 
 = Valkyria Chronicles III = 
 
 Senjō no Valkyria 3 : <unk> Chronicles ( Japanese : 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 ) , commonly referred to as Valkyria Chronicles III outside Japan , is a tactical role @-@ playing video game developed by Sega and Media.Vision for the PlayStation Portable . Released in January 2011 in Japan , it is the third game in the Valkyria series . <unk> the same fusion of tactical and real @-@ time gameplay as its predecessors , the story runs parallel to the first game and follows the " Nameless " , a penal military unit serving the nation of Gallia during the Second Europan War who perform secret black operations and are pitted against the Imperial unit " <unk> Raven " . 
 The game began development in 2010 , carrying over a large portion of the work done on Valkyria Chronicles II . While it retained the standard features of the series , it also underwent multiple adjustments , such as making the game more <unk> for series newcomers . Character designer <unk> Honjou and composer Hitoshi Sakimoto both returned from previous entries , along with Valkyria Chronicles II director Takeshi Ozawa . A large team of writers handled the script . The game 's opening theme was sung by May 'n . 
 It met with positive sales in Japan , and was praised by both Japanese and western critics . After release , it received downloadable content , along with an expanded edition in November of that year . It was also adapted into manga and an original video animation series . Due to low sales of Valkyria Chronicles II , Valkyria Chronicles III was not localized , but a fan translation compatible with the game 's expanded edition was released in 2014 . Media.Vision would return to the franchise with the development of Valkyria : Azure Revolution for the PlayStation 4 . 
 
 = = Gameplay = = 
 
 As with previous <unk> Chronicles games , Valkyria Chronicles III is a tactical role @-@ playing game where players take control of a military unit and take part in missions against enemy forces . Stories are told through comic book @-@ like panels with animated character portraits , with characters speaking partially through voiced speech bubbles and partially through <unk> text . The player progresses through a series of linear missions , gradually unlocked as maps that can be freely <unk> through and replayed as they are unlocked . The route to each story location on the map varies depending on an individual player 's approach : when one option is selected , the other is sealed off to the player . Outside missions , the player characters rest in a camp , where units can be customized and character growth occurs . Alongside the main story missions are character @-@ specific sub missions relating to different squad members . After the game 's completion , additional episodes are unlocked , some of them having a higher difficulty than those found in the rest of the game . There are also love simulation elements related to the game 's two main <unk> , although they take a very minor role . 
 The game 's battle system , the <unk> system , is carried over directly from <unk> Chronicles . During missions , players select each unit using a top @-@ down perspective of the battlefield map : once a character is selected , the player moves the character around the battlefield in third @-@ person . A character can only act once per @-@ turn , but characters can be granted multiple turns at the expense of other characters ' turns . Each character has a field and distance of movement limited by their Action <unk> . Up to nine characters can be assigned to a single mission . During gameplay , characters will call out if something happens to them , such as their health points ( HP ) getting low or being knocked out by enemy attacks . Each character has specific " Potentials " , skills unique to each character . They are divided into " Personal Potential " , which are innate skills that remain unaltered unless otherwise dictated by the story and can either help or impede a character , and " Battle Potentials " , which are grown throughout the game and always grant <unk> to a character . To learn Battle Potentials , each character has a unique " Masters Table " , a grid @-@ based skill table that can be used to acquire and link different skills . Characters also have Special <unk> that grant them temporary <unk> on the battlefield : Kurt can activate " Direct Command " and move around the battlefield without <unk> his Action Point gauge , the character <unk> can shift into her " Valkyria Form " and become <unk> , while Imca can target multiple enemy units with her heavy weapon . 
 Troops are divided into five classes : Scouts , <unk> , Engineers , <unk> and Armored Soldier . <unk> can switch classes by changing their assigned weapon . Changing class does not greatly affect the stats gained while in a previous class . With victory in battle , experience points are awarded to the squad , which are distributed into five different attributes shared by the entire squad , a feature differing from early games ' method of distributing to different unit types . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 The game takes place during the Second Europan War . Gallian Army Squad 422 , also known as " The Nameless " , are a penal military unit composed of criminals , foreign <unk> , and military offenders whose real names are erased from the records and <unk> officially referred to by numbers . <unk> by the Gallian military to perform the most dangerous missions that the Regular Army and Militia will not do , they are nevertheless up to the task , exemplified by their motto , <unk> <unk> , meaning " Always Ready . " The three main characters are <unk> Kurt Irving , an army officer falsely accused of treason who wishes to redeem himself ; Ace <unk> Imca , a female Darcsen heavy weapons specialist who seeks revenge against the Valkyria who destroyed her home ; and <unk> Riela <unk> , a seemingly <unk> young woman who is unknowingly a descendant of the Valkyria . Together with their fellow squad members , these three are tasked to fight against a mysterious Imperial unit known as Calamity Raven , consisting of mostly Darcsen soldiers . 
 As the Nameless officially do not exist , the upper echelons of the Gallian Army exploit the concept of plausible <unk> in order to send them on missions that would otherwise make Gallia lose face in the war . While at times this works to their advantage , such as a successful incursion into Imperial territory , other orders cause certain members of the 422nd great distress . One such member , <unk> , becomes so enraged that he abandons his post and defects into the ranks of Calamity Raven , attached to the ideal of Darcsen independence proposed by their leader , Dahau . At the same time , elements within Gallian Army Command move to erase the Nameless in order to protect their own interests . <unk> by both allies and enemies , and combined with the presence of a traitor within their ranks , the 422nd desperately move to keep themselves alive while at the same time fight to help the Gallian war effort . This continues until the Nameless 's commanding officer , Ramsey Crowe , who had been kept under house arrest , is escorted to the capital city of <unk> in order to present evidence <unk> the weary soldiers and expose the real traitor , the Gallian General that had accused Kurt of Treason . 
 <unk> due to these events , and partly due to the major losses in manpower Gallia suffers towards the end of the war with the Empire , the Nameless are offered a formal position as a squad in the Gallian Army rather than serve as an anonymous shadow force . This is short @-@ lived , however , as following Maximilian 's defeat , Dahau and Calamity Raven move to activate an ancient <unk> super weapon within the Empire , kept secret by their benefactor . Without the support of Maximilian or the chance to prove themselves in the war with Gallia , it is Dahau 's last <unk> card in creating a new Darcsen nation . As an armed Gallian force invading the Empire just following the two nations ' cease @-@ fire would certainly wreck their newfound peace , Kurt decides to once again make his squad the Nameless , asking Crowe to list himself and all under his command as killed @-@ in @-@ action . Now owing allegiance to none other than themselves , the 422nd confronts Dahau and destroys the <unk> weapon . Each member then goes their separate ways in order to begin their lives <unk> . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 Concept work for Valkyria Chronicles III began after development finished on Valkyria Chronicles II in early 2010 , with full development beginning shortly after this . The director of Valkyria Chronicles II , Takeshi Ozawa , returned to that role for Valkyria Chronicles III . Development work took approximately one year . After the release of Valkyria Chronicles II , the staff took a look at both the popular response for the game and what they wanted to do next for the series . Like its predecessor , Valkyria Chronicles III was developed for PlayStation Portable : this was due to the team wanting to refine the mechanics created for Valkyria Chronicles II , and they had not come up with the " revolutionary " idea that would warrant a new entry for the PlayStation 3 . Speaking in an interview , it was stated that the development team considered Valkyria Chronicles III to be the series ' first true sequel : while Valkyria Chronicles II had required a large amount of trial and error during development due to the platform move , the third game gave them a chance to improve upon the best parts of Valkyria Chronicles II due to being on the same platform . In addition to Sega staff from the previous games , development work was also handled by <unk> The original scenario was written <unk> <unk> , while the script was written by Hiroyuki <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . Its story was darker and more somber than that of its predecessor . 
 The majority of material created for previous games , such as the <unk> system and the design of maps , was carried over . Alongside this , improvements were made to the game 's graphics and some elements were expanded , such as map layouts , mission structure , and the number of playable units per mission . A part of this upgrade involved creating unique <unk> models for each character 's body . In order to achieve this , the cooperative elements incorporated into the second game were removed , as they took up a large portion of memory space needed for the improvements . They also adjusted the difficulty settings and ease of play so they could appeal to new players while retaining the essential components of the series ' gameplay . The newer systems were decided upon early in development . The character designs were done by <unk> Honjou , who had worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When creating the Nameless Squad , Honjou was faced with the same problem he had had during the first game : the military uniforms essentially destroyed character individuality , despite him needing to create unique characters the player could identify while maintaining a sense of reality within the Valkyria Chronicles world . The main color of the Nameless was black . As with the previous Valkyria games , Valkyria Chronicles III used the <unk> graphics engine . The anime opening was produced by Production I.G. 
 
 = = = Music = = = 
 
 The music was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , who had also worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When he originally heard about the project , he thought it would be a light tone similar to other Valkyria Chronicles games , but found the themes much darker than expected . An early theme he designed around his original vision of the project was rejected . He <unk> the main theme about seven times through the music production due to this need to <unk> the game . The main theme was initially recorded using orchestra , then Sakimoto removed elements such as the guitar and bass , then adjusted the theme using a synthesizer before <unk> segments such as the guitar piece on their own before incorporating them into the theme . The rejected main theme was used as a hopeful tune that played during the game 's ending . The battle themes were designed around the concept of a " modern battle " divorced from a fantasy scenario by using modern musical instruments , constructed to create a sense of <unk> . While Sakimoto was most used to working with synthesized music , he felt that he needed to incorporate live instruments such as orchestra and guitar . The guitar was played by <unk> <unk> , who also arranged several of the later tracks . The game 's opening theme song , " If You Wish for ... " ( <unk> , <unk> Kimi <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , was sung by Japanese singer May 'n . Its theme was the reason soldiers fought , in particular their wish to protect what was precious to them rather than a sense of responsibility or duty . Its lyrics were written by <unk> <unk> , who had worked on May 'n on previous singles . 
 
 = = = Release = = = 
 
 In September 2010 , a teaser website was revealed by Sega , hinting at a new Valkyria Chronicles game . In its September issue , Famitsu listed that Senjō no Valkyria 3 would be arriving on the PlayStation Portable . Its first public appearance was at the 2010 Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) , where a demo was made available for journalists and attendees . During the publicity , story details were kept <unk> so as not to <unk> too much for potential players , along with some of its content still being in flux at the time of its reveal . To promote the game and detail the story leading into the game 's events , an episodic Flash visual novel written by <unk> began release in January 2011 . The game was released January 27 , 2011 . During an interview , the development team said that the game had the capacity for downloadable content ( DLC ) , but that no plans were finalized . Multiple DLC maps , featuring additional missions and <unk> characters , were released between February and April 2011 . An expanded edition of the game , Valkyria Chronicles III Extra Edition , released on November 23 , 2011 . <unk> and sold at a lower price than the original , Extra Edition game with seven additional episodes : three new , three chosen by staff from the game 's DLC , and one made available as a pre @-@ order bonus . People who also owned the original game could transfer their save data between versions . 
 Unlike its two predecessors , Valkyria Chronicles III was not released in the west . According to Sega , this was due to poor sales of Valkyria Chronicles II and the general unpopularity of the PSP in the west . An unofficial fan translation patch began development in February 2012 : players with a copy of Valkyria Chronicles III could download and apply the patch , which translated the game 's text into English . <unk> with the Extra Edition , the patch was released in January 2014 . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 On its day of release in Japan , Valkyria Chronicles III topped both platform @-@ exclusive and multi @-@ platform sales charts . By early February , the game sold 102 @,@ <unk> units , coming in second overall to The Last Story for the Wii . By the end of the year , the game had sold just over 152 @,@ 500 units . 
 Famitsu enjoyed the story , and were particularly pleased with the improvements to gameplay . Japanese gaming site Game Watch <unk> , despite negatively noting its pacing and elements recycled from previous games , was generally positive about its story and characters , and found its gameplay entertaining despite off @-@ putting difficulty spikes . <unk> writer <unk> <unk> , in a " Play Test " article based on the game 's <unk> demo , felt that Valkyria Chronicles III provided a " profound feeling of closure " for the Valkyria Chronicles series . He praised its gameplay despite annoying limitations to aspects such as special abilities , and positively noted its shift in story to a tone similar to the first game . 
 PlayStation Official Magazine - UK praised the story 's <unk> of Gallia 's moral standing , art style , and most points about its gameplay , positively noting the latter for both its continued quality and the tweaks to balance and content . Its one major criticism were multiple difficulty spikes , something that had affected the previous games . Heath Hindman of gaming website PlayStation <unk> praised the addition of non @-@ linear elements and improvements or removal of mechanics from Valkyria Chronicles II in addition to praising the returning gameplay style of previous games . He also positively noted the story 's serious tone . Points criticized in the review were recycled elements , awkward cutscenes that seemed to include all characters in a scene for no good reason , pacing issues , and occasional problems with the game 's AI . 
 In a preview of the TGS demo , Ryan Geddes of IGN was left excited as to where the game would go after completing the demo , along with enjoying the improved visuals over Valkyria Chronicles II . Kotaku 's Richard <unk> was highly positive about the game , citing is story as a return to form after Valkyria Chronicles II and its gameplay being the best in the series . His main criticisms were its length and gameplay repetition , along with expressing regret that it would not be localized . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 Kurt and Riela were featured in the Nintendo 3DS crossover Project X Zone , representing the Valkyria series . Media.Vision would return to the series to develop Valkyria : Azure Revolution , with Ozawa returning as director . Azure Revolution is a role @-@ playing video game for the PlayStation 4 that forms the beginning of a new series within the Valkyria franchise . 
 
 = = = Adaptations = = = 
 
 Valkyria Chronicles 3 was adapted into a two @-@ episode original video animation series in the same year of its release . <unk> Senjō no Valkyria 3 : <unk> <unk> no <unk> ( <unk> <unk> , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The <unk> Taken for <unk> 's Sake ) , it was originally released through PlayStation Network and <unk> between April and May 2011 . The initially @-@ planned release and availability period needed to be extended due to a stoppage to <unk> during the early summer of that year . It later released for DVD on June 29 and August 31 , 2011 , with separate " Black " and " Blue " editions being available for purchase . The anime is set during the latter half of Valkyria Chronicles III , detailing a mission by the Nameless against their Imperial rivals Calamity Raven . The anime was first announced in November 2010 . It was developed by A @-@ 1 Pictures , produced by Shinji <unk> , directed by <unk> <unk> , and written by Hiroshi <unk> . Sakimoto 's music for the game was used in the anime . 
 The anime 's title was inspired by the principle purpose of the Nameless : to suffer in battle for the goals of others . A <unk> attached to the project during development was " The Road to <unk> " , which referenced the <unk> Tank Museum in Moscow . The game 's main theme was how the characters regained their sense of self when stripped of their names and identities , along with general themes focused on war and its consequences . While making the anime , the production team were told by Sega to make it as realistic as possible , with the consequence that the team did extensive research into aspects such as what happened when vehicles like tanks were overturned or damaged . Due to it being along the same timeline as the original game and its television anime adaptation , the cast of Valkyria Chronicles could make appearances , which pleased the team . The opening theme , " <unk> ( Light ) <unk> " ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , was sung by Japanese singer <unk> . The ending theme , " <unk> the Flowers of Light Will Bloom " ( <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> no <unk> ) , was sung by <unk> <unk> . Both songs ' lyrics were written by their respective artists . 
 Two manga adaptations were produced , following each of the game 's main female protagonists Imca and Riela . They were Senjō no Valkyria 3 : <unk> <unk> <unk> no <unk> ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 <unk> , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Flower of the Nameless Oath ) , illustrated by <unk> <unk> and eventually released in two volumes after being serialized in Dengeki <unk> between 2011 and 2012 ; and Senjō no Valkyria 3 : <unk> <unk> no <unk> <unk> ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 <unk> , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 <unk> <unk> of the Crimson Fate ) , illustrated by <unk> <unk> and eventually released in a single volume by Kadokawa Shoten in 2012 . 
 
 
 = Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal = 
 
 The Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal , also known as U.S. Arsenal Building , is a building located in MacArthur Park in downtown Little Rock , Arkansas . Built in 1840 , it was part of Little Rock 's first military installation . Since its decommissioning , The Tower Building has housed two museums . It was home to the Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities from 1942 to 1997 and the MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History since 2001 . It has also been the headquarters of the Little Rock Æsthetic Club since 1894 . 
 The building receives its name from its distinct octagonal tower . Besides being the last remaining structure of the original Little Rock Arsenal and one of the oldest buildings in central Arkansas , it was also the birthplace of General Douglas MacArthur , who became the supreme commander of US forces in the South Pacific during World War II . It was also the starting place of the Camden Expedition . In 2011 it was named as one of the top 10 attractions in the state of Arkansas by <unk> 
 
 = = Construction = = 
 
 The arsenal was constructed at the request of Governor James <unk> Conway in response to the perceived dangers of frontier life and fears of the many Native Americans who were passing through the state on their way to the newly established Oklahoma Territory . Thirty @-@ six acres were appropriated on the outskirts of Little Rock by Major Robert B. Lee of the U.S. Army . The land had been previously used as a racetrack by the local jockey club . John <unk> Walker , a builder for the Federal Government , supervised the construction . Originally $ 14 @,@ 000 was allocated for the construction of the arsenal , but proved inadequate . The budget was later increased to $ 30 @,@ 000 . Work began on the Tower Building in 1840 , and it was the first permanent structure of the arsenal to be built . Being originally constructed to store ammunition , the building was designed with 3 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) exterior walls . The original plans called for it to be built of stone , however , masonry was used instead . The Arkansas Gazette referred to the structure as " A splendid specimen of masonry " . 
 
