgements
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Shalom Lappin | Jey Han Lau
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)

We investigate the influence that document context exerts on human acceptability judgements for English sentences, via two sets of experiments. The first compares ratings for sentences presented on their own with ratings for the same set of sentences given in their document contexts. The second assesses the accuracy with which two types of neural models — one that incorporates context during training and one that does not — predict these judgements. Our results indicate that: (1) context improves acceptability ratings for ill-formed sentences, but also reduces them for well-formed sentences; and (2) context helps unsupervised systems to model acceptability.

2017

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A Type-Theoretical system for the FraCaS test suite: Grammatical Framework meets Coq
Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis
IWCS 2017 - 12th International Conference on Computational Semantics - Long papers

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