 = = Civil War = = 
 
 For several years the arsenal , which was owned by the federal government , served as a simple arms depot and was staffed with only a handful of soldiers . But in November 1860 , with the American Civil War on the horizon , a company of the Second United States Artillery , consisting of sixty @-@ five men , was transferred to Little Rock under the command of Captain James Totten . On January 15 , 1861 , the state legislature decided to hold a referendum to determine if a state convention should be held to consider the issue of <unk> and to elect delegates to such a convention . It was planned for February 18 ; however , events at the arsenal , would not wait . On January 28 , then Governor Henry Massey Rector informed Captain Totten that he and his soldiers would be " permitted to remain in the possession of the Federal officers until the State , by authority of the people , shall have determined to <unk> their connection with the General Government , " Totten responded to this by telling the Governor that his orders came from the United States Government and began a desperate but ultimately futile dispatch of letters and <unk> asking for reinforcements , although rumors were widely spread that they were already coming . The first telegraph wire to span between Little Rock and Memphis had recently been completed . Local attorney John M Harrel was asked to compose the first telegraph dispatched from Arkansas 's capital . In his message , Harrel reported unconfirmed rumors that more federal troops had been sent to reinforce the Little Rock Arsenal . 
 The United States troops at the outposts of the western frontier of the state and in the Indian nation have all been recalled from winter quarters to reinforce the garrison at Fort Smith . The garrison at Fort Smith had been previously transferred to the United States Arsenal in this city ( Little Rock ) . The arsenal is one of the richest <unk> of military stores in the United States and is supposed to be the ultimate destination of the <unk> [ sic ] ordered from the frontier . 
 <unk> M Harrel <unk> , January 31 , 1861 
 The item was intended simply as a piece of news , but telegraph lines quickly spread the news throughout the state , <unk> procession sentiment . The rumor was interpreted by some <unk> as a call from the governor to assemble to help expel the federal troops from the arsenal . By February 5 , six militia units , consisting of 1 @,@ 000 men , with a guarantee that the numbers could be increased to 5 @,@ 000 if the situations deemed it necessary , had assembled in Little Rock . Governor Rector vehemently denied ordering the troops to assemble or giving any order at all in connection with the troops . Faced with the fact that the military had assembled believing they were following his orders and the consensus of the citizens of Little Rock against any armed conflict between the civilian army and federal troops , Governor Rector was forced to take control of the situation . On February 6 , he sent a formal demand for surrender of the arsenal to Captain Totten , 
 This movement is prompted by the feeling that <unk> the citizens of this State that in the present emergency the arms and munitions of war in the Arsenal should be under the control of the State authorities , in order to their security . This movement , although not authorized by me , has assumed such an aspect that it becomes my duty , as the executive of this <unk> , to <unk> my official authority to prevent a collision between the people of the State and the Federal troops under your command . I therefore demand in the name of the State the delivery of the possession of the Arsenal and munitions of war under your charge to the State authorities , to be held subject to the action of the convention to be held on the 4th of March next . 
 Perhaps because Abraham Lincoln had not yet been inaugurated as President , Captain Totten received no instructions from his superiors and was forced to withdraw his troops . He agreed to surrender the arsenal as long as the governor agreed to three provisions : 
 The governor would take possession of the arsenal in the name of the United States . 
 The soldiers would be allowed safe passage in any direction carrying any personal and public property besides munitions of war . 
 The soldiers would be allowed to march away as men leaving under orders , not as conquered and surrendering soldiers . 
 On the morning of February 8 , 1861 , Rector and Totten signed an agreement placing the arsenal in the hands of state officials . That afternoon , the citizen militia marched to the arsenal with Governor Rector at its head . All of the federal troops had left at this point , except Totten who had stayed behind to listen to the Governor 's speech and to hand the arsenal over in person . 
 The Little Rock Arsenal was classified in 1860 as an " arsenal of deposit , " meaning that it was simply a warehouse for the storage of weapons intended for the use of the state militia in times of crisis . Thus there were no substantial operations for ordnance fabrication or repairs , nor for the manufacture of cartridges at the time the Arsenal fell into State hands . Most of these operations were started from scratch through the efforts of the Arkansas Military Board . 
 Inside the Little Rock Arsenal after its seizure in February , 1861 , the Confederates <unk> some 10 @,@ 247 weapons , 250 @,@ 000 musket cartridges , and 520 @,@ 000 percussion caps , as well as the four bronze cannon of Totten 's battery . Long arms in the Arsenal 's inventory consisted of : 
 M1822 .69 cal ( flintlock ) 5 @,@ 625 
 M1822 .69 cal ( percussion @-@ converted ) 53 
 <unk> .69 cal smoothbore ( percussion ) 357 
 <unk> <unk> cal rifle @-@ <unk> 900 
 <unk> common rifles 125 
 <unk> rifle ( " Mississippi Rifle " ) 54 
 <unk> <unk> 2 
 Hall 's <unk> 267 
 Hall 's rifles ( flintlock ) 2 @,@ 864 
 Total 10 @,@ 247 
 Of this number , approximately <unk> weapons were <unk> , or ready @-@ for @-@ issue . Note there were only 1 @,@ 364 percussion weapons available . <unk> of the weapons found in the Arsenal is somewhat sketchy , but from various records it can be surmised that the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 8th Arkansas Infantry Regiments , mustered in June , 1861 , were issued <unk> / M1822 .69 caliber <unk> . The 9th and 10th Arkansas , four companies of Kelly 's 9th Arkansas Battalion , and the 3rd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment were issued flintlock Hall 's Rifles . The units comprising the infantry force of Van Dorn 's Army of the West were the 1st and 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles were also armed with M1822 <unk> from the Little Rock Arsenal . By the time the 11th and 12th Arkansas Infantry Regiments mustered in at Little Rock , the supply of arms had been almost completely exhausted , and only old " <unk> " weapons were left . 
 Most of the equipment , arms , and machinery at the Little Rock Arsenal was removed to east of the Mississippi River by order of <unk> Gen. Earl Van Dorn in April and May 1862 , and accountability for it is lost at that point . By all appearances , the equipment was sent down the river to Napoleon , Arkansas , and from there to Jackson Mississippi , where it was probably destroyed during the <unk> campaign in the early summer of 1863 . 
 Major General Thomas C. Hindman , sent to command the district of Arkansas in May , 1862 , found the state nearly destitute of military material . Hindman established another armory at Arkadelphia , and revived the Little Rock Arsenal as a collection point and depot for <unk> and ammunition manufacture for small arms . Hindman recorded : 
 " Machinery was made for manufacturing percussion caps and small arms , and both were turned out in small quantity , but of excellent quality . Lead mines were opened and worked , and a chemical laboratory was established and successfully operated in aid of the Ordnance Department and in the manufacture of <unk> , <unk> oil , spirits of <unk> , the various <unk> of iron , and other valuable medicines . Most of these works were located at or near Arkadelphia on the <unk> River , 75 miles south from Little Rock . The tools , machinery , and the material were gathered <unk> or else made by hand labor . Nothing of this sort had been before attempted on Government account in Arkansas to my knowledge , except for the manufacture of small arms , the machinery for which was taken away by General Van Dorn and there was neither capital nor sufficient enterprise among the citizens to engage in such undertakings <unk> A further supply , along with lead and caps , was procured from the citizens of Little Rock and vicinity by donation , purchases , and <unk> . 
 This ammunition , and that which I brought with me , was rapidly prepared for use at the Laboratory established at the Little Rock Arsenal for that purpose . As illustrating as the <unk> <unk> of material in the country , the fact may be stated that it was found necessary to use public documents of the State Library for cartridge paper . <unk> were employed or conscripted , tools purchased or impressed , and the repair of the damaged guns I brought with me and about an equal number found at Little Rock commenced at once . But , after inspecting the work and observing the spirit of the men I decided that a garrison 500 strong could hold out against Fitch and that I would lead the remainder - about 1500 - to <unk> 'l <unk> as soon as shotguns and rifles could be obtained from Little Rock instead of <unk> and lances , with which most of them were armed . Two days <unk> before the change could be effected . " 
 The Confederate ordnance establishment at Little Rock was reactivated in August , 1862 . Looking around for a suitable person to head this activity , General Hindman turned to the Confederate Navy and borrowed Lieutenant John W. Dunnington . Lt. Dunnington was the commander of the gunboat <unk> <unk> , which had been brought to Little Rock in hopes of converting it to an ironclad . Dunnington was selected to head the ordnance works at Little Rock , and although he continued to draw his pay from the Confederate Navy Department , he was placed in charge of all Confederate ordnance activities ( which included artillery functions ) there with the rank of lieutenant colonel . 
 Lt. Col. Dunnington 's " <unk> for the month of August , 1862 , at Little Rock Arsenal , <unk> , " are found in Vol . 149 , Chapter IV of the " <unk> Rebel Ordnance Records , " and are most enlightening as to the scope of Confederate ordnance activities at Little Rock during this crucial time . According to Dunnington , " When I assumed command at this Post , all material had been removed to Arkadelphia . There were no persons employed . No shops were open for repair of arms or for <unk> ammunition . Material , tools , etc . , had to be procured as well as the employment of laborers . Work commenced the last part of the month . " 
 The military force at Little Rock under Dunnington 's command consisted of four officers : himself , Major John B. <unk> , Captain <unk> Green , and 2nd Lt. <unk> Murphy . In addition to these , he had 20 enlisted men and a civilian force composed of a <unk> , 2 clerks , 3 <unk> for repairing small arms , a <unk> , 26 laborers in the ammunition laboratory , and a carpenter for making packing boxes . 
 During the month of August , 1862 , the following work was performed : " <unk> : one pair of musket bullet moulds ; 10 @,@ 000 buck & ball shot cartridges ; repaired : 750 <unk> , shotguns , and rifles ; received and repaired : ordnance stores and <unk> ; performed : guard , office , and police duties ; inspected : <unk> at Camden and Arkadelphia . " 
 Lt. Col. Dunnington continued to build up his works at Little Rock until November 1862 , when Captain Sanford C. Faulkner ( composer of The Arkansas Traveler ) was placed in charge of the Arsenal . Dunnington presumably returned to his naval duties and the <unk> . 
 A " Summary of the Work <unk> for November , 1862 , Little Rock Arsenal " shows : <unk> : 
 75 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - percussion 
 14 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - flint 
 275 paper <unk> 
 117 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder <unk> shot 
 130 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder ball shot 
 96 ammunition packing boxes 
 <unk> : 
 2 @,@ 236 shotguns and rifles ( repaired mostly for troops in service ) 
 23 pistols ( repaired mostly for troops in service ) 
 <unk> & <unk> : 
 <unk> packages of ordnance and ordnance stores received and mostly issued to troops in service . 
 <unk> and painted : 
 4 gun carriages 
 Performed : 
 Guard , office , and police duties . 
 Perhaps the most <unk> points of the above " Summary of Work " and those for following months are that the standard ammunition made was . " buck & ball " , indicating that the .69 caliber <unk> and shotguns remained the predominant caliber weapon in use , and of this , nearly one sixth or more of all small arms ammunition was still for flintlock weapons , indicating that no less than a sixth of the Confederate troops in this vicinity were still armed with obsolete flintlock weapons . 
 The " <unk> of Work done at Little Rock Arsenal , <unk> " continue at about the same pace and scale from August 1862 until August 1863 . <unk> to the " Summary " for August , 1863 is the ominous <unk> , " During the last week in the month , nearly all stores at the Arsenal have been packed and sent to Arkadelphia , in obedience to orders from Chief of Ordnance , District of Arkansas . " This then marks the beginning of the evacuation of ordnance activities from Little Rock , with the city being surrendered to the advancing Federal troops of Frederick Steele 's Arkansas Expedition on September 11 , 1863 . 
 In 1864 , after Little Rock fell to the Union Army and the arsenal had been recaptured , General <unk> Steele marched 8 @,@ 500 troops from the arsenal beginning the Camden Expedition . 
 The arsenal was briefly seized once more by Joseph Brooks loyalists during the Brooks @-@ <unk> War of 1874 . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 In 1873 , the building was renamed Little Rock Barracks and used as a barracks for married officers and their families . The building was drastically altered the inside and outside . Prior to renovation , a rear basement door provided the only entrance to the building , while the tower served as a hoist to move munitions between floors . By 1868 , front and rear <unk> had been added to the building , as well as interior walls and stairs , some of which remain today , including the central staircase . In 1880 , Douglas MacArthur was born on the northwest upper floor of this building while his father , Captain Arthur MacArthur , was stationed there . 
 In the 1880s , the federal government began closing many small <unk> around the country in favor of smaller ones built near railroads for quick deployment . The arsenal commander received word from Washington that the Little Rock site must be abandoned " not later than October 1 , 1890 . " On April 12 , 1893 the tower building and the surrounding buildings were traded to the city of Little Rock for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in North Little Rock under the condition that the building and land be " forever exclusively devoted to the uses and purposes of a public park " for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in Big Rock Mountain on the north side of the Arkansas River , present day North Little Rock . That site later became Fort Logan H. Roots . All of the original buildings surrounding the Tower Building were demolished . 
 
 = = Æsthetic Club = = 
 
 In 1894 the Little Rock Æsthetic Club , one of the oldest women 's societies west of the Mississippi River , moved into the Tower Building . This was prompted due to increased membership and a need for larger , more permanent quarters . The previous year , club members working with women 's organizations throughout the state , raised money to <unk> the Arkansas Building of the Columbian Exposition at The Chicago World 's Fair . At the fair 's conclusion , artifacts from the exhibit were displayed in the Tower Building , with the Æsthetic Club invited to meet in the " Columbian Room . " 
 Except for Æsthetic Club meetings , the Tower Building remained largely unoccupied for almost fifty years and suffered significant deterioration . The Æsthetic Club provided much @-@ needed financial support during the period and even paid the electric bill during the Great Depression . The Æsthetic Club is still headquartered in the Tower Building . 
 
 = = Public use = = 
 
 The building and the surrounding park were used for many public purposes throughout the early 20th century . The Tower Building served as headquarters for the United Confederate Veterans <unk> , May 15 – 18 , 1911 . Over 106 @,@ 000 Civil War veterans , the largest popular gathering in the history of the city up to that time , attended and were housed in the building or camped in the park , which had also become a popular camping area . Later the building served as an armory for the Arkansas National Guard . In 1912 , the second floor of the Tower Building became Little Rock 's first public library . In 1917 , Little Rock built a fire station in the park , that building is now gone . A band shell named for H. H. Foster also was built in the park during this time , but also no longer exists . In 1936 , Works Progress Administration built the Museum of Fine Arts , now called the Arkansas Arts Center , just south of the Tower Building . 
 The arsenal was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . Due to its association with the Camden Expedition of 1864 , the arsenal may be included in the Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark designated in 1994 . 
 In 1942 , the Tower Building was renovated due to the efforts of the Æsthetic Club , Little Rock philanthropist Frederick W. <unk> , and the Works Progress Administration . It became the new home of The Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities , which had been located in Little Rock City Hall . The museum remained in the tower building for approximately fifty @-@ five years . The area surrounding the Tower Building had been known as Arsenal Park when the first decommissioned and then later renamed City Park . Due to the efforts of Bernie Babcock , however , the city finally named it MacArthur Park in 1942 in honor of Douglas MacArthur . 
 In 1997 , the Museum of Science and Natural History merged with the Little Rock Children 's Museum , which had been located in Union Station , to form the Arkansas Museum of Discovery . The new museum was relocated to a historic building in the Little Rock River Market District . The MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History opened on May 19 , 2001 in the Tower Building . The new museum 's goal is to educate and inform visitors about the military history of Arkansas , preserve the Tower Building , honor servicemen and <unk> of the United States and commemorate the birthplace of Douglas MacArthur . 
 
 
 = <unk> Mary Barker = 
 
 <unk> Mary Barker ( 28 June 1895 – 16 February 1973 ) was an English illustrator best known for a series of fantasy illustrations depicting fairies and flowers . Barker 's art education began in girlhood with correspondence courses and instruction at the Croydon School of Art . Her earliest professional work included <unk> cards and juvenile magazine illustrations , and her first book , Flower Fairies of the Spring , was published in 1923 . Similar books were published in the following decades . 
 Barker was a devout Anglican , and donated her artworks to Christian fundraisers and missionary organizations . She produced a few Christian @-@ themed books such as The Children ’ s Book of Hymns and , in collaboration with her sister Dorothy , He Leadeth Me . She designed a stained glass window for St. Edmund 's Church , Pitlake , and her painting of the Christ Child , The Darling of the World Has Come , was purchased by Queen Mary . 
 Barker was equally proficient in <unk> , pen and ink , oils , and <unk> . Kate Greenaway and the Pre @-@ <unk> were the principal influences on her work . She claimed to paint instinctively and rejected artistic theories . Barker died in 1973 . Though she published Flower Fairy books with spring , summer , and autumn themes , it wasn 't until 1985 that a winter collection was assembled from her remaining work and published posthumously . 
 
 = = Biography = = 
 
 
 = = = Early life = = = 
 
 Barker was born the second daughter and youngest child of Walter Barker , a partner in a seed supply company and an amateur artist , and his wife Mary Eleanor ( Oswald ) Barker on 28 June 1895 at home at 66 Waddon Road in Croydon , Surrey , England . Barker was an <unk> as a child , and cared for at home by her parents . Later , her sister and elder by two years , Dorothy Oswald Barker , continued the care . 
 The family of four was moderately well off , and belonged to the lower end of the upper middle class . A <unk> , a governess , and a cook to prepare special meals for Barker were hired . She spent much time in bed at home amusing herself with painting books and a nursery library that included the works of Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott – two artists who exerted strong influences on her later art . 
 
 = = = Art education and first professional work = = = 
 
 Barker took correspondence courses in art , probably until about 1919 . In 1908 at 13 years , she entered an evening class at the Croydon School of Art , and attended the school into the 1940s . In time , she received a teaching position . 
 In 1911 , Raphael Tuck & Sons bought four of Barker 's " little drawings " for half a sovereign , and published them as postcards . In October 1911 , she won second prize in the Croydon Art Society 's poster competition , and shortly afterward was elected the youngest member of the Society . The art critic for the Croydon Advertiser remarked , " Her drawings show a remarkable freedom of spirit . She has distinct promise . " 
 Following her father ’ s death in June 1912 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Barker submitted art and poetry to My Magazine , Child ’ s Own , Leading <unk> , and Raphael Tuck <unk> in an effort to support both her mother and sister . Her sister Dorothy taught kindergarten in two private schools before opening a kindergarten at home . She brought in some money for the family 's support while supervising the household . 
 
 = = = Flower Fairies of the Spring , 1923 = = = 
 
 Fairies became a popular theme in art and literature in the early 20th century following the releases of The Coming of the Fairies by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Peter Pan by <unk> <unk> , and the fairy @-@ themed work of Australian Ida <unk> <unk> . Queen Mary made such themes even more popular by sending <unk> postcards to friends during the 1920s . In 1918 , Barker produced a <unk> series depicting elves and fairies . 
 In 1923 , Barker sent her flower fairy paintings to various publishers . Blackie paid £ 25 for 24 paintings with accompanying verses , but it wasn 't until publication of Flower Fairies of the Summer in 1925 that Barker received royalties for her work . Mary <unk> Clayton Calthrop , wife of author Dion Clayton Calthrop , wrote in April 1925 about Barker and Flower Fairies of the Spring : " She has such exquisite taste , besides <unk> . " 
 
 = = = The Waldrons = = = 
 
 In 1924 , the family moved into a four @-@ level , semi @-@ detached Victorian house at 23 The Waldrons . Barker had a studio built in the garden and her sister conducted a kindergarten in a room at the back of the house . The family lived <unk> and attended both St. Edmund 's and St. Andrew 's in Croydon – " low " churches for the less privileged . Barker sometimes incorporated portraits of her fellow parishioners in her religious works . She was described by Canon Ingram Hill as " one of the pillars " of St. Andrew 's . 
 The children in the kindergarten modelled for the Flower Fairies until the kindergarten closed in 1940 . In an interview in 1958 , Barker said , " My sister ran a kindergarten and I used to borrow her students for models . For many years I had an atmosphere of children about me – I never <unk> it . " She also painted the children of relatives as well as Gladys <unk> , the <unk> ' young housekeeper , who posed for the Primrose Fairy in 1923 . The plants were painted from life , and if a specimen was not readily at hand , <unk> Gardens staff would provide her the specimens needed . Barker designed and built the Flower Fairy costumes , and based each on the flowers and leaves of the particular plant to be illustrated . The costumes were kept in a trunk in her studio along with wings made of twigs and <unk> . Each was broken down after an illustration was completed and the parts recycled for other costumes . She often referred to Dion Clayton Calthrop 's English Costume . 
 
 = = = Middle years = = = 
 
 In the late 1920s , Barker began to doubt she was doing enough for the church and considered focusing solely on sacred works . Family and friends recommended she continue secular and sacred works , which she did . 
 Barker continued to attend evening classes at the Croydon Art School between the 1920s and the 1940s , eventually receiving a teaching position . She took <unk> trips to <unk> and Storrington in Sussex and to Cornwall and the southern coast with family and friends . She visited and stayed with artist Margaret <unk> in <unk> , Surrey and with family in <unk> , Near Whitby , North Yorkshire . 
 In 1940 , the Barker 's live @-@ in maid retired , and Dorothy Barker closed her school at the back of the house in The Waldrons . She continued to supervise the household , and to give both her mother and sister the care they needed . Dorothy and her sister collaborated upon only two books : Our Darling 's First Book and the Christian @-@ themed , He Leadeth Me . In 1954 Dorothy Barker died of a heart attack . Barker was unable to pursue her art to any significant extent following her sister 's death , as all the care of her aged mother devolved upon her , but she did manage to begin planning a stained glass window design in her sister 's memory for St. Edmund 's , Pitlake . 
 
 = = = Later life and death = = = 
 
 Barker 's mother died in 1960 , and , in 1961 , Barker moved from 23 The Waldrons to 6 <unk> Avenue in Croydon . She restored a <unk> in Storrington , Sussex , England , bequeathed by her friend Edith Major , and named it St. Andrew 's . After taking up residence , her health began to deteriorate . She was in and out of nursing and <unk> homes , and tended by relatives and friends . 
 Barker died at Worthing Hospital on 16 February 1973 , aged 77 years . Two funeral services were held – one in Storrington Church and one in Barker 's <unk> . Her ashes were scattered in Storrington churchyard . In 1989 , Frederick Warne , a division of Penguin Books since 1983 , acquired the Flower Fairies properties . 
 
 = = Art = = 
 
 Barker worked principally in <unk> with pen @-@ and @-@ ink , but she was equally competent in black @-@ and @-@ white , in oils , and in <unk> . She carried a <unk> with her for capturing interesting children . She once indicated , " I have always tried to paint instinctively in a way that comes naturally to me , without any real thought or attention to artistic theories . " 
 Kate Greenaway was a childhood favorite and an influence on her art . Barker 's child subjects wear nostalgic clothing as Greenaway 's children do , though Barker 's children are less melancholy and less flat in appearance , due perhaps to advances in printing technology . Barker studied flowers with an analytical eye and was friend to children 's illustrator , Margaret <unk> . Along with Greenaway , illustrator Alice B. Woodward also influenced Barker 's work . 
 The Pre @-@ <unk> were a strong , lifelong influence on Barker . She once indicated , " I am to some extent influenced by them — not in any technical sense , but in the choice of subject matter and the feeling and atmosphere they could achieve . " She admitted a fondness for the early paintings of John Everett Millais and " the wonderful things " of Edward <unk> @-@ Jones . 
 
 = = = Depictions of children = = = 
 
 Barker 's sketches , drawings , and paintings of children were given to friends or to the parents of the subjects , donated to charitable institutions and church sponsored events , or exhibited through various art organizations . She illustrated magazine covers , dust jackets , and produced series of postcards for Raphael Tuck and other publishers such as <unk> Children of the Allies ( 1915 ) , Seaside <unk> ( 1918 ) , and Shakespeare 's Boy and Girl Characters ( 1917 , 1920 ) . Her own Old Rhymes for All Times ( 1928 ) and The Lord of the Rushie River ( 1938 ) , a tale about a girl who lives among <unk> on a <unk> , were critically well received . Set about 1800 , Groundsel and Necklaces ( 1943 ) tells of a girl named Jenny who rescues her family from poverty through the agency of the fairies . The story features an old <unk> @-@ like man called Mr. <unk> and <unk> suggests a <unk> social consciousness . Simon the Swan , intended as a sequel to Rushie River was outlined in 1943 with Groundsel , but only developed in 1953 . It was published posthumously in 1988 and is critically considered less successful than Groundsel . 
 
 = = = Christian @-@ themed works = = = 
 
 Barker was a devout Christian , and produced religious @-@ themed works throughout her life . She published eight postcards and five guardian angel birthday cards for the Society for <unk> Christian Knowledge in 1916 and in 1923 respectively . Christmas cards were designed for The Girls ' Friendly Society over a 20 @-@ year period , and the first three designs sold out a combined printing of 46 @,@ 500 in 1923 . An original design for the society called The Darling of the World Has Come was purchased by Queen Mary for ₤ 5 @.@ 5 @.@ 0 in 1926 . The Croydon Art Society hung Barker 's booklet cover design for the Society for the <unk> of the Gospel in its November 1919 exhibition . 
 Religious @-@ themed books include The Children 's Book of Hymns ( 1929 ) and He Leadeth Me ( 1933 ) , the latter written in collaboration with her sister . Major religious works include the <unk> in oil , The Feeding of the Five Thousand ( 1929 ) , for the chapel in Llandaff House , a home for destitute women at Penarth , Wales , and The Parable of the Great Supper ( 1934 ) for St. George 's Chapel , Waddon . The Feeding has since disappeared , and only a black @-@ and @-@ white photograph dated 1929 <unk> the work . In 1941 , she completed oil panels on the subject of the seven sacraments for the baptismal font at St. Andrew 's , South Croydon . She designed baptismal rolls for the wall behind the font in 1948 and 1962 . In 1946 , she completed the 4 x 7 <unk> oil painting , Out of Great <unk> , for the Memorial Chapel of <unk> Methodist Church . Following the death of her sister in 1954 , Barker began designs for a stained glass memorial window depicting Christ preparing to wash the feet of his disciples . Her last religious @-@ themed work , it was installed in St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , in 1962 . 
 
 = = Works = = 
 
 
 = = = Cards = = = 
 
 <unk> Children of the Allies ; J. Salmon , 1916 
 National Mission ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1916 
 Shakespeare 's Boy Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1917 
 Shakespeare 's Girl Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1920 
 Seaside Holiday ; J. Salmon , 1918 , 1921 
 <unk> and Fairies ; S. Harvey , 1918 
 Guardian Angel ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1923 
 Christmas cards ; Girls ' Friendly Society , 1920s , 1930s 
 Christmas cards ( US ) ; Barton @-@ Colton , 1920s , 1930s 
 Beautiful Bible Pictures ; Blackie , 1932 
 
 = = = Books = = = 
 
 Flower Fairies of the Spring ; Blackie , 1923 
 Spring Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1923 
 Flower Fairies of the Summer ; Blackie , 1925 
 Child <unk> in Picture and Verse ( by M. K. <unk> ) ; Blackie , 1925 
 Flower Fairies of the Autumn ; Blackie , 1926 
 Summer Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1926 
 The Book of the Flower Fairies ; Blackie , 1927 
 Autumn Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1927 
 Old Rhymes for All Times ; Blackie , 1928 
 The Children ’ s Book of Hymns ; Blackie , 1929 ; <unk> . 1933 
 Our Darling ’ s First Book ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1929 
 The Little Picture Hymn Book ; Blackie , 1933 
 Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1933 
 A Flower Fairy Alphabet ; Blackie , 1934 
 A Little Book of Old Rhymes ; Blackie , 1936 
 He Leadeth Me ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1936 
 A Little Book of Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1937 
 The Lord of the Rushie River ; Blackie , 1938 
 Flower Fairies of the Trees ; Blackie , 1940 
 When Spring <unk> In at the Window ; Blackie , 1942 
 A Child ’ s Garden of <unk> ( Robert Louis Stevenson ) ; Blackie , 1944 
 Flower Fairies of the Garden ; Blackie , 1944 
 Groundsel and Necklaces ; Blackie , 1946 ; reprinted as Fairy Necklaces 
 Flower Fairies of the <unk> ; Blackie , 1948 
 Flower Fairies of the Flowers and Trees ; Blackie , 1950 
 Lively Stories ; Macmillan , 1954 
 The Flower Fairy Picture Book ; Blackie , 1955 
 Lively Numbers ; Macmillan , 1957 
 Lively Words ; Macmillan , 1961 . 
 The Sand , the Sea and the Sun ; Gibson , 1970 
 
 = = = = <unk> published = = = = 
 
 Flower Fairies of the Winter ; Blackie , 1985 
 Simon the Swan ; Blackie , 1988 
 Flower Fairies of the Seasons ; <unk> / Blackie , 1988 
 A Little Book of <unk> and Hymns ; Frederick Warne , 1994 
 A Flower Fairies Treasury ; Frederick Warne , 1997 
 <unk> ; Frederick Warne , 2005 
 Wild Cherry Makes A Wish ; ( collaboration with <unk> Le <unk> ) Frederick Warne , 2006 
 How to find Flower Fairies ; Frederick Warne , 2007 
 Return to <unk> ; Frederick Warne , 2008 
 
 = = = Book covers = = = 
 
 A New Epiphany ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1919 
 43 <unk> ; Blackie , 1920s , 1930s 
 
 = = = Religious works = = = 
 
 St. Cecily 's Garden ; 1920 
 <unk> roll design ; St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1922 
 Banner design ; St. Mary 's , <unk> , 1923 
 The Feeding of the Five Thousand ; <unk> <unk> , chapel at Penarth , Wales ; 1929 
 The Parable of the Great Supper ; <unk> , St. George 's chapel , Waddon 
 The Seven <unk> ; baptismal font panels , St. Andrew 's , Croydon 
 St. John the Baptist ; central banner panel , <unk> church , 1943 
 <unk> , sword , and shield ; mount for a list of men and woman serving in the Forces , St. Andrews , Croydon , 1943 
 <unk> rolls ; St. Andrews , Croydon , 1948 , 1962 
 The font in St Andrew 's Church , South Croydon 
 Out of Great <unk> ; memorial chapel , <unk> <unk> church , 1948 
 I Am Among You As He That <unk> ; stained glass window design , St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1962 
 
 
 = Gambia women 's national football team = 
 
 The Gambia women 's national football team represents the Gambia in international football competition . The team , however , has not competed in a match recognised by FIFA , the sport 's international governing body , despite that organised women 's football has been played in the country since 1998 . The Gambia has two youth teams , an under @-@ 17 side that has competed in FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup qualifiers , and an under @-@ 19 side that withdrew from regional qualifiers for an under @-@ 19 World Cup . The development of a national team faces challenges similar to those across Africa , although the national football association has four staff members focusing on women 's football . 
 
 = = The team = = 
 
 In 1985 , few countries had women 's national football teams . While the sport gained popularity worldwide in later decades , the Gambia 's national team only played its first game in 2007 . That game was not FIFA @-@ recognised . As of March 2012 , the team was unranked by FIFA , and as of the following month the Gambia had not played in a FIFA @-@ sanctioned match . The team has not participated in major regional and international tournaments , including the Women 's World Cup , the 2010 African Women 's Championship or the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . 
 The country did not have a FIFA @-@ recognised youth national team until 2012 , when the Gambia under @-@ 17 women 's team competed in Confederation of African Football qualifiers for the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , to be held in Azerbaijan in September 2012 . The Gambia had fielded an under @-@ 17 team of 24 players , narrowed from an initial pool of 49 young women . Two girls from the SOS Children ’ s Village <unk> were chosen as a members of the team . The Gambia first played Sierra Leone in a pair of qualifying matches for the tournament . Gambia won the first match 3 @-@ 0 in <unk> , the Gambia 's capital . The return match was delayed in for 24 hours and played in <unk> . The Gambia beat Sierra Leone 4 @-@ 3 to qualify for the final round . The Gambia then beat Tunisia 1 @-@ 0 at home and won 2 @-@ 1 in Tunisia . <unk> Tamba and <unk> <unk> scored the Gambia 's goals . Tunisia 's only goal was a <unk> own goal . The win qualified Gambia for the 2012 Azerbaijan World Cup . 
 The Gambia also has an under @-@ 19 team that was to play in the African Women 's U @-@ 19 Championship in 2002 . The Gambia 's first match was against Morocco , but the team withdrew from the competition . 
 
 = = Background and development = = 
 
 The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women , <unk> and human rights abuses targeting women . Funding is another issue impacting the game in Africa , where most financial assistance comes from FIFA and not national football associations . Another challenge is the retention of football players . Many women footballers leave the continent to seek greater opportunity in Europe or the United States . 
 Gambia 's national football association was founded in 1952 , and became affiliated with FIFA in 1968 . Football is the most popular women 's sport in the country , and was first played in an organized system in 1998 . A national competition was launched in 2007 , the same year FIFA started an education course on football for women . Competition was active on both the national and scholastic levels by 2009 . There are four staffers dedicated to women 's football in the Gambia Football Association , and representation of women on the board is required by the association 's charter . 
 
 
 = Plain maskray = 
 
 The plain maskray or brown stingray ( Neotrygon annotata ) is a species of stingray in the family <unk> . It is found in shallow , soft @-@ bottomed habitats off northern Australia . Reaching 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) in width , this species has a diamond @-@ shaped , grayish green pectoral fin disc . Its short , whip @-@ like tail has alternating black and white bands and fin folds above and below . There are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail , but otherwise the skin is smooth . While this species possesses the dark mask @-@ like pattern across its eyes common to its genus , it is not <unk> patterned like other maskrays . 
 <unk> in nature , the plain maskray feeds mainly on <unk> shrimp and polychaete worms , and to a lesser extent on small bony fishes . It is viviparous , with females producing litters of one or two young that are nourished during gestation via histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . This species lacks economic value but is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , which it is thought to be less able to withstand than other maskrays due to its gracile build . As it also has a limited distribution and low <unk> , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Near Threatened . 
 
 = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = 
 
 The first scientific description of the plain maskray was authored by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) researcher Peter Last in a 1987 issue of Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria . The specific name <unk> comes from the Latin an ( " not " ) and <unk> ( " marked " ) , and refers to the ray 's coloration . The holotype is a male 21 @.@ 2 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) across , caught off Western Australia ; several <unk> were also designated . Last tentatively placed the species in the genus Dasyatis , noting that it belonged to the " maskray " species group that also included the <unk> stingray ( then Dasyatis <unk> ) . In 2008 , Last and William White elevated the <unk> group to the rank of full genus as Neotrygon , on the basis of morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence . 
 In a 2012 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , the plain maskray and the <unk> maskray ( N. <unk> ) were found to be the most basal members of Neotrygon . The divergence of the N. annotata lineage was estimated to have occurred ~ 54 Ma . Furthermore , the individuals sequenced in the study sorted into two genetically distinct clades , suggesting that N. annotata is a cryptic species complex . The two <unk> species were estimated to have diverged ~ 4 @.@ 9 Ma ; the <unk> event was likely the splitting of the ancestral population by coastline changes . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 The pectoral fin disc of the plain maskray is thin and diamond @-@ shaped with narrowly rounded outer corners , measuring 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 times longer than wide . The leading margins of the disc are gently <unk> and converge at a broad angle to the pointed tip of the snout . The small eyes are placed close together , and behind them are the spiracles . The nostrils are elongated and have a skirt @-@ shaped flap of skin between them . The small mouth bears prominent <unk> at the corners and contains two slender papillae on the floor . Small papillae are also found around the outside of the mouth . There are five pairs of gill slits . The pelvic fins are fairly large and pointed . 
 The tail is short , barely exceeding the length of the disc when intact , and has a broad and flattened base leading to usually two <unk> spines . After the stings , the tail becomes slender and bears a long ventral fin fold and a much shorter , lower dorsal fin fold . Most of the body lacks dermal denticles ; a midline row of 4 – 13 small , closely spaced thorns is present behind the spiracles , and another row of 0 – 4 thorns before the stings . The dorsal coloration is grayish green , becoming pinkish towards the disc margins ; there is a dark mask @-@ like shape around the eyes and a pair of small dark blotches behind the spiracles . The tail behind the stings has alternating black and white bands of variable width , ending with black at the tip . The underside is plain white and the ventral fin fold is light grayish in color . This species grows to 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) across and 45 cm ( 18 in ) long . 
 
 = = Distribution and habitat = = 
 
 The plain maskray inhabits the continental shelf of northern Australia from the <unk> Islands in Queensland to the Bonaparte Archipelago in Western Australia , including the Gulf of <unk> and the Timor and <unk> Seas . There are <unk> reports that its range extends to southern Papua New Guinea . It is the least common of the several maskray species native to the region . This species is a bottom @-@ dweller that prefers habitats with fine sediment . It has been recorded from between 12 and 62 m ( 39 and 203 ft ) deep , and tends to be found farther away from shore than other maskrays in its range . 
 
 = = Biology and ecology = = 
 
 The plain maskray generally hunts at the surface of the bottom substrate , rather than digging for prey . Its diet consists predominantly of <unk> shrimp and polychaete worms . Small bony fishes are also eaten , along with the occasional <unk> <unk> or <unk> . Larger rays consume a greater variety of prey and relatively more polychaete worms when compared to smaller rays . This species is <unk> by the <unk> <unk> <unk> . 
 Like other stingrays , the plain maskray is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained to term by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . <unk> females have a single functional ovary and uterus , on the left . Litter size is one or two ; the newborns measure 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males and females reach sexual maturity at disc widths of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) and 18 – 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) respectively . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 9 years for males and 13 years for females . 
 
 = = Human interactions = = 
 
 The main conservation threat to the plain maskray is incidental capture by commercial bottom <unk> fisheries . In the present day , this is mostly caused by Australia 's Northern <unk> <unk> , which operates throughout its range . Although this species is discarded when caught , it is more delicate @-@ bodied than other maskrays and is thus unlikely to survive encounters with trawling gear . Historically , this species may also have been negatively affected by Japanese , Chinese , and Taiwanese <unk> that fished intensively off northern Australia from 1959 to 1990 . These factors , coupled with the plain maskray 's limited distribution and low reproductive rate , have resulted in its being assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . 
 
 
 = 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season = 
 
 The 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season was the team 's 12th season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Blue Jackets ' record of 29 – 46 – 7 [ note 1 ] was the worst record in the NHL for 2011 – 12 and the first time in franchise history they finished in last place . It also marked the third straight year that they missed the playoffs . Consequently , they had the best chance to receive the first overall selection in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft lottery , but lost out to the Edmonton Oilers and received the second pick instead . 
 The Blue Jackets began the year with the worst start in franchise history and the worst by any team in an NHL season in 19 years . After an 11 – 25 – 5 start , Head Coach Scott Arniel was fired and replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards . The poor season prompted several personnel changes including the trade of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter , who was acquired with much fanfare during the off @-@ season . With the prospect of another rebuild looming the Blue Jackets ' captain and best player , Rick Nash , requested to be traded , though he would remain with the team for the entire season . 
 The team was involved in a controversial loss to the Los Angeles Kings , when the Staples Center clock appeared to freeze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds allowing the Kings time to score the tying goal , before winning in overtime . During the season Columbus managed only two winning streaks of three or more games . One of which came towards the end of the year helping the Blue Jackets finish with 65 points , the third worst point total in franchise history . 
 
 = = Off @-@ season = = 
 
 In the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets ' approach to building their team changed , moving from a team of young developing players into one with established players . The first deal General Manager Scott Howson made was the acquisition of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter on June 23 , 2011 . The deal sent <unk> <unk> , Columbus ' first @-@ round draft choice , the eighth overall , and their third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Philadelphia <unk> in exchange for Carter . The trade received a positive response in Columbus from fans and management who felt they finally had a number one center to play alongside of their best player , Rick Nash . Next , they traded for the negotiating rights of soon to be free agent James Wisniewski . Wisniewski scored a career high 51 points during the 2010 – 11 season , splitting time between the New York Islanders and Montreal Canadiens . The point total was fifth @-@ highest in the league for defenseman scoring , tying Tobias <unk> . The Blue Jackets came to terms with Wisniewski , just an hour prior to the start of free agency , signing him to a six @-@ year , $ 33 million deal . 
 Columbus also traded former first round draft pick Nikita <unk> to the Ottawa Senators for a third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft . <unk> had failed to live up to expectations in Columbus , playing in only 44 games over three seasons scoring six goals . Prior to the start of the season , the Blue Jackets were questioned for not signing a veteran back @-@ up to starting goaltender Steve Mason , as the former Calder Memorial Trophy winner had struggled in consecutive seasons . The Blue Jackets signed Mark <unk> as the back @-@ up who had only 50 minutes of NHL experience prior to the start of the season . Columbus did sign a veteran Curtis Sanford to be their third string goaltender and to start for their American Hockey League ( <unk> ) affiliate , the Springfield Falcons . Sanford had not played in the NHL since 2009 . During training camp , <unk> suffered a high ankle sprain that was expected to keep him out of the line @-@ up for a month . Additionally , Sanford suffered a groin injury , leaving Allen York as the back @-@ up . York had only played four professional games , all in the <unk> , entering the season . 
 
 = = Regular season = = 
 
 
 = = = October – December = = = 
 
 After the first five games , all losses , Jeff Carter suffered a broken foot that kept him out of the line @-@ up for 10 games . While Carter was injured , the Blue Jackets continued to lose games . In the eighth game of the year , they had a chance to end the losing streak against the Ottawa Senators . Columbus held a 3 – 2 lead with under a minute to play . Jason <unk> tied the game on a late power play , and with just 4 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , Milan <unk> notched the winning goal for the Senators . The loss helped set a franchise record for <unk> with a 0 – 7 – 1 record to start a season . [ note 1 ] The losing streak came to an end three days later with a win over the Detroit Red Wings . During the game , several milestones were reached . James Wisniewski made his Columbus debut , Ryan Johansen and John Moore scored their first career NHL goals and Grant <unk> had a career @-@ high three assists . Columbus was unable to create any momentum from the win , however , and continued to struggle , culminating in a 2 – 12 – 1 record , which was the worst start to an NHL season for any team in 19 years . With the team struggling , management attempted to " shake things up " by making some roster moves . The first move was the acquisition of center Mark <unk> from the Pittsburgh Penguins . Next , they traded defenseman Kris Russell to the St. Louis Blues for Nikita <unk> . As the clubs slow start continued , there were rumors that Head Coach Scott Arniel would be fired and replaced with Ken Hitchcock . Hitchcock had previously coached the Blue Jackets to their only playoff appearance in club history and was still under contract with the franchise through to the end of the season . Before any of these rumors came to fruition , the St. Louis Blues asked Columbus for permission to hire Hitchcock , which the Blue Jackets allowed . Hitchcock began his Blues coaching career with a 6 – 1 – 2 record in his first nine games , while Columbus amassed a 6 – 13 – 3 record to start the season . 
 During the same time frame as the Hitchcock rumors , goaltender Curtis Sanford returned from his groin injury on November 13 . He made his first start of the season against the Boston Bruins , losing 2 – 1 in a shootout . Sanford continued his strong play , posting a 3 – 1 – 2 record , 1 @.@ 38 goals against average and <unk> save percentage over his next six games . Sanford started 12 consecutive games before Steve Mason made his next start . The number of starts might not have been as numerous , but prior to the November 23 game , Mason was hit in the head by a shot from Rick Nash during pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups and suffered a concussion . Mason returned from his concussion after two games , making a start against the Vancouver Canucks . Mason allowed only one goal in the game despite suffering from <unk> in the third period , temporarily being replaced by Sanford for just over three minutes . Columbus won the game 2 – 1 in a shootout , breaking a nine @-@ game losing streak to the Canucks . After the game , Arniel stated that Sanford was still seen as the team 's number one goaltender . However , Mason started four of the next six games with the Blue Jackets going 0 – 5 – 1 during that stretch . 
 
 = = = January – February = = = 
 
 With the losing continuing , more rumors began to surface . Unlike before , the rumors were about player moves rather than coaching changes . The majority of rumors were that the Blue Jackets would trade Rick Nash . While Howson stated that he had never brought up trading Nash in discussions , other teams had <unk> about his availability . Nash stated that if Columbus felt it would make the franchise better than he would be willing to waive his no @-@ trade clause . Howson publicly stated that he had no intention of trading Nash . More rumors came to light when reports attributed to <unk> des sports stated that Carter was unhappy in Columbus and demanded a trade . Howson , Carter and his agent all denied that a trade request was ever made , and they were unsure where the reports were coming from . With the trade deadline approaching , speculation picked up on the Blue Jackets trading Carter . Reports were that Columbus was trying to trade Carter and that he was " 100 percent available . " 
 At the halfway point of the season , with the Blue Jackets barely into double digit wins with an 11 – 25 – 5 record , worst in the league , and sitting 20 points out of playoff position , Columbus fired Arniel . He was replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards on an interim basis . Richards had previously coached the Minnesota Wild . He recorded his first coaching victory for the Blue Jackets in his second game , a 4 – 3 win over the Phoenix Coyotes . The change in coaching did not change the fortunes of the team , as they reached the All @-@ Star break with a 13 – 30 – 6 record . At the break , Blue Jackets ' owner John P. <unk> sent out a letter to fans stating his understanding of their frustration . He added that action would be taken around the trade deadline , the Entry Draft and free agency to take the team in a new direction . When speaking of the season , <unk> stated " disappointing is not a strong enough word " and that he was committed to giving fans a team of which they can be proud of . He also thanked them for their dedication and passion , while reiterating that the team goal was to " win consistently and compete for the Stanley Cup . " Days later , a 250 @-@ person protest occurred outside of Nationwide Arena . Fans were upset with the Blue Jackets ' management and were calling for changes at the top . The same day the fans protested , it was announced that the franchise would host the 2013 All @-@ Star Game . Columbus was without a representative for the 2012 All @-@ star Game , but Ryan Johansen represented the club as a rookie participant in the Super <unk> Competition . In the competition , Johansen participated in the <unk> Insurance NHL <unk> Challenge , a shootout themed event judged by the fans . He received just 1 % of the vote and finished last . 
 Following the break , the Blue Jackets were on the road playing the Los Angeles Kings , and with the score tied late in the game , Kings ' defenseman Drew <unk> scored with just 0 @.@ 4 seconds remaining to win the game . Upon review of the goal it , was determined that the clock at Staples Center froze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds for over a full second , which would have resulted in time expiring prior to the goal being scored . Kings ' General Manager Dean Lombardi stated that the clock was correct and no extra time had been added due to the way the clock self @-@ <unk> at various times . Howson stated on the team 's blog that " It is an amazing coincidence that with the Kings on a power play at Staples Center and with a mad scramble around our net in the dying seconds of the third period of a 2 – 2 hockey game that the clock stopped for at least one full second , " adding that , " Either there was a deliberate stopping of the clock or the clock <unk> . " NHL Senior Vice President of Hockey Operations Colin Campbell stated that the Blue Jackets were <unk> , but that the outcome of the game could not be changed , and that the delay was not noticed by the off @-@ ice officials or the situation room in Toronto . To determine the true cause of the clock pause , the NHL launched an investigation , talking with the clock 's manufacturer and interviewing Staples Center staff . 
 Two weeks prior to the NHL trade deadline , Columbus announced that unlike earlier in the season , they would listen to trade proposals involving Rick Nash , though they were not actively shopping him . Howson stated that the team was open to all options for improving the team , including trading Nash . <unk> was that in return for Nash the Blue Jackets would ask for a " combination of young , proven players , high @-@ end prospects and draft picks . " Leading up to the trade deadline , the Blue Jackets dealt Antoine <unk> to the Phoenix Coyotes for two draft picks and goaltender Curtis <unk> . Despite being injured at the time , the acquisition of <unk> was believed to give Columbus the flexibility to trade Curtis Sanford . The following day , on February 23 , Columbus traded Jeff Carter to the Kings . In the deal , Columbus acquired defenseman Jack Johnson and a first @-@ round draft pick ; the team was given the choice of taking the pick in either 2012 or 2013 . At the deadline , Columbus was unable to come to terms on a deal involving Nash , but they did make one more move ; they sent center Samuel <unk> to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for two fourth @-@ round draft picks and minor league defenseman Taylor Ellington . Following the trade deadline , Howson announced that the team had attempted to trade Nash at the player 's request . Nash stated that he had requested the trade after being informed that the franchise was going into another rebuilding phase . He further noted that he felt that he " could be a huge part of that towards bringing assets in , " and in his view " it was the best thing for the team , the organization , and personally for [ his ] career . " After the personnel changes , the Blue Jackets closed out the month with a three @-@ game losing streak . 
 
 = = = March – April = = = 
 
 Columbus started March with a 2 – 0 shutout against the Colorado Avalanche . They proceeded to win their next game against the Phoenix Coyotes 5 – 2 , which marked the first time that the Blue Jackets posted back @-@ to @-@ back regulation victories during the season . Columbus again defeated the Coyotes three days later to earn their first three @-@ game win streak of the season . They extended the streak to four with a win over the Los Angeles Kings before it came to an end with a 4 – 1 loss to the St. Louis Blues . It was the only four @-@ game win streak of the season for the Blue Jackets . They immediately matched their four @-@ game win streak with a four @-@ game losing streak and with ten games remaining , the Blue Jackets were the first team eliminated from playoff contention . Shortly after being eliminated , they were defeated by the Edmonton Oilers 6 – 3 ; the loss clinched last place in the NHL for Columbus . It was the first time in franchise history the Blue Jackets finished in 30th place . 
 Three days later , on March 28 , goaltender Steve Mason was injured in the morning skate when a shot from Colton <unk> hit him in the mask . With Sanford again injured , York made an emergency start . Playing against the Detroit Red Wings , York made 29 saves , including 17 in the third period , helping Columbus to a 4 – 2 victory and giving York his first career NHL win . York remained the starter and led the Blue Jackets to a second three @-@ game winning streak . In his fourth start , Columbus was shutout by the Coyotes despite a franchise @-@ record 54 shots on goal , losing 2 – 0 . The 54 saves by Phoenix goaltender Mike Smith set an NHL record for a regulation shutout . Mason returned to the starter 's role for the final two games , winning both . The two victories gave Columbus 65 points for the year , their third @-@ lowest total in franchise history . 
 The Blue Jackets struggled in <unk> situations , allowing the most power @-@ play goals in the League , with 64 , and having the lowest penalty @-@ kill percentage , at 76 @.@ 64 % 
 
 = = Post @-@ season = = 
 
 <unk> with the worst record in the NHL , Columbus had the best chance of receiving the first overall pick in the 2012 draft . With the NHL 's weighted draft lottery the Blue Jackets had a 48 @.@ 2 % chance of drafting first overall . However , the lottery was won by the Edmonton Oilers , who proceeded to <unk> Columbus and secure the number one draft pick for a third consecutive year . It was the fifth time that the Blue Jackets were dropped one draft position in the franchise 's 12 lottery <unk> . 
 A month later , on May 14 , the Blue Jackets announced that Richards would remain as head coach and signed him to a two @-@ year contract . During the press conference , Howson noted , " Our team continuously improved under Todd and he has earned the opportunity to build upon the work he started . " Columbus posted an 18 – 21 – 2 record under Richards , including winning seven of their final 11 games . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Since being founded as an expansion team , the Blue Jackets have played in the Central Division of the Western Conference . Division rivals Chicago <unk> , Detroit Red Wings , Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues , all made the playoff during the 2011 – 12 season , which helped Columbus finish 36 points behind fourth place Chicago and 44 points out of first . 
 Divisions : CE – Central , NW – Northwest , PA – Pacific 
 bold - qualified for playoffs , y – Won division , p – Won Presidents ' Trophy ( best record in NHL ) 
 
 = = Schedule and results = = 
 
 
 = = = Pre @-@ season = = = 
 
 
 = = = Regular season = = = 
 
 Green background indicates win ( 2 points ) . 
 Red background indicates regulation loss ( 0 points ) . 
 Silver background indicates overtime / shootout loss ( 1 point ) . 
 
 = = Player statistics = = 
 
 In ice hockey , a combination of a player 's goals and assists are collectively called points . <unk> minutes are the total number of minutes assigned to a player for <unk> assessed during the <unk> @-@ minus is a statistic that tracks when a player was on the ice while goals were scored , both for and against their team , though some in game situations will not effect the statistic . Below is a listing of all player statistics for the Blue Jackets during the season . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Note : <unk> 
 = <unk> ; <unk> = 
 Games played in ; G 
 = Goals ; A = 
 <unk> ; Pts 
 = Points ; <unk> = 
 <unk> minutes ; + / - = Plus / minus 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Note : <unk> 
 = Games Played ; <unk> = 
 Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W 
 = Wins ; L = 
 Losses ; <unk> 
 = <unk> Losses ; GA = 
 Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; <unk> = <unk> Against ; <unk> 
 = <unk> ; Sv % = 
 Save <unk> ; <unk> = <unk> 
 † <unk> player spent time with another team before joining Blue Jackets . <unk> reflect time with the Blue Jackets only . <unk> <unk> mid @-@ season 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 When Mason was injured in warm @-@ ups late in the year , Columbus was without an active goaltender on their roster . To remedy the situation , the team signed former University of Michigan goaltender Shawn Hunwick to a one @-@ day , amateur <unk> contract . After being eliminated from the NCAA Tournament just days prior , Hunwick <unk> an astronomy class and drove his worn down 2003 Ford Ranger to Columbus to make the game . He served as the back @-@ up to Allen York during the game , and the following day , he signed a contract for the remainder of the year . With Mason returning from injury , Hunwick was third on the team 's depth chart when an injury to York allowed Hunwick to remain as the back @-@ up for the final two games of the year . In the final game of the season , the Blue Jackets were leading the Islanders 7 – 3 with 2 : 33 remaining when , at the behest of his teammates , Head Coach Todd Richards put Hunwick in to finish the game . He did not face a shot . Hunwick was the franchise record ninth player to make his NHL debut during the season . Conversely , <unk> <unk> played in his 1,000th NHL game during the year . 
 
 = = Transactions = = 
 
 During the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets parted ways with <unk> Jan <unk> , Anton <unk> , Sami <unk> and Mike Commodore . <unk> , who played four of his first five NHL seasons with the Blue Jackets , was offered a contract by Columbus , but felt that the organization <unk> him and left via free agency . Columbus had offered him a three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 million contract . He instead signed a four @-@ year , $ 13 million deal with the Colorado Avalanche . <unk> and <unk> were not given qualifying offers which made them unrestricted free agents , and both signed with other teams . Commodore had originally signed a big contract with the Blue Jackets in 2008 , but fell out of favor . He was waived , sent to the minors and eventually had his contract bought out . In order to replace the departed players , Columbus not only acquired James Wisniewski , but also signed ten @-@ year NHL veteran <unk> <unk> . <unk> played only seven games with the Blue Jackets before suffering a concussion and missing the remainder of the season . Brett <unk> was brought in to replace him . 
 
 = Gregorian Tower = 
 
 The Gregorian Tower ( Italian : Torre <unk> ) or Tower of the Winds ( Italian : Torre <unk> <unk> ) is a round tower located above the Gallery of Maps , which connects the Villa <unk> with the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City . The tower was built between <unk> and 1580 to a design by the <unk> architect <unk> <unk> ( who was credited with building the Apostolic Palace ) mainly to promote the study of astronomy for the Gregorian Calendar Reform which was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII and promulgated in <unk> . It was then also known as the Tower of Winds . The tower is now called the " <unk> <unk> <unk> " , the Vatican Observatory . Four stages of progressive development have occurred since it was first established . The tower was an edifice of great value for astronomical observations made using a sundial as they provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar . 
 
 = = Early history = = 
 
 The first stage of building of the tower , as recorded by Leo XIII in his <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> of 1891 , is credited to Pope Gregory XIII , Pope from <unk> to <unk> . The directive was to build a tower at a suitable location in the Vatican and equip it with the " greatest and best instruments of the time " . The design was effected after a series of meetings of the experts who had been appointed to reform the Julian calendar , in use since 45 BC , to verify their proposed reforms . <unk> . Christoph <unk> , a Jesuit mathematician from the Roman College , was the expert on the committee who suggested the new system for the observations . The 73 metres ( 240 ft ) tower was then built above the museum and library , flanked by the <unk> and della <unk> courtyards . The instrumentation for the observation of the sun rays falling over it consisted of a meridian line designed by <unk> <unk> of Perugia . It was in the form of a circular marble plate in the centre , embellished with scientific designs . The tower still remains today , but has undergone improvements over the centuries . 
 
 = = Second stage = = 
 
 The second stage of construction in the 17th and 18th centuries , when the tower was under the charge of the Vatican <unk> , involved <unk> . Filippo Luigi Gilii , a clergyman of St. Peter 's Basilica . Earlier in 1797 , Pius VI gave approval to placing a Latin inscription <unk> <unk> at the entrance to the upper part of the tower , which was implemented by Cardinal <unk> with plans to enhance the instrumentation system in the tower 's observatory . The original observatory was then set up above the second level of the tower with the agreement of Pope Pius VI . Its instrumentation , apart from many normal devices ( such as meteorological and magnetic equipment , with a <unk> and a small transit and <unk> clock , ) was noted for the <unk> Telescope . The instrumentation facilitated recording of occurrences of eclipse , appearance of comets , <unk> of Jupiter and Mercury ’ s transit . As an addition , under the patronage of Pope Pius X , four <unk> observatory <unk> were also added at strategic locations on the 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long fortification walls , more than a thousand years old . <unk> . Gilii , highly respected as a <unk> with a knowledge of physics , biology , <unk> and the Hebrew language , was in charge of the observatory from 1800 to 1821 . He carried out continuous meteorological observations ( twice a day at 6 AM and 2 <unk> ) conforming to the programme of the <unk> Meteorological Society . While the observation records for seven years were published , the balance data in a manuscript form was preserved in the Vatican Library . Subsequent to Gilii 's death in 1821 , the observatory on the tower was discontinued and the instruments were moved to the observatory at the Roman College . Established in 1787 , it was considered more suitable for making observations than the Vatican . 
 
 = = Third stage = = 
 
 The revival of the observatory on the Gregorian Tower was initiated by the <unk> Francesco <unk> with the approval of Pope Leo XIII . High quality instruments were procured , partly with generous donations from <unk> of London , and the automatic recording instruments were procured from Richard in Paris . A four @-@ inch equatorial , a three @-@ inch transit instrument , and four <unk> clocks with two <unk> , were also procured from the observatory at <unk> . In 1888 , the gift of a 16 inch long telescope to Pope Leo XIII , became a part of the observatory . Father <unk> joined the observatory in 1889 after it was upgraded with more modern instruments . The same year , a second tower was built some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away from the main Gregorian Tower , overlooking the Vatican Gardens behind St. Peter 's Basilica on the south @-@ west border . It was built to a diameter of 17 metres ( 56 ft ) with a lower wall thickness of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , which could bear the load of a 13 inch photographic <unk> , newly procured from Paris . <unk> Father Rodriguez was the expert meteorologist who held the post of director from 1898 to 1905 . In 1891 , Pope Leo XIII , <unk> the <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , designated the second tower as the seat of the newly established Vatican Observatory , a decision which required altering the roof to provide a flat terrace for astronomical observations . 
 
 = = Fourth stage = = 
 
 The fourth stage involved <unk> the problem of communicating between the two towers during the time of Pope Pius X. His plans were to make the Gregorian Tower into a historical tower and to record and carry out observations at the second tower by linking the two towers along the fortified wall with a 83 metres ( 272 ft ) iron bridge spanning the gap . At the west end of this bridge , a four @-@ inch equatorial was installed on semicircular <unk> . The east end of the bridge , above the barracks of the gendarmes , had a <unk> , with a camera attached , used to photograph the Sun ( <unk> ) . A new 16 @-@ inch visual telescope , called Torre <unk> X , was erected in the second tower . As a result of these modifications , the original library was moved to the <unk> Academy <unk> , and the old meteorological and seismic instruments were shifted to the <unk> di <unk> observatory . The new Astronomical Library was housed in two rooms of the building . The two new <unk> machines were used for recording on the <unk> plates . The recorded observations were published along with <unk> notes together with the last two series of the <unk> of stars . Charts were printed on silver bromide paper . 
 
 = = Features = = 
 
 The tower had two floors and a <unk> . On the first floor was the famous <unk> Room or Meridian Room , which was initially an open <unk> . Pope Urban VIII had it enclosed and it was subsequently decorated with long sequences of frescoes painted between 1580 and <unk> by Simon <unk> and the two Flemish artists Paul and <unk> <unk> . Today the tower has paintings by <unk> <unk> and <unk> da <unk> . 
 The <unk> Room , also called the Meridian Hall , was once the residence of Queen Christina of Sweden , then newly converted to Catholicism . The room was further modified by two additions which gave it its current name : a sundial , and a delicate but sophisticated <unk> which was fixed to the ceiling of the Meridian Hall . These were created by <unk> <unk> , the papal <unk> , in association with the Gregorian Calendar Reform . The sundial consisted of a straight line in white marble running across the floor in a north @-@ south direction , intended to measure the height of the Sun at noon according to the seasons of the year . The observations made with the sundial provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar . The <unk> , in contrast , was a complex mechanism attached to the ceiling which was used to measure the strength and direction of the wind but soon stopped functioning . The instrument may have led to the other name of the tower , Tower of the Winds ; however , an ancient observatory at Athens was also called the Tower of the Winds and might have been the source for inspiration . 
 The interior walls and ceiling of the hall were richly decorated , in some cases with <unk> frescoes of the hills and Roman countryside , the <unk> , religious themes , the buildings surrounding the area , and naval <unk> with Jesus calming the storm and so forth . 
 
 
 = There 's Got to Be a Way = 
 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . Columbia released it as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It was one of four songs Carey wrote with Ric Wake during their first recording session together , but " There 's Got to Be a Way " was the only composition to make the final track listing . It is a socio @-@ political conscious R & B @-@ pop song which addresses the existence of poverty , racism and war in the world which gradually becomes more <unk> and positive as it progresses . The track garnered a mixed reception upon the album 's release in 1990 . While Carey 's vocals were praised , it was seen as too political . An accompanying music video highlights social <unk> . The song reached number 54 on the UK Singles Chart . 
 
 = = Background and release = = 
 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " was written by Mariah Carey and Ric Wake for Carey 's self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . It was written during Carey and Wake 's first recording session together . They composed four songs , but only " There 's Got to Be a Way " was chosen for the final track listing . Co @-@ produced by Wake and <unk> Michael <unk> , it appears as the second of ten songs on the track listing . The track was recorded and engineered by Bob <unk> at Cove City Sound Studios and The Power Station , both located in New York City . He was assisted by Dana Jon <unk> . It was mixed by David <unk> at Tarpan Studios in San Rafael . The keyboards , bass and rhythm engineering was carried out by Louis <unk> , while Joe Franco performed the percussion , Vernon " Ice " Black played the guitar , and Rich <unk> also performing on the keyboards . Walter Afanasieff played the synth horns . Carey provided her own background vocals along with Billy T. Scott , <unk> Muhammed and The Billy T. Scott Ensemble . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It is available to purchase as a CD single while the remixes are available on vinyl . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " is an R & B @-@ pop music song with elements of gospel . The theme of social activism can be heard in the lyrics " There ’ s got to be a way / to connect this world today . " The song begins with Carey publicly denouncing the existence of poverty and racism in the world , and she uses the bridge to shift the lyrics towards an <unk> and <unk> tone . Carey suggests we should be more tolerant of each other and not resort so readily to war in the lyrics " Couldn 't we accept each other / Can 't we make ourselves aware . " 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 Music critic Robert Christgau felt that Carey was being too political in her " brave , young , idealistic attack " on war and <unk> . Ralph Novak , David <unk> and David <unk> of People wrote that it is a " testimony to her talent that she does so much with so little . " They continued to write that Carey 's " tone and clarity " makes " There 's Got to Be a Way " a " <unk> " track . To mark twenty @-@ five years since the release of Mariah Carey in June 1990 , Billboard writer Trevor Anderson wrote a track @-@ by @-@ track review of the album in June 2015 . He noted that " There 's Got to Be a Way " follows the same melodic tone as the album 's opener " Vision of Love " but highlighted their stark lyrical differences , as the former is about social activism and the latter is about love . Although he praised Carey 's vocals , writing that she " deploys " one of her best whistle notes of her career , he felt that " the aim for broad appeal comes at the expense of memorable lyrics . " 
 
 = = Music video = = 
 
 The accompanying music video begins with a shot of an empty street , followed by clips of disadvantaged and poorer members of society going about their daily activities . Two men play <unk> on a wooden <unk> outside a building , a gang make fun of an elderly man hanging newspapers outside his store and an <unk> woman walks down the street . <unk> of Carey leaning against a wall and sitting on some steps looking on at what is happening are shown . As the first chorus begins , everyone starts to dance <unk> in the street and help those in need . A gospel choir comes out of one of the buildings as the street becomes more crowded with people of all ages and backgrounds <unk> and getting along with each other . One of the shops in the background has a neon light outside the entrance which says " Jesus <unk> " . 
 
 = = Track listings = = 
 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Original album version ) – 4 : 52 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 7 " remix ) 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 12 " remix ) 
 " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Alternative Vocal Dub Mix ) 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 
 = Nebraska Highway 88 = 
 
 Nebraska Highway 88 ( N @-@ 88 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . It has a western terminus at Wyoming Highway 151 ( WYO 151 ) at the Wyoming – Nebraska state line . The road travels eastward to N @-@ 71 , where it turns south . N @-@ 88 continues east to south of Bridgeport . The road turns north , ends at an intersection with U.S. Highway 385 ( US 385 ) and N @-@ 92 in Bridgeport . The route was designated in 1937 , before the official state highway system was created . It was extended to the state line in 1986 . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 N @-@ 88 starts at the Nebraska – Wyoming state line in Banner County , where WYO 151 ends , and travels northeast . The road quickly <unk> east after less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and continues in a straight line . For the next twenty miles ( 32 km ) , N @-@ 88 intersects minor streets , through rural farmland . The route turns south at N @-@ 71 , and becomes concurrent . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) later , N @-@ 88 turns east , ending the concurrency with N @-@ 71 . The route continues to travel through farmland for sixteen miles ( 26 km ) , where it enters <unk> County . The road crosses over <unk> Creek four times , and enters the unincorporated community of <unk> . Two rock formations , Courthouse and <unk> Rocks , become visible from the road . N @-@ 88 turns north toward Bridgeport soon after . The road crosses over <unk> Creek for the fifth time , and enters into Bridgeport five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) later . The road intersects a railroad owned by <unk> Railway . N @-@ 88 turns northeast soon after , and ends at the intersection of US 385 and N @-@ 92 . In 2012 , Nebraska Department of Roads ( <unk> ) calculated as many as 2 @,@ 410 vehicles traveling on the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency , and as few as 315 vehicles traveling east of the Banner – <unk> county line . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . Only the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency is part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 N @-@ 88 was unofficially designated around 1937 , connecting from N @-@ 29 , to N @-@ 86 and N @-@ 19 in Bridgeport . The route remained relatively the same as the state highway system was officially designated . Before 1955 , Nebraska did not have an adequate legal instrument to define the state highway system . By 1960 , N @-@ 19 was renumbered to US 385 , and US 26 was rerouted north near Bridgeport . The old alignment became part of N @-@ 92 . Two years later , N @-@ 29 was renumbered to N @-@ 71 . Between 1981 @-@ 82 , a road appeared on the official state map , extending from WYO 151 to N @-@ 71 . That road became part of N @-@ 88 by 1986 . No significant changes have been made since . 
 
 = = Major intersections = = 
 
 
 
 = USS Atlanta ( 1861 ) = 
 
 Atlanta was a casemate ironclad that served in the Confederate and Union <unk> during the American Civil War . She was converted from a Scottish @-@ built blockade runner named Fingal by the Confederacy after she made one run to Savannah , Georgia . After several failed attempts to attack Union <unk> , the ship was captured by two Union monitors in 1863 when she ran aground . Atlanta was floated off , repaired , and <unk> , serving in the Union Navy for the rest of the war . She spent most of her time deployed on the James River supporting Union forces there . The ship was decommissioned in 1865 and placed in reserve . Several years after the end of the war , Atlanta was sold to Haiti , but was lost at sea in December 1869 on her delivery voyage . 
 
 = = Description and career as Fingal = = 
 
 Fingal was designed and built as a <unk> by J & G Thomson 's Clyde Bank Iron Shipyard at <unk> in Glasgow , Scotland , and was completed early in 1861 . She was described by <unk> <unk> Scales , who served on the Atlanta before her battle with the monitors , as being a two @-@ <unk> , iron @-@ <unk> ship 189 feet ( 57 @.@ 6 m ) long with a beam of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a draft of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and a depth of hold of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . He estimated her tonnage at around 700 tons <unk> . Fingal was equipped with two vertical single @-@ cylinder direct @-@ acting steam engines using steam generated by one <unk> @-@ tubular boiler . The engines drove the ship at a top speed of around 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . They had a bore of 39 inches ( 991 mm ) and a stroke of 30 inches ( 762 mm ) . 
 The ship briefly operated between Glasgow and other ports in Scotland for <unk> 's West Highland Service before she was purchased in September 1861 by James D. Bulloch , the primary foreign agent in Great Britain for the Confederacy , to deliver the military and naval ordnance and supplies that he had purchased . To disguise his control of Fingal , and the destination of her cargo , Bulloch hired an English crew and captain and put out his destination as Bermuda and Nassau in the Bahamas . The cargo was loaded in Greenock in early October , although <unk> and the other passengers would not attempt to board until they rendezvoused with the ship at <unk> , Wales . On the night 14 / 15 October , as she was slowly rounding the <unk> at <unk> , Fingal rammed and sank the Austrian brig <unk> , slowly swinging at anchor without lights . Bulloch and the passengers embarked in the steamer while Bulloch dispatched a letter to his financial agents instructing them to settle damages with the brig 's owners because he could not afford to take the time to deal with the affair <unk> he and Fingal be detained . The ship reached Bermuda on 2 November and , after leaving port on 7 November , Bulloch informed the crew that the steamer 's real destination was Savannah , Georgia ; he offered to take anyone who objected to the plan to Nassau . However , all of the crew agreed to join in the effort to run the Union blockade . Fingal was able slip safely into the Savannah estuary in a heavy fog on the night of 12 November without sighting any <unk> . 
 While Fingal was <unk> her cargo , Bulloch went to Richmond to confer with Stephen Mallory , Secretary of the Navy . Mallory endorsed Bulloch 's plan to load Fingal with cotton to sell on the Navy Department 's account to be used to purchase more ships and equipment in Europe . He returned to Savannah on 23 November and it took him almost a month to purchase a cargo and acquire enough coal . He made one attempt to break through the blockade on 23 December , but it proved impossible to do as the Union controlled every channel from Savannah , aided by their occupation of <unk> Island at the mouth of the Savannah River . Bulloch reported to Mallory in late January 1862 that breaking out was <unk> so Mallory ordered him to turn the ship over to another officer and to return to Europe some other way . 
 
 = = As Atlanta = = 
 
 The brothers <unk> and Nelson <unk> received the contract to convert the blockade runner into an ironclad in early 1862 with the name of Atlanta , after the city in Georgia . This was largely financed by contributions from the women of Savannah . Fingal was cut down to her main deck and large wooden <unk> were built out from the sides of her hull to support her casemate . After the conversion , Atlanta was 204 feet ( 62 @.@ 2 m ) long overall and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 m ) . Her depth of hold was now 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) and she now had a draft of 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) . Atlanta now displaced 1 @,@ 006 long tons ( 1 @,@ <unk> t ) and her speed was estimated at 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . 
 The armor of the casemate was angled at 30 ° from the horizontal and made from two layers of railroad rails , rolled into plates 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and 7 inches ( 180 mm ) wide . The outer layer ran vertically and the inner layer horizontally . Her armor was backed by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of oak , vertically oriented , and two layers of 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 191 mm ) of pine , alternating in direction . The bottom of the casemate was some 20 inches ( 508 mm ) from the waterline and its top was 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) above the waterline . The pyramidal <unk> was armored in the same way and had room for two men . The upper portion of Atlanta 's hull received two inches of armor . 
 The rectangular casemate was pierced with eight narrow gun ports , one each at the bow and stern and three along each side . Each gun port was protected by an armored <unk> made of two layers of iron riveted together and allowed the guns to elevate only to a maximum of + 5 to + 7 ° . Atlanta was armed with single @-@ banded , 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) Brooke rifles on <unk> mounts at the bow and stern . The middle gun port on each side was occupied by a single @-@ banded , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 163 mm ) Brooke rifle . The 17 @-@ caliber , seven @-@ inch guns weighed about 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) and fired 80 @-@ pound ( 36 kg ) armor @-@ piercing " bolts " and 110 @-@ pound ( 50 kg ) explosive shells . The equivalent statistics for the 18 @.@ 5 @-@ caliber , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch gun were 9 @,@ 110 pounds ( 4 @,@ 130 kg ) with 80 @-@ pound bolts and 64 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) shells . Atlanta was also armed with a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , solid iron , ram that was reinforced by a series of vertical steel bars . In front of the ram was a spar torpedo that carried 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of black powder on a wooden pole connected to an iron lever that could be raised or lowered by means of <unk> . 
 On 31 July 1862 , under the command of Lieutenant Charles H. <unk> , Atlanta conducted her sea trials down the Savannah River toward Fort Pulaski . The ship proved to be difficult to steer , and the additional weight of her armor and guns significantly reduced her speed and increased her draft . This latter was a real problem in the shallow waters near Savannah . She also leaked significantly , and her design virtually eliminated air circulation . One report said that " it was almost intolerable on board the Atlanta , there being no method of ventilation , and the heat was intense . " Scales commented in his diary , " What a <unk> , <unk> and God @-@ forsaken ship ! ! " 
 Attempts were made to fix the problems and were at least partially successful in stopping many of the leaks . The ship was commissioned on 22 November and became the flagship of Flag Officer Josiah Tattnall , commander of the naval defenses of Georgia . Under pressure from Mallory to engage the blockading ships , Tattnall attempted to engage them before any ironclads arrived on 5 January 1863 , but army engineers could not clear the obstacles blocking the channel in a timely manner , despite early coordination being made by Tattnall to do so . It took another month to actually clear the obstacles and two monitors arrived before the end of January . Nonetheless Tattnall attempted to pass through the obstructions during high tide on 3 February , but high winds prevented the water from rising enough to allow the ship to do so . After Atlanta successfully passed through them on 19 March , Tattnall planned to attack the Union base at Port Royal , South Carolina while the monitors were attacking Charleston . <unk> revealed <unk> 's plan while he was waiting at the head of <unk> Sound and he was forced to retreat when three monitors augmented the defenses at Port Royal . <unk> with Tattnall 's perceived lack of aggressiveness , Mallory replaced Tattnall as commander of the Savannah squadron later that month with Commander Richard L. <unk> . <unk> , in his turn was relieved in May by Commander William A. Webb ; Atlanta remained the squadron flagship throughout this time . 
 Webb demonstrated his aggressiveness when he attempted to sortie on the first spring tide ( 30 May ) after taking command , but Atlanta 's forward engine broke down after he had passed the obstructions , and the ship ran aground . She was not damaged although it took over a day to pull her free . He planned to make another attempt on the next full tide , rejecting Mallory 's idea that he wait until the nearly complete ironclad Savannah was finished before his next sortie . In the meantime , Rear Admiral Samuel F. Du <unk> , commander of the South Atlantic <unk> Squadron , had ordered the monitors Weehawken and Nahant into <unk> Sound . Commander John <unk> in Weehawken had overall command of the two ships . 
 In the early evening of 15 June , Webb began his next attempt by passing over the lower obstructions in the Wilmington River and spent the rest of the night coaling . He moved forward the next evening to a concealed position within easy reach of the monitors for an attack early the following morning . Webb planned to sink one of the monitors with his spar torpedo and then deal with the other one with his guns . The gunboat <unk> and the tugboat <unk> were to accompany him to tow one or both of the monitors back to Savannah . 
 A lookout aboard Weehawken spotted Atlanta at 04 : 10 on the morning of 17 June . When the latter ship closed to within about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the two Union ships , she fired one round from her bow gun that passed over Weehawken and landed near Nahant . Shortly afterward , Atlanta ran aground on a <unk> ; she was briefly able to free herself , but the pressure of the tide pushed her back onto the <unk> . This time Webb was unable to get off and the monitors closed the range . When Weehawken , the leading ship , closed to within 200 – 300 yards ( 180 – 270 m ) she opened fire with both of her guns . The 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) shell missed , but the 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) shell struck the ironclad above the port middle gun port , penetrated her armor and broke the wooden backing behind it , spraying splinters and fragments that disabled the entire gun crew and half the crew of the bow gun , even though it failed to cleanly penetrate through the backing . The next shot from the 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren gun struck the upper hull and started a small leak even though it failed to penetrate the two @-@ inch armor there . The next shell from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren <unk> off the middle starboard gun <unk> as it was being opened , wounding half the gun 's crew with fragments . The final shell was also from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren and it struck the top of the <unk> , breaking the armor there and wounding both pilots in it . By this time , Atlanta had been able to fire only seven shots , none of which hit either Union ship , and was hard aground with high tide not due for another hour and a half . Weehawken and Nahant were able to freely maneuver into positions from which the Atlanta 's narrow gun ports would not allow her to reply and the damage already inflicted by the former ship made further resistance futile . Webb surrendered his ship within 15 minutes of opening fire , before Nahant even had a chance to fire . Of the ironclad 's 21 officers and 124 enlisted men , one man was killed and another sixteen were wounded badly enough to require hospitalization . 
 
 = = In the Union Navy = = 
 
 Atlanta was easily pulled free by the Union ships and she reached Port Royal under her own power . Not badly damaged , she was repaired and bought by the Union Navy . The prize money of $ 350 @,@ 000 was shared between the crews of Weehawken , Nahant and the gunboat <unk> , the only ships within signaling distance . The ship retained her name and was commissioned again on 2 February 1864 , <unk> with a pair of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifles in the bow and stern and 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch , 100 @-@ pound Parrott rifles amidships . The 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifle weighed 16 @,@ 500 pounds ( 7 @,@ 500 kg ) and was 17 <unk> long . The 100 @-@ pounder weighed 9 @,@ 800 pounds ( 4 @,@ 400 kg ) and was 20 <unk> long . It fired a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shell a distance of 6 @,@ 900 yards ( 6 @,@ 300 m ) at an elevation of + 25 ° . All four of her Brooke rifles are currently located in Willard Park in the Washington Navy Yard . Atlanta was assigned to the North Atlantic <unk> Squadron and spent most of her time stationed up the James River where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against a sortie by the ironclads of the James River Squadron . On 21 May 1864 , she and the gunboat Dawn fired on and dispersed Confederate cavalry that was attacking Fort <unk> and she was deployed further upriver in February 1865 after the Battle of Trent 's Reach to better blockade the Confederate ironclads at Richmond . 
 After the end of the war in April , Atlanta was decommissioned in Philadelphia on 21 June 1865 and placed in reserve at League Island . She was sold to Sam Ward on 4 May 1869 for the price of $ 25 @,@ 000 and subsequently delivered to representatives of Haiti on 8 December by Sydney <unk> , a lawyer who had received an advance of $ 50 @,@ 000 on her purchase price of $ 260 @,@ 000 . The ship was briefly seized by the Customs Service , possibly for violations of neutrality laws as she had just loaded four large guns and a number of recruits for the forces of Sylvain <unk> , President of Haiti , who was embroiled in a civil war . Atlanta was released and sailed for Port @-@ au @-@ Prince three days later . She broke down in Delaware Bay and had to put in at Chester , Pennsylvania for repairs . The ship , now renamed either Triumph or <unk> , departed on 18 December 1869 and vanished en route , apparently sinking with the loss of all hands , either off Cape Hatteras or the Delaware <unk> . 
 
 
 = Jacqueline Fernandez = 
 
 Jacqueline Fernandez ( born 11 August 1985 ) is a Sri Lankan actress , former model , and the winner of the 2006 Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant . As Miss Universe Sri Lanka she represented her country at the 2006 world Miss Universe pageant . She graduated with a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney , and worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka . 
 While on a modelling assignment in India in 2009 , Fernandez successfully auditioned for <unk> <unk> 's fantasy drama <unk> , which marked her acting debut . Fernandez ' breakthrough role was in <unk> <unk> 's psychological thriller Murder 2 ( 2011 ) , her first commercial success . This was followed by glamorous roles in the ensemble @-@ comedy Housefull 2 ( 2012 ) and its sequel Housefull 3 , and the action thriller Race 2 ( 2013 ) , all of which were box @-@ office successes . Her performance in the first of these garnered her an IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination . In 2014 , Fernandez played the leading lady in Sajid Nadiadwala 's Kick , which is one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time . 
 One of the most popular actresses in India , she was the recipient of the IIFA Award for Star <unk> of the Year – Female in 2010 . Alongside her screen acting career , Fernandez has participated in stage shows , and is active in humanitarian work . 
 
 = = Early life and modeling career = = 
 
 Fernandez was born on 11 August 1985 , in <unk> , Bahrain , and was raised in a multi @-@ ethnic family . Her father , <unk> , is Sri Lankan , and her mother , Kim , is of Malaysian descent . Her grandfather , on her mother 's side of the family , is Canadian and her great grandparents were from <unk> , India . Her father , who was a musician in Sri Lanka , moved to Bahrain in the 1980s to escape civil unrest between the <unk> and <unk> and subsequently met her mother who was an air hostess . She is the youngest of four children with one elder sister and two elder brothers . She hosted television shows in Bahrain at the age of fourteen . After receiving her early education in Bahrain , she pursued a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney in Australia . After graduating she worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka . She also attended the <unk> school of languages , where she learnt Spanish and improved her French and Arabic . 
 According to Fernandez , she had aspired to become an actress at a young age and <unk> about becoming a Hollywood movie star . She received some training at the John School of Acting . Although , she was a television reporter , she accepted offers in the modeling industry , which came as a result of her pageant success . In 2006 , she was crowned the winner of the Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant and represented Sri Lanka at the world Miss Universe 2006 pageant held in Los Angeles . In a 2015 interview , Fernandez described the modeling industry as " a good training ground " and said : " It is a medium that is about shedding your <unk> , knowing your body , confidence " . In 2006 , she appeared in a music video for the song " O <unk> " by music duo <unk> and <unk> . 
 
 = = Acting career = = 
 
 
 = = = 2009 – 2013 = = = 
 
 In 2009 , Fernandez traveled to India for a modeling assignment . She studied acting under the <unk> of theatre director Barry John , and successfully auditioned for <unk> <unk> 's fantasy film <unk> ( 2009 ) her acting debut . She played the love interest of <unk> <unk> 's character , a role based on the Princess Jasmine character . Fernandez garnered mixed reviews for her performance . Anupama Chopra of NDTV called her a " plastic <unk> [ e ] " , and Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ <unk> felt that she was : " easy on the eyes and appears confident but has precious little to do " . Although the film was a critical and commercial failure , she won the IIFA Award for Star <unk> of the Year - Female . 
 In 2010 , Fernandez appeared opposite <unk> in the science fiction romantic comedy <unk> <unk> Se <unk> Hai . She was cast as a girl from Venus , who lands on Earth in search of love . The film , along with Fernandez 's performance , received poor reviews ; Rediff.com 's <unk> <unk> noted : " She <unk> makes a fool of herself whilst <unk> the actions of movie stars , ranging from <unk> 's <unk> dance , <unk> <unk> 's <unk> <unk> moves , to Big B 's violent <unk> in Hum . Her Tara could be a keeper if only <unk> <unk> Se <unk> Hai wasn 't so intent on turning her into a love @-@ struck Barbie . " Critic Anupama Chopra also criticized Fernandez , calling her " a pin @-@ <unk> on a balloon " . Later that year , she made a cameo appearance in Sajid Khan 's Housefull in the song " <unk> " . 
 Mahesh <unk> 's thriller Murder 2 was Fernandez 's first commercial success and marker a turning point in her career . She took on the role of <unk> , a lonely model who is in a confused relationship with Arjun <unk> ( played by <unk> <unk> ) . Fernandez was praised for the her performance , and for the <unk> and sex appeal she displayed in the film . Gaurav Malini of The Times of India stated that she was " <unk> tempting " but noted that her romance with <unk> was " literally half @-@ baked " . The following year , Fernandez appeared in the ensemble comedy Housefull 2 alongside <unk> Kumar , John Abraham , and Asin . It became one of the top grossing productions of India that year and earned ₹ 1 @.@ 86 billion ( US $ 28 million ) worldwide . Fernandez received mostly negative reviews for her performance . While Gaurav Malini praised her for her looks , NDTV called her a " <unk> <unk> " who " find [ s ] no pleasure in [ her role ] " . Despite the negative reviews , Fernandez received a Best Supporting Actress nomination at the 14th IIFA Awards for her performance . 
 Fernandez 's first release of 2013 was Race 2 , an ensemble action thriller ( alongside <unk> Ali Khan , John Abraham , <unk> Padukone , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> Kapoor ) ) , described as the " cinematic equivalent of a <unk> novel " by critic Rajeev Masand . She played <unk> , a <unk> <unk> , a role which required her learn fencing and some <unk> . The film emerged as a commercial success , with the domestic gross of more than ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . In a particularly scathing review , <unk> <unk> of NDTV wrote that both Fernandez and Padukone " strut around like wound @-@ up automatons that are all <unk> @-@ up but have nowhere to go . " Fernandez also appeared in an item number ( music video ) titled " <unk> Ki <unk> " for Prabhu Deva 's <unk> <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = 2014 – present = = = 
 
 In 2014 , Fernandez appeared in Sajid Nadiadwala 's directorial debut — the action film Kick , a remake of a 2009 Telugu film of same name . She starred opposite Salman Khan , playing <unk> , a <unk> student . She retained her real voice for the first time in Kick . While <unk> May Francis commented that she is : " incredibly dazzling , and moves like a magic " , Raja <unk> of Rediff.com was more critical of her dialogue delivery , calling it " unfortunate . " The film received mixed reviews from critics , but with worldwide revenue of over ₹ 3 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 56 million ) , it became the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film . The film established Fernandez as one of the most popular Bollywood actresses . 
 In 2015 , Fernandez featured in <unk> Singh 's Roy , a romantic thriller , which critic <unk> A. <unk> described as a " boring , exhausting and pretentious " film . Fernandez played dual roles , Ayesha <unk> , a filmmaker in a relationship with another filmmaker ( played by Arjun <unk> ) and <unk> <unk> , a girl in love with a thief ( played by <unk> Kapoor ) . While India TV called it " her best act till date " , critic Rajeev Masand felt that she " appears <unk> in a part that required greater range . " Roy failed to meet its box @-@ office expectations , and was a commercial failure . Later that year , she appeared in a guest appearance for the comedy @-@ satire <unk> . 
 Karan <unk> 's action drama Brothers was Fernandez 's next release . Co @-@ starring alongside <unk> Kumar and <unk> <unk> , Fernandez played Jenny , a fearless mother struggling for her child , a role which she described as " challenging " , " intense " , and " difficult " . The role marked a departure from the glamorous characters that she had a reputation for portraying . Film critics praised her performance , though their response to the film was mixed . <unk> Sharma of <unk> News called her character " soft , timid and promising " , and praised her for : " convincingly pull [ ing ] off a pleasing character of a street fighter 's wife " . Film critic Subhash K. Jha noted that she : " ... in a limited role gives her finest emotive shot " , while critic Raja <unk> remarked : " [ she ] plays Kumar 's long @-@ sobbing wife who gets so <unk> happy on seeing a text message that it may well have contained news about a Kick sequel . " 
 As of September 2015 , Fernandez has several projects in various stages of production . She has completed shooting for <unk> <unk> 's English @-@ Sri Lankan crime @-@ thriller According to <unk> , and the horror thriller Definition of Fear , which marks her Hollywood debut . Fernandez has also signed on to appear in three other projects — <unk> Dhawan 's <unk> opposite <unk> Dhawan and John Abraham as a part of three @-@ film deal with Nadiadwala <unk> Entertainment , <unk> D <unk> 's Flying <unk> opposite Tiger <unk> , and in an Indo @-@ Chinese film starring opposite <unk> <unk> , Amitabh Bachchan , and Jackie Chan titled Gold <unk> . 
 
 = = Personal life and other work = = 
 
 Fernandez shares a close bond with her family , and admits to missing being around them . She says : " I miss them so much everyday . You don 't realise when you live away from home how difficult life can be [ ... ] At the same time , staying away from them has taught me to be more responsible . It has taught me so many things about myself , about priorities and time management . " In March 2012 , Fernandez turned vegetarian for a 40 @-@ day period to observe <unk> , a period from Ash Wednesday to Holy Saturday . 
 In 2008 , Fernandez started dating <unk> prince Hassan bin Rashid Al <unk> , whom she met at a mutual friend 's party ; they separated in 2011 . While filming Housefull 2 in 2011 , Fernandez began a romantic relationship with director Sajid Khan . The relationship attracted media coverage in India and there was speculation of an impending wedding . However , the relationship ended in May 2013 . 
 In addition to acting in films , Fernandez has supported charitable organisations and a number of causes . In 2011 , on the behalf of People for the <unk> Treatment of Animals ( <unk> ) , she sent a letter to the Mumbai Municipal Commissioner asking for an end to horse @-@ drawn carriage rides in Mumbai . In early 2013 , she asked the <unk> general of the Philippines , William John T <unk> in Colombo , to hasten the transfer of an elephant from its inadequate housing at the Manila Zoo to a humane sanctuary . Later that year , she auctioned a breakfast in Mayfair , London , where she raised around £ 4000 for the <unk> <unk> , which helps children 's primary education . In 2014 , Fernandez was named " Woman Of The Year " by <unk> ( India ) for advocating the protection of animals . The following year , she auctioned her outfits on an online portal for a philanthropic cause . Some of her outfits included the ones she wore in the song " Party On My Mind " ( from Race 2 ) and " <unk> " ( from Kick ) . In March 2016 , she was part of " Jacqueline <unk> " campaign that raised funds for the victims of the 2015 South Indian floods . 
 Fernandez has participated in several concert tours and televised award ceremonies . In 2013 , she performed at the Temptations <unk> in Auckland , Perth , and Sydney alongside Shah <unk> Khan , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> . She also performed at the live talent show " Got Talent World Stage Live " with Khan , <unk> Chopra and <unk> Dhawan the following year . In July 2014 , Fernandez opened a restaurant in Colombo , <unk> Sutra , in collaboration with chef <unk> <unk> , which <unk> in contemporary Sri Lankan cuisine . 
 
 = = In the media = = 
 
 In the early 2013 , Fernandez became the ambassador for <unk> One , which she <unk> in India . She was the face of Indian <unk> Fashion Week — <unk> of 2013 . Later that year , she became the spokesperson for Gareth <unk> 's designed <unk> Diamonds in Mumbai , and was at the inaugural opening of the Forever 21 store in Mumbai . That year , she also launched <unk> <unk> System with <unk> Khan and <unk> Roy <unk> . While <unk> Fernandez 's career , India TV noted : " Slowly and steadily Jacqueline Fernandez is climbing up the ladder of success [ ... ] Jacqueline is comfortably grasping every aspect of the work , which an actress is required to do and is accordingly giving results . " On the contrary , <unk> Thakur of India Today criticized her acting skills , but remarked that : " [ she has ] managed to find her feet in Bollywood now by banking on glamorous roles " . 
 In 2008 and 2011 , Fernandez featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's <unk> Asian Women " list , ranking twelfth . She was ranked third on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most <unk> Woman " in 2013 and 2014 , after being ranked eighth , seventh and fourteenth , respectively , in the preceding three years . In 2013 , Rediff.com placed her on their list of " Bollywood 's Best <unk> <unk> " . The following year , she held the sixty second position in the Indian edition of the Forbes ' Celebrity 100 , a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She has been the cover model for many Indian editions of magazines , including : Vogue , <unk> , Maxim , Cosmopolitan , <unk> , Elle , <unk> , Harper 's <unk> , Women 's Health , and L <unk> among others . 
 
 = = Filmography = = 
 
 
 = = TV Appearances = = 
 
 
 = = Awards = = 
 
 
 
 = John Cullen = 
 
 Barry John Cullen ( born August 2 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Pittsburgh Penguins , Hartford Whalers , Toronto Maple Leafs and Tampa Bay Lightning . He was a standout player for Boston University and is the school 's all @-@ time leading scorer . After the Buffalo Sabres selected him in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft but chose not to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season where he was named the IHL 's co @-@ Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player after leading the league in scoring . 
 His career was halted in 1997 when he was diagnosed with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He attempted a brief comeback in 1998 after an 18 @-@ month battle with the disease , for which the NHL awarded him the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , before retiring to serve as an assistant coach for a year with the Lightning . Cullen played in two NHL All @-@ Star Games in his career . He joined his brother in the car dealership business after leaving the game , and briefly operated his own dealership until forced to close during the automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 10 . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Cullen was born in <unk> @-@ Ontario on August 2 , 1964 . He is one of six children of Barry and <unk> Cullen . His father and <unk> Brian and Ray all played in the NHL , and while Cullen and his three brothers all played as well , their father never pressured them , preferring that they enjoy the game . 
 He idolized his elder brother Terry , who was considered a top NHL prospect until Terry 's career was ended when he suffered a broken neck after being hit from behind into the boards during a college game . While his brother was highly sought by American universities , John received only two scholarship offers , choosing to play for Boston University ( BU ) in 1983 . 
 At the same time , his mother <unk> was diagnosed with skin cancer . Following her death early in his freshman year , Cullen contemplated returning to his Ontario home , but was convinced by his father to continue with both school and hockey . He used the game to cope with the loss and dedicated every game he played to his mother 's memory . Cullen felt that the inspiration he drew from his mother 's battle allowed him to become a better player . 
 
 = = Playing career = = 
 
 Cullen was a standout with BU ; he was named the East Coast Athletic Conference Rookie of the Year in 1983 – 84 after leading his team in scoring with 56 points . The National Hockey League passed him over , however , as he went <unk> in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft . He was named to the Hockey East All @-@ Star Teams in 1985 , 1986 and 1987 , and a National Collegiate Athletic Association East Second Team All @-@ American in 1986 . He graduated as BU 's all @-@ time scoring leader with 241 points , and was named to BU 's Hockey East 25th anniversary team in 2009 . 
 <unk> over in the Entry Draft , Cullen was finally selected by the Buffalo Sabres in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft . When the Sabres failed to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season . He led the league with 157 points , scoring 48 goals , and won the James <unk> Memorial Trophy as league most valuable player while sharing the Gary F. <unk> Memorial Trophy with Ed <unk> as rookie of the year . Cullen 's outstanding season in Flint caught the attention of the Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins . He signed a contract with the Penguins for the league minimum , passing up a superior contract offer from Buffalo as he remained upset at how they released him the year before . 
 
 = = = National Hockey League = = = 
 
 Cullen made his NHL debut in 1988 – 89 , appearing in 79 games with the Penguins and scoring 49 points . He was given a greater role with the Penguins the following year after Mario Lemieux missed 21 games due to a back injury and responded by scoring 32 goals and 92 points to finish third in team scoring . Additionally , he played for Team Canada at the 1990 World Championship , scoring four points in ten games . Cullen had his best season in 1990 – 91 . As one of the team 's top offensive centres , he scored 94 points in the Penguins ' first 65 games and played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . However , when Lemieux returned after missing an additional 50 @-@ games due to injury , Cullen 's playing time and production declined . 
 The Penguins ' needs led them to complete a blockbuster trade on March 1 , 1991 . Cullen was sent to the Hartford Whalers , along with <unk> <unk> and Jeff Parker in exchange for Hartford 's all @-@ time leading scorer , Ron Francis , along with <unk> <unk> and Grant Jennings . The Penguins almost turned down the deal as they were concerned about giving up Cullen 's <unk> and leadership abilities , while his former teammates credited Cullen as being the primary reason they were in a playoff position at the time the trade happened . After the Penguins won their first Stanley Cup that season , Phil <unk> later said it " broke his heart " that Cullen was not able to share in that championship . 
 In Hartford , Cullen worked to overcome the team 's fans ' disappointment at losing Francis . The Hartford fans initially <unk> him to show their dissatisfaction with the trade . He scored 16 points in 13 regular season games to finish the season with 110 points combined between the Penguins and Whalers , and was the team 's best player in their first round loss to the Boston Bruins in the 1991 Stanley Cup <unk> . He initially accepted an invitation to join the Canadian team at the 1991 Canada Cup , but subsequently chose not to participate as his contract had expired , leading to greater insurance concerns . Still without a contract when the 1991 – 92 season began , Cullen missed the first four games before signing a four @-@ year deal with Hartford worth a total of $ 4 million . He returned to score 77 points in 77 games in his first full season with the Whalers and represented the team at the 1992 All @-@ Star Game . 
 Midway through the 1992 – 93 NHL season , the Whalers sent Cullen to the Toronto Maple Leafs for Toronto 's second round selection at the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . Cullen was excited to play for his father 's old team , but injuries reduced his ability to perform . His most significant injury was a <unk> disc in his neck that doctors initially feared would end his career . A bulky neck <unk> allowed Cullen to return and play out his contract in Toronto . When the Leafs chose not to re @-@ sign him following the 1993 – 94 season , he returned to the Penguins for one season before Tony <unk> convinced him to sign with the Tampa Bay Lightning in 1995 . 
 Cullen enjoyed immediate success with <unk> Shawn Burr and Alexander <unk> as the trio combined to score 130 points and helped lead the Lightning to the first playoff appearance in franchise history . They were eliminated by the Philadelphia <unk> in five games while Cullen led the team in playoff scoring with three goals and three assists . The Lightning looked to improve in 1996 – 97 ; Cullen was leading the team in scoring , but was suffering flu @-@ like symptoms that he could not shake . As Tampa was fighting for a playoff spot , he played through his condition for weeks . 
 
 = = = Cancer and comeback = = = 
 
 After two months of quietly dealing with his symptoms , Cullen 's wife finally called team trainers and asked them to check into his illness . The team took an x @-@ ray and found a large black shadow in his chest . He underwent a CAT scan which revealed Cullen had a baseball @-@ sized tumor ; he was diagnosed as having Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . The diagnosis ended his season , and he immediately began chemotherapy treatments that quickly reduced his cancer . The tumor was gone by September 1997 , but a <unk> test prior to training camp revealed that Cullen still had cancer cells in his body . He missed the entire 1997 – 98 NHL season as he continued to battle the disease , while his teammates wore a uniform patch with his # 12 in support throughout the year . 
 On one day during his treatments , as his wife was <unk> him down a hospital corridor , Cullen went into cardiac arrest , requiring doctors to use a <unk> to revive him . He underwent a bone marrow transplant that briefly reduced his immune system to the point that he could have very little human contact . Another examination in April 1998 revealed that the cancer was finally gone , and Cullen immediately began training for a comeback . 
 The Lightning signed Cullen to a one @-@ year , $ 500 @,@ 000 contract for the 1998 – 99 season . He played his first game in nearly 18 months on September 18 , 1998 , in an exhibition game between the Lightning and Sabres at <unk> , Austria . Cullen scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 1 victory , after which he said he sat on the bench in <unk> over how he was given a second chance . He was named to the roster and was greeted with a loud standing ovation by the fans in Tampa Bay when he was introduced prior to their season opening game . 
 Cullen appeared in four of the Lightning 's first eight games , but it was evident that he had lost much of his speed and strength . The Lightning assigned him to the IHL 's Cleveland <unk> , but also gave him the option of retiring and taking up a position as an assistant coach . He chose to accept the demotion , giving himself one month to determine if he could continue playing . He appeared in six games for Cleveland , and in one game against the Chicago Wolves tied an IHL record when he scored seven points in a 7 – 3 victory . 
 However , a bout of <unk> led Cullen to fear that his cancer had returned . Tests came back negative , but after spending time with his family , he realized that neither he nor his family were interested in returning to Cleveland . Cullen announced his retirement on November 28 , 1998 , and accepted the Lightning offer to become an assistant coach . In recognition of his comeback attempt , the NHL named him the 1999 winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and <unk> , while the IHL renamed its <unk> Player of the Year award the John Cullen Award . 
 Former Lightning head coach Terry <unk> has stated publicly that Cullen was a player that stood out as something special saying “ John Cullen ... beat cancer and came back to play and helped us win . ” 
 
 = = Off the ice = = 
 
 Cullen and his wife <unk> have three daughters , Kennedy and twins <unk> and <unk> . Unwilling to spend so much time away from his family , he left the Lightning in 1999 and settled in the Atlanta area , joining his brother 's car dealership in <unk> , Georgia . He had always expected to become a car dealer after his hockey career , as his father , <unk> and brother all worked in the industry . After <unk> under his brother for five years , he bought a Dodge dealership in <unk> , Georgia in 2007 . However , he owned the dealership for less than two years before Chrysler closed him down as part of its recovery plan in response to the Automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 2010 . He has since returned to his brother 's dealership , serving as its general manager . 
 Cullen 's battle with cancer inspired <unk> Harmon of the <unk> Cancer Centre to partner with the Lightning to raise awareness and money for cancer research . The NHL itself joined the cause in the winter of 1998 , creating the Hockey <unk> Cancer program to raise money for research . Cullen has spent time promoting the initiative . 
 Prior to marrying his wife <unk> , John dated Carolyn <unk> the future wife of John F. Kennedy , Jr . The two met while attending University in Boston . 
 
 = = Career statistics = = 
 
 
 = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = 
 
 
 = = = International = = = 
 
 
 = = Awards = = 
 
 Cullen is the namesake of the John Cullen Award , previously given to key IHL players . 
 
 
 = SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max = 
 
 For the ironclad present at the Battle of <unk> of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) . 
 SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty 's ship <unk> Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division . 
 For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto <unk> in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 . 
 
 = = Design = = 
 
 Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ <unk> long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 <unk> ( 13 @,@ <unk> kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . 
 Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) <unk> C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by <unk> , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the <unk> shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per <unk> ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by <unk> . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of <unk> , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and <unk> stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations . 
 A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including <unk> Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers <unk> Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral <unk> Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto <unk> ; the three Erzherzog <unk> and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the <unk> @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by <unk> Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port . 
 Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 . 
 
 
 = Ancient Egyptian deities = 
 
 Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and <unk> them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , who claimed to be the gods ' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out . 
 The gods ' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and <unk> , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities ' diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features . 
 In different eras , various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars have argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the <unk> sun god Aten . 
 Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of <unk> natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to <unk> deities to act , and called upon them for advice . <unk> ' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society . 
 
 = = Definition = = 
 
 The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition who might be labeled as deities are difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature is unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods who are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian <unk> says there are " thousands upon thousands " of gods . 
 The Egyptian language 's terms for these beings were nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form <unk> , " goddess " . Scholars have tried to <unk> the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but none of these suggestions has gained acceptance , and the terms ' origin remains obscure . The hieroglyphs that were used as <unk> and <unk> in writing these words show some of the traits that the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs is a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects were placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as <unk> , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities . 
 The Egyptians distinguished <unk> , " gods " , from <unk> , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . <unk> humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt 's lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depicts places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities that were important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors . 
 <unk> these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri <unk> , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , who was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the <unk> of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt . 
 
 = = Origins = = 
 
 The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early <unk> Period ( c . 3100 – <unk> BC ) . Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depicts a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images that resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon that represents Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows that stand for <unk> , and the <unk> " Set animal " that represents Set . 
 Many Egyptologists and <unk> have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . <unk> <unk> , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive <unk> , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must have been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried <unk> ' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and <unk> their environment , are difficult to prove . 
 Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times were strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars have suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities <unk> into larger states , spreading and <unk> the worship of the old local deities . But others have argued that the most important predynastic gods were , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it . 
 The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the <unk> focus of the religion . 
 New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . <unk> – <unk> BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities were sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings were said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects <unk> and <unk> son of <unk> were regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as were some other officials . 
 Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . <unk> , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , <unk> , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from <unk> BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship . 
 
 = = Characteristics = = 
 
 Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation 's scribes and priests . These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace , most of whom were illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas that the elite developed . <unk> ' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , have mistaken the religion 's symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief is consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods were generally said to be <unk> in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the <unk> of all the world 's air ; the goddess <unk> oversaw a limited region of the earth , the <unk> <unk> ; and the god <unk> personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , <unk> was the god of <unk> Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , <unk> their bodies on a <unk> 's wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , <unk> , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , <unk> was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to <unk> the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it . 
 Not all aspects of existence were seen as deities . Although many deities were connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like <unk> or <unk> , were not represented by gods ; neither were elements like fire and water or many other components of the world . 
 The roles of each deity were fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods ' roles are difficult to <unk> or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the <unk> of the gods , was not <unk> . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argues that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and <unk> and to transcend the limits of the world in a way that other deities did not . 
 The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although there is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude <unk> draws a distinction between " <unk> " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god <unk> @-@ <unk> and the harvest goddess <unk> — and demons , who have a more dangerous character . Many demons are hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities <unk> and <unk> originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence . 
 
 = = = Behavior = = = 
 
 Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities who disrupted the divine order , the gods ' actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They did this work using a force the Egyptians called <unk> , a term usually translated as " magic " . <unk> was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves . 
 The gods ' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concerns the gods ' actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods were present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences were tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , <unk> Horus ' accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths are metaphors for the gods ' actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth are part of the Egyptians ' many @-@ <unk> approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods . 
 In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , <unk> , <unk> , and die . Some have unique character traits . Set is aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , is prone to long @-@ <unk> speeches . Yet overall , the gods are more like <unk> than well drawn characters . Their behavior is inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling . 
 The first divine act is the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the <unk> , who represent the chaos that <unk> creation , give birth to the sun god , who establishes order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , who embodies thought and creativity , gives form to all things by <unk> and naming them ; Atum produces all things as <unk> of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation were not seen as contradictory . Each gives a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , is the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place . 
 A recurring theme in these myths is the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and <unk> , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme is the gods ' death and revival . The <unk> instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris ' murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he comes into contact with the <unk> water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts that depict Ra 's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are <unk> along with him . Instead of being <unk> immortal , the gods periodically died and were reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this <unk> is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos . 
 
 = = = Locations = = = 
 
 Gods were linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world includes the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them is the dark <unk> that existed before creation . The gods in general were said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles were linked with other parts of the universe were said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods ' withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods who dwell there have difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world . 
 In the time after myth , most gods were said to be either in the sky or <unk> present within the world . Temples were their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples were the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city 's main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities ' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity 's main cult center in historical times is not necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes ' patron gods — first the war god <unk> and then Amun — to national prominence . 
 
 = = = Names and epithets = = = 
 
 In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess <unk> means " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun means " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess <unk> , who was worshipped in the city of <unk> , means " she of <unk> " . But many other names have no certain meaning , even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess <unk> and the earth god <unk> do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth . 
 The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god <unk> as <unk> r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting <unk> with the most important funerary deity . 
 The gods were believed to have many names . Among them were secret names that conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poisons the superior god Ra and refuses to cure him unless he reveals his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she tells it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power . 
 In addition to their names , gods were given epithets , like " <unk> of <unk> " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods ' multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with <unk> , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great <unk> " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles expresses the gods ' <unk> nature . 
 
 = = = Relationships = = = 
 
 Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god 's connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great <unk> as well as the <unk> of kings . Such relationships were the base material from which myths were formed . 
 Family relationships are a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern that connects divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , <unk> , and their child <unk> at Memphis and Amun , <unk> , and <unk> at Thebes , were assembled into family <unk> . <unk> connections like these are changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god 's daughter . 
 Other divine groups were composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . There were sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each <unk> ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts that are part of a greater unity . Ra , who is dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , who is static and <unk> in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four <unk> <unk> . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , <unk> , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the <unk> Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon . 
 Nine , the product of three and three , represents a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " <unk> " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent <unk> was the <unk> of <unk> , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporates many important gods . The term " <unk> " was often extended to include all of Egypt 's deities . 
 This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or who were <unk> older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , who was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods were most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early <unk> Period , Ra rose to <unk> in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity . 
 
 = = = <unk> and combinations = = = 
 
 The gods were believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods were composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god 's power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a <unk> , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity 's ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods that were the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals that represented certain deities , were believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and <unk> , which were sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god 's nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the <unk> of Atum the creator god , who originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other 's power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which were personified as goddesses . 
 <unk> important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of <unk> , Horus of <unk> , and Horus of <unk> . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an <unk> supposed to communicate messages from Amun of <unk> @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods ' manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms were sometimes counted as independent deities . 
 Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods were linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions were combined . Ra was connected with the local deity <unk> to form <unk> @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ <unk> ; and with several solar deities as <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ <unk> and <unk> @-@ <unk> . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . <unk> combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ <unk> and Khenty @-@ <unk> , who became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , <unk> @-@ <unk> , was <unk> by Osiris and Anubis . 
 
 = = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = = 
 
 In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . <unk> – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism , which totally excludes belief in other deities . There is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture is further complicated by Atenism 's apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been <unk> , <unk> a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In any case , Atenism 's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten 's successors returned to traditional beliefs . 
 
 = = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = = 
 
 Scholars have long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities . Another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis <unk> believed that Egyptian commoners were polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry <unk> thought Egyptian religion was instead <unk> , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann <unk> argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history . 
 In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study <unk> these views . He points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . He also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to <unk> . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or <unk> way . <unk> , Hornung says , describes Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform <unk> . 
 Hornung 's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that <unk> with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen says that <unk> notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the <unk> practice of ordinary worshippers . He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . " 
 
 = = <unk> and depictions = = 
 
 Egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is <unk> <unk> . They give off a scent that the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity 's character , functioning much like the <unk> in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or <unk> , a creature whose <unk> habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring alludes to the color of <unk> flesh and to the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection . 
 Most gods were depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , <unk> , or a woman with <unk> horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( <unk> ) , animals ( <unk> ) , and , more rarely , <unk> objects . <unk> of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress that was originally Hathor 's alone . 
 Certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god 's identity . The head of a given divine image is particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess is a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , <unk> , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " Divine <unk> , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power . 
 The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures that are widespread in Egypt were never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , <unk> , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals that were absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . For instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented a god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a <unk> , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses . 
 The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their <unk> powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy <unk> and breasts , signifying either <unk> or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and <unk> figure of the god <unk> alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and <unk> , have a " <unk> " appearance , with their limbs tightly <unk> in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of <unk> , and this form may instead <unk> back to the earliest , <unk> depictions of deities . 
 
 = = <unk> with humans = = 
 
 
 = = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = = 
 
 In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings were equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods . <unk> had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies . 
 However much it was believed , the king 's divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt 's representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to <unk> them . These things were provided by the cults that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh 's work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead . These acts were a part of the king 's fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live . 
 
 = = = <unk> in the human world = = = 
 
 Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication . 
 The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object that was <unk> — " sacred " — was isolated and <unk> pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the <unk> bull , served as divine <unk> in this way . Dreams and <unk> provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature . 
 Temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues were usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . Many temples had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city 's primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented in the temples of other gods . 
 To <unk> the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from <unk> to <unk> chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods . 
 
 = = = Intervention in human lives = = = 
 
 Egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations were under Egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god 's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were . 
 Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to <unk> fixed <unk> to both humans and gods . Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including <unk> , who presided over birth , and <unk> , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods <unk> or inspiring human decisions , working through a person 's " heart " — the seat of emotion and <unk> in Egyptian belief . Deities were also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes . <unk> in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities were the <unk> of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for <unk> into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out . 
 <unk> had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that <unk> the god 's power in the human world . Natural disasters and human <unk> were seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their <unk> . Both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : <unk> , who emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and <unk> , an <unk> god from the late eras of Egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing . 
 Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . <unk> was often seen as a product of <unk> , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . Some deities who were closely connected with <unk> , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give <unk> in the gods ' defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth . Because of this human <unk> , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans ' direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods ' will . 
 
 = = = Worship = = = 
 
 Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems . 
 Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , <unk> , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful . 
 Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could <unk> a large and fruitful flood . <unk> also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from <unk> Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of <unk> . <unk> for a god were often based in that deity 's mythology . Such rituals were meant to be <unk> of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the <unk> festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection were <unk> <unk> at a time when crops were beginning to <unk> . The returning <unk> symbolized the renewal of the god 's own life . 
 Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . <unk> and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @-@ being or to <unk> the god 's positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used <unk> , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in <unk> the goal . Such rituals <unk> with private offerings and prayers , and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help . 
 Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety is <unk> before the New Kingdom . <unk> offerings and personal names , many of which are <unk> , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a <unk> of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god 's cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess <unk> . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition . 
 The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions were under <unk> control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , were often syncretized with native gods , who in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there <unk> after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs were built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia 's independent Kingdom of <unk> . These gods were incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses were linked with the Nubian queen , the <unk> . Some deities reached farther . <unk> became a goddess in <unk> Crete , and Amun 's <unk> at <unk> Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region . 
 Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of <unk> <unk> . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named <unk> , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god <unk> — were adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and <unk> to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire 's complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , who was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus were both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition that grew from the Roman religious world . 
 Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at <unk> , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , were adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the <unk> Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern <unk> practices are descended from those of <unk> religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods . 
 
 
 = South of Heaven = 
 
 South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band 's second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood had helped the band 's sound evolve . 
 South of Heaven was Slayer 's second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records ' refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America . 
 In order to offset the pace of the group 's previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album 's tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized <unk> guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band 's live setlist . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin 's production " <unk> [ Dave ] Lombardo 's drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on albums before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people <unk> " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer 's official biography . " They also added elements like <unk> guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . " 
 King has since been critical of his performance , which he describes as his " most lackluster . " King attributes this to the fact he had recently married , and moved to Phoenix , Arizona . Describing himself as " probably the odd man out at that point " , he admitted he " didn ’ t participate as much because of that . " Hanneman said : " We go through dry spells sometimes , but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without . I guess at that time , Kerry was hitting a dry spell . " King has also been critical of the album in general , describing it as one of his least favorite Slayer albums . He feels vocalist Tom Araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style , and " added too much singing . " Drummer Dave Lombardo has since observed : " There was fire on all the records , but it started dimming when South of Heaven came into the picture . And that 's me personally . Again , I was probably wanting something else . " 
 Judas Priest 's " <unk> <unk> " is the only cover version to appear on a Slayer studio album . The song was chosen due to its war @-@ themed lyrics . Hanneman described the track as " more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn 't know , but it was a favorite of Kerry and I , so we just picked that one . " Meanwhile , " <unk> the Soul " has been heavily criticized by King who said that he hates the track : " That 's one of the black marks in our history , in my book . I just fucking think it 's horrible . [ Laughs ] I hate the opening riff . It 's what we call a ' happy riff . ' It 's just like ' la @-@ <unk> @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la . ' I can 't see myself playing it , but after that , where it gets heavier , I like that section . If we ever did a medley , I 'd put part of that in there . " The Slayer <unk> Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featured , along with four songs of the album , an early version of the title track , recorded at Hanneman 's home . 
 
 = = <unk> and illustration = = 
 
 Artist Larry Carroll and <unk> Howard <unk> designed the cover artwork for South of Heaven , having designed the artwork for Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood . <unk> Glen E. Friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of South of Heaven around the time of 1986 's Reign in Blood . Lombardo felt it made Slayer seem as though they " had matured a little bit " , while Friedman himself deemed it " a really cool back cover " and " one of the most classic shots of them [ Slayer ] ever . " 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 South of Heaven was released on July 5 , 1988 , and was the final Slayer album distributed via Def Jam Records . When label co @-@ founders Russell Simmons and Rubin parted ways , Slayer signed to Rubin 's newly founded Def American Recordings label . The album peaked at number 57 on the Billboard 200 album chart , and on November 20 , 1992 , became Slayer 's second album to be certified gold in the United States . South of Heaven was awarded silver certification in the United Kingdom on January 1 , 1993 , Slayer 's first record to do so in that country . Slayer 's official biography states that " some critics praised the album as demonstrating Slayer 's desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves . " Alex Henderson of AllMusic described the record as " disturbing and powerful , " while Joe <unk> of Ultimate Guitar deemed the album a slight departure ; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down , it " didn 't sacrifice any of the <unk> inherent in Slayer 's music . " 
 Reviewing the 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described the album as " their most <unk> , and on this set , its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record . " <unk> 's Peter Atkinson was also positive , saying the album has a " grandiosity and imposing presence " which makes the record " so magnificent . " Grave 's <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> 's Karl <unk> both rate South of Heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time , while Max <unk> of Brazilian death metal group <unk> remembers hearing the song " Silent Scream " for the first time : " It just blew me away . It was like fast double @-@ bass , fast kicks during the whole song . That was very inspiring for me . " When discussing Slayer in an October 2007 interview , <unk> frontman Matt Drake stated that while Reign in Blood " was just speed " , South of Heaven proved that the group could write " slow material as well . " Metal Forces reviewer gives " the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career " , creating " one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while " . He remarks , however , that " if you ’ re expecting to hear Reign in Blood Part Two , you ’ ll be in for a major disappointment " . 
 Kim <unk> of Rolling Stone dismissed the album as " genuinely offensive <unk> <unk> . " Slayer 's official biography states : " The new sounds disappointed some of the band 's fans who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases . " Michael Roberts of <unk> Online said this was due to some of the numbers moving " at the <unk> speed of Black Sabbath . " Araya commented that the " album was a late <unk> — it wasn 't really received well , but it kind of grew on everybody later . " 
 
 = = Cover versions = = 
 
 The title track and the song " Mandatory Suicide " have received various cover interpretations , particularly on Slayer tribute albums . <unk> Ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album The String Quartet Tribute to Slayer : The Evil You <unk> , with the former cover being described as having " menacing chord shifts " by AllMusic 's Johnny <unk> . 
 1995 Slayer tribute album <unk> Slaughter featured three tracks which originally appeared on South of Heaven , with the title track , " Mandatory Suicide " and " <unk> the Blood " interpreted by <unk> , Crown of <unk> and <unk> respectively . Its 1998 follow up <unk> Slaughter , Vol . 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album ; namely " Silent Scream " arranged by <unk> and " Read Between the Lies " interpreted by <unk> . 1999 's <unk> to Hell : A Tribute to Slayer collected four Slayer renditions which originated on the album , with versions of South of Heaven performed by <unk> ( <unk> ) and Electric <unk> Club , " Mandatory Suicide " cut by Chapter 7 and " Behind the Crooked Cross " adapted by <unk> . 2006 Argentine tribute album Al Sur Del <unk> ( <unk> <unk> A Slayer ) saw <unk> and <unk> Terra also respectively cover " South of Heaven " and " Mandatory Suicide " . <unk> covered the song " <unk> of War " for their 2009 cover album For the Lions . They released a music video for it also . Korn has covered the title track at least twice live , once with Kid Rock on vocals and another using the intro to follow into one of their songs live . 
 The title track itself has also been covered by <unk> 2000 , Modest Mouse and <unk> , Pro @-@ Pain , and Universe Eye . Polish death metal band <unk> covered the song " Mandatory Suicide " on their first full @-@ length album Winds of Creation . In 2003 , " Silent Scream " was covered by Children of <unk> for their album <unk> Crew <unk> in his UK version . Hardcore Punk band , The <unk> opened their set with the beginning of " South of Heaven " at <unk> 7 on May 4 , 2013 
 
 = = Live performances = = 
 
 Two songs taken from the album ( " Mandatory Suicide " and " South of Heaven " ) have become near constant fixtures in the band 's live setlist , <unk> up appearances on the following : the live DVDs Live <unk> , War at the <unk> , Still <unk> , Soundtrack to the Apocalypse 's deluxe edition 's bonus live disc , and the live double album Decade of <unk> . Lombardo <unk> with Finnish cellist group <unk> on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998 's <unk> 's Heaven festival in the Netherlands . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described " South of Heaven " as " an unorthodox set opener in theory " , noting " the song went over like a <unk> bomb detonating the place : dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum <unk> , the <unk> opening notes kicked in , followed by an overture of bass , cymbal crashes , and <unk> fills , leading up to the slowly building crescendo " in a concert review . Lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of " South of Heaven " and thinking " ‘ Man ! There 's just so much groove in that song . ’ To my kids I was saying , ‘ Listen to that ! Listen to how <unk> that is ! ’ And it 's heavy . " A rare live version of the track featured on the <unk> <unk> 2004 promotional CD , given away to attendees at the Spring 2004 <unk> Music Tour . A live rendition of " South of Heaven " was also included on a bonus DVD which came with the group 's 2007 re @-@ release of ninth studio album Christ Illusion , shot in Vancouver , British Columbia during 2006 's <unk> Alliance tour . 
 " Behind the Crooked Cross " is rarely played live as Hanneman hates the track , though King has always wanted to play it " because it 's got a cool intro " despite it not being his favorite song . King said " that 's fine " when speaking of the situation , noting " there are songs that he wants to play that I always shoot down . " " <unk> of War " isn 't King 's favorite song either , which he attests " everybody always wants to hear " performed live . He confessed ; " I like the ending , you know , I like the big heavy part and I always say , ‘ Let 's put the heavy ending at the end of " Chemical Warfare " and just do the last half . ’ But I could never make that fly . " 
 Slayer has <unk> with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990 's Seasons in the Abyss , though Hanneman said it 's something which hasn 't been " seriously considered . " Metal Maniacs asked Slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing South of Heaven in the footsteps of the Still <unk> tour , to which Araya replied , " It 's becoming a <unk> thing now . I don 't know . We have some really cool albums , but I don 't think we 'll ever do that again . " King was equally unsure , commenting , " Probably not . And I just don 't like enough songs off South of Heaven . " 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 
 = = Personnel = = 
 
 
 = = = Slayer = = = 
 
 Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals 
 Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar 
 Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar , backing vocals 
 Dave Lombardo – drums 
 
 = = Charts and certifications = = 
 
 
 
 = General aviation in the United Kingdom = 
 
 General aviation in the United Kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule or military aviation . Although the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) excludes any form of remunerated aviation from its definition , some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation ( GA ) in the UK . The sector operates business jets , <unk> , piston and jet @-@ engined fixed @-@ wing aircraft , gliders of all descriptions , and lighter than air craft . Public transport operations include business ( or corporate ) aviation and air taxi services , and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector . Other commercial GA activities are aerial work , such as surveying and air ambulances , and flight training , which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport ( CAT ) industry . Private flying is conducted for personal transport and recreation . It includes a strong vintage aircraft movement , and encompasses a range of air sports , such as racing , aerobatics , and <unk> , at which British teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition . 
 Of the 21 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent are engaged in GA operations , and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 35 million hours flown . The single most common class of aircraft is the fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , but the main area of growth over the last 20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft , such as microlights , amateur built aeroplanes , and smaller helicopters . There are 28 @,@ 000 Private Pilot Licence holders , and 10 @,@ 000 certified glider pilots . Some of the 19 @,@ 000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities . Although GA operates from more than 1 @,@ 800 aerodromes and landing sites , ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips , over 80 per cent of GA activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes . The GA industry , which is around 7 per cent the size of its CAT cousin , employs 12 @,@ 000 people , and contributes £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy . 
 GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) , although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) . The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing , and the objective is to promote high standards of safety . At the lighter end of the GA spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies , and gliding is in transition from a self @-@ regulatory model to more formal governance by EASA . Airspace regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of CAT operations has reduced the area in which GA flights can be freely conducted . The growth in CAT is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the GA sector , and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system has no remit to consider the national significance of GA public transport operations , and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the GA market . The planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome @-@ related environmental issues which , particularly regarding noise , are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at GA . 
 
 = = Definitions = = 
 
 The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) defines general aviation ( GA ) as " an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation . " It defines commercial air transport ( CAT ) as " an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers , cargo or mail for remuneration or hire " , and aerial work as " an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture , construction , photography , surveying , observation and patrol , search and rescue , aerial advertisement , etc . " 
 <unk> in the United Kingdom ( UK ) describe GA in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation . The British Business and General Aviation Association interprets it to be " all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the Armed Services " . The General Aviation Awareness Council applies the description " all Civil Aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non @-@ scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire " . For the purposes of a strategic review of GA in the UK , the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) defined the scope of GA as " a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule " , and considered it necessary to depart from the ICAO definition and include aerial work and minor CAT operations . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The first aerodrome in the UK was established by the Aero Club at <unk> Manor on the Isle of <unk> , and in May 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a British pilot , John Moore @-@ <unk> . In 1910 the Aero Club was granted the Royal prefix , took responsibility for controlling all private flying in the UK , and started issuing the first British pilot licences . The introduction of the de Havilland DH.60 Moth in 1925 <unk> light aviation , and the Royal Aero Club , <unk> the " vital necessity of promoting civil flying " , formed the Light <unk> Club scheme . Between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying clubs were started , and more than 5 @,@ 000 pilots were trained . 
 During World War II civil aerodromes were taken over for military use , existing military airfields were expanded , and new ones were built . This resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war . Pre @-@ war civil aerodromes , for example <unk> , were returned to civilian use . <unk> military airfields were closed , and in some cases , for example <unk> , subsequently re @-@ opened as civil aerodromes . The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation in the UK , and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent CAA in 1972 . 
 With an expanded infrastructure in place , GA became established after the war when manufacturers such as Cessna and Piper introduced light aircraft designed for the private market . The Cessna 172 , developed from the late 1940s Cessna 170 , was introduced in 1956 , and became the world 's best selling single @-@ engine aeroplane . Single piston @-@ engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the UK GA fleet . The development of the <unk> wing in the 1950s fostered the development of hang @-@ gliding during the 1960s and 1970s . The 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders , but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature , resulting in the birth of the microlight movement . Another milestone in the development of GA was the 1964 introduction of the <unk> 23 . Although it was not the first business jet , it popularised corporate aviation , and established the personal jet as a " whole new class of aircraft " . 
 
 = = Activities = = 
 
 The GA sector operates a range of aircraft , including balloons and airships , gliders , hang gliders , <unk> , microlights , <unk> , helicopters , amateur built and mass @-@ produced light aircraft , ex @-@ military aircraft , and business jets . <unk> can be broadly categorised as public transport , aerial work , and private flying , the first two of which are commercial activities . 
 
 = = = Commercial operations = = = 
 
 Commercial operations are remunerated activities which fall within the ICAO definition of CAT . Some are , however , closely aligned to , and considered part of , the GA sector . Public transport operations are non @-@ scheduled , on @-@ demand services flying between points specified by the customer , providing a more flexible service than airline travel . Air taxi operations offer charter services for third parties , and business or corporate aviation uses company @-@ owned aircraft to transport employees and clients . Aircraft used in these operations include business jets , helicopters , and twin piston @-@ engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people . An example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the British Formula One grand <unk> at Silverstone . This involves so many flights that , according to Cranfield Aviation Services , on race day the heliport is temporarily the world 's busiest airport . Aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial GA sector , characterised in its simplest form as remunerated non @-@ transport activities , such as surveying , crop spraying , and emergency services work ( air ambulance and police ) . 
 
 = = = Flying schools = = = 
 
 Flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots , both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally . They make widespread use of fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights . School @-@ owned aircraft account for a significant amount of GA activity , both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements . The pilot training element is regarded by the GA community as a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry . It is claimed by the General Aviation Awareness Council that 60 – 70 per cent of professional pilots have self @-@ financed their flight training at GA schools , and one UK airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70 – 80 per cent of new pilots coming from the GA sector . The CAA estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the <unk> training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent . The counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the UK , and that the airline industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy GA sector in the UK for its supply of pilots . The CAA concludes that a severe reduction in GA would give " some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened " , but that the data on flying hours " does not support such a <unk> outlook . " Of course , reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the UK <unk> the economic benefit of the training activity . 
 
 = = = Private flying = = = 
 
 Private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport , using aircraft that are owned individually , collectively as part of a syndicate , or rented from a flying club . A survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome , visits to other aerodromes , and day trips away . Half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from , and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home . 
 Private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @-@ produced two and four @-@ seater , single piston @-@ engine training and touring aircraft . Examples of these are the Cessna 152 , Cessna 172 , and Piper <unk> <unk> , all with their origins in the 1950s , and the more modern designs of <unk> . The average cost per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £ 133 , compared to an estimated £ 77 per hour for gliders , and a reported £ 35 per hour for microlights . Recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights , and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the Robinson <unk> and <unk> . Another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft , such as the Van 's Aircraft <unk> @-@ 4 and the Europa . 
 There is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the UK , with two @-@ thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active . These cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation , examples being the de Havilland Dragon <unk> airliner of the 1930s , and the World War II ( WWII ) Spitfire fighter . There are many post @-@ WWII aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition , including for example 60 ex @-@ military jets such as the Hawker Hunter . Historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays , which are claimed to be the second most popular <unk> activity after football in the UK . 
 
 = = = Sports = = = 
 
 Competitive gliding in the UK takes place between May and September . <unk> are local competitions , organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region , and represent the entry level to glider racing . Races are handicapped according to glider performance , and normally take place over nine days . Success in the <unk> allows pilots to progress to the <unk> , where there are five classes of competition . These are based on glider performance , the lowest being club class , and then progressing through standard ( maximum 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wingspan , and flaps not permitted ) , 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ( as standard , but flaps are permitted ) , 18 metres ( 59 ft ) ( maximum 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wingspan ) , and finally open @-@ class ( no restrictions ) . Success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level . In 2007 the British gliding team was ranked number one , and British pilots took two women 's world championships and the open class European championship . 
 <unk> air racing is open to any propeller @-@ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight . Races are a case of " fly low , fly fast , turn left " , consisting of 4 – 5 laps round a 20 – 25 mile ( 32 – 40 km ) circuit . <unk> aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft , the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together . There are up to 16 races per year , conducted at airfields in the UK , France and the Channel Islands , for prizes that include the Schneider Trophy and King 's Cup , and the season culminates with the British Air Racing and European Air Racing Championships . 
 <unk> competitions take place for both powered aircraft and gliders , with up to 30 events each year in the UK and Ireland . Starting at the <unk> level , pilots can move up to Standard ( powered aircraft ) or Sports ( glider ) levels , and then on to Intermediate , Advanced , and finally Unlimited classes . Each step up requires a wider repertoire of <unk> figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft . National championships are awarded annually at Standard / Sports , Intermediate , Advanced ( powered aircraft only ) , and Unlimited levels , and pilots who have reached Advanced and Unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the UK in international competition . 
 Parachute competitions are held at club , regional , national and international levels , and include the disciplines of accuracy landings , <unk> <unk> , formation <unk> , canopy formation , freestyle and <unk> , and <unk> . British teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships , and a British team took the 2006 world championship in women 's 4 @-@ way formation <unk> . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place , although more specific terminology can be used to <unk> its purpose . The CAA strategic review of GA applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations , and airfield to locations which predominantly support GA operations . The General Aviation Small Aerodrome Research Study ( GASAR ) analysed <unk> aerodromes in England which come under the scope of GA , classifying 374 into six types . These range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip , although 84 per cent of GA flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories . 
 
 = = = GASAR aerodrome classification = = = 
 
 The factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the GASAR study are based broadly on size and facilities . The six types of aerodrome are described , in size order , as : regional airports ( e.g. East Midlands ) ; major GA airports ( e.g. Oxford ) ; developed GA airfields ( e.g. <unk> ) ; basic GA airfields ( e.g. <unk> ) ; developed airstrips ( e.g. <unk> ) ; and basic airstrips ( e.g. <unk> in Hampshire ) . The actual criteria used to <unk> aerodromes were complex , using 28 different parameters , backed up with a peer review by experienced GA pilots . 
 Airports generally have long , fully lit , hard @-@ surfaced runways , full air traffic control , and navigation and landing aids . They are usually located on urban fringes , support commercial and business operations , and often exclude certain types of light aircraft . At the more <unk> located airfields , the lighter end of aviation , such as microlight and gliding activities , becomes increasingly prevalent , and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools . At this level runways are generally shorter , and grass surfaces are increasingly common . Navigation aids are increasingly scarce , being more basic where they are available , and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control . The smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose Ordnance Survey ( OS ) maps , and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance . The majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities , although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples . They do not feature on OS maps , and are owned by private clubs or , more commonly , individuals . 
 
 = = = Aerodrome licensing = = = 
 
 Most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the CAA . To be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the CAA that : the physical conditions at the aerodrome , and its environs , are acceptable ; the scale of equipment , and facilities provided , are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place ; an effective safety management system is in place ; and that staff are competent and , where necessary , suitably qualified . <unk> classified as developed GA airfields or larger by the GASAR study are , with few exceptions , licensed . Only two basic GA airfields , Silverstone and <unk> , are licensed , and all airstrips are unlicensed . The Light Aviation Airports Study Group , a joint CAA @-@ industry initiative , was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes . A particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes . The group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and European requirements . It also recommended that restrictions on flight training at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted , and this was permitted from April 2010 
 
 = = Scale of the sector = = 
 
 There are an estimated 27 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent of which are engaged in GA activities . In 2005 the GA fleet comprised 9 @,@ 000 fixed @-@ wing aircraft , 4 @,@ 100 microlights , 1 @,@ 300 helicopters , 1 @,@ 800 airships / balloons , 2 @,@ 500 gliders and some 7 @,@ 000 hang gliders . Estimates put the number of foreign @-@ registered GA aircraft based in the UK at 900 . 
 The number of pilots licensed by the CAA to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @,@ 000 , of whom 28 @,@ 000 held a Private Pilot Licence . The remainder held professional pilot licences , either a Commercial Pilot Licence or an <unk> Transport Pilot Licence , although not all of these would be engaged in GA activities . In addition , there are 10 @,@ 000 active glider pilots , and estimates put the membership of aviation @-@ related sport and recreational associations at 36 @,@ 000 . 
 The number of aerodromes that support GA in the UK is difficult to establish with certainty . <unk> 2008 United Kingdom Flight Guide lists 355 , and the <unk> Flight Equipment UK <unk> Flight Guide 2008 lists nearly 500 . <unk> Farm ' <unk> ' and Private <unk> Flight Guide lists more than 300 landing sites . The GASAR study estimates 1 @,@ 100 formal flying sites in England alone , a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides . It estimates another <unk> informal sites known only to land owners , customs , and members of the enthusiast group Air @-@ Britain . 
 The sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @,@ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy in 2005 , making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the CAT industry . Nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation . 
 
 = = Trends = = 
 
 Most sectors of GA for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades . The lighter end of the GA spectrum : microlights , amateur built , and airships and balloons , have in particular shown strong growth , although the last of these activities was severely curtailed during the foot @-@ and @-@ mouth outbreak in 2001 , when access to farmland was denied . After strong growth in the late 1980s , traditional flying has shown a slight decline recently , reflecting a move amongst recreational <unk> towards microlight aircraft , and increased numbers of foreign @-@ registered aircraft . Recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft . <unk> activity has remained relatively static , although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self @-@ launching motor gliders . 
 Business aviation has shown strong growth , although the numbers of aircraft on the UK register have declined . This reflects a shift away from turboprop aircraft towards foreign @-@ registered business jets based in the UK , which are estimated to be growing in numbers . However , twin piston @-@ engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly , reflecting pressures on the light air @-@ taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services , and a more sophisticated corporate charter business . The amount of flight training conducted by UK schools has declined , largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools , which benefit from lower costs and better weather . 
 Since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the GA sector has remained in the range 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 35 million , the dominant sector being traditional GA flying , which accounts for 0 @.@ 6 million per year . An overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average <unk> per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002 . The decline in asset <unk> has led to speculation that the economic health of the GA industry is weakening , though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm . 
 
 = = Regulation = = 
 
 The objective of regulation is to " promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation " , and this is the main area of interaction between the CAA and the GA sector . Efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness , pilot qualification , the rules for the movement of aircraft , and equipment to be carried . The CAA was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the UK in 1972 . In 1991 it started working within the Joint Aviation Authorities ( <unk> ) framework to implement agreed common standards , known as the Joint Aviation <unk> ( JAR ) , throughout the European Union ( EU ) . In 2003 this was taken a step further when the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) was established as the central EU regulator , taking over responsibility for <unk> airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities . The CAA acts as an agency of EASA on these issues , retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to EASA . Proposed developments seek to establish EASA as the single authority throughout the EU , taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of EASA . 
 
 = = = <unk> and self @-@ regulation = = = 
 
 Within this framework certain sectors of GA are governed on a devolved basis . In all cases the CAA / EASA retains responsibility for safety regulation , but representative bodies , particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of EASA , are granted greater oversight of their activities . The majority of microlight aircraft are regulated by the British Microlight Aircraft Association ( <unk> ) , although a significant number are regulated by the Light Aircraft Association ( LAA ) , formerly known as the Popular Flying Association . The LAA is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft , as well as vintage and classic aircraft . <unk> is governed by the British Parachute Association , although the aircraft used in this activity are generally CAA @-@ regulated . <unk> and airship flying is overseen by the British <unk> and <unk> Club . The UK @-@ specific National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) is administered by the National Pilots Licensing Group Ltd . , supported by the LAA , the Aircraft <unk> and Pilots Association UK , the British Gliding Association , and the British Microlight Aircraft Association . <unk> from these devolved groups , gliding in the UK is self @-@ regulated . The British Gliding Association was until recently responsible for glider airworthiness , now formally regulated as a result of EASA legislation , and still retains control of pilot certification . Hang gliding and <unk> activities ( i.e. foot @-@ launched gliders ) are governed by the British Hang Gliding and <unk> Association . 
 
 = = = Airworthiness = = = 
 
 Under CAA and EASA rules , all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of airworthiness to fly safely and legally . Aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a Certificate of Airworthiness . However , British @-@ registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of EASA , and which cannot satisfy the requirements for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness , may be issued with a <unk> to Fly . This allows them to fly in UK airspace subject to certain limitations , for example being restricted to day @-@ time flights under visual flight rules only . A number of organisations ( e.g. the British Microlight Aircraft Association and the Light Aircraft Association ) have obtained a standing over @-@ flight permission for <unk> to Fly aircraft within their area of interest with some European countries , notably France . <unk> are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft , amateur built aircraft , and microlights . 
 
 = = = Pilot licensing = = = 
 
 The pilot qualification most relevant to GA is the Private Pilot Licence ( PPL ) , which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without remuneration . In addition to the European @-@ wide Joint Aviation Regulations Flight Crew Licensing ( JAR @-@ <unk> ) standard , the CAA also issues UK @-@ specific national licences . In the absence of European standards for <unk> , balloon , and airship pilots , the CAA licenses these according to the original UK PPL standard . As a response to the perception that JAR pilot licensing standards are excessively bureaucratic and expensive for the purposes of recreational pilots , the National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) was introduced in 2002 . The NPPL is easier to obtain than the JAR @-@ <unk> licence , has less stringent medical requirements , is more restrictive in the privileges it grants , and is valid only for flights in British @-@ registered aircraft flying in UK and French airspace . Although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of EASA , the gliding sector is currently self @-@ regulating in this respect . The British Gliding Association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training , and <unk> , via a badge system , pilots who meet those standards . Pilots working in sectors of GA that are commercial operations , such as aerial work and business aviation , are required to hold a professional pilot licence which , at a minimum , is the Commercial Pilot Licence . 
 
 = = Safety = = 
 
 Between 1995 and 2004 there were 2 @,@ 630 accidents involving GA aircraft , of which 139 were fatal , resulting in the loss of 317 lives . The majority of accidents involved small fixed @-@ wing aircraft engaged in private flights , and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to : flight handling skills ; poor judgement or <unk> ; lack of training or experience ; and omission of , or inappropriate , action . 
 There were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007 , resulting in the loss of 48 lives . These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year , and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average , they are not exceptional . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The growth in Commercial Air Transport ( CAT ) has eroded the operational freedom of GA , both in the air and on the ground at larger airports . <unk> with access to larger airports is compounded by a decline in the number of aerodromes generally , and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system is designed to focus on local issues , and consideration of the national impact of GA operations is not within its remit . This makes aerodrome development difficult , often <unk> those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions in use . 
 
 = = = Airspace access = = = 
 
 Airspace is shared by CAT , military and GA users . It is divided into controlled airspace , in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller , and uncontrolled airspace , in which aircraft can operate autonomously . Although GA flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace , they operate mainly outside of it . 
 <unk> airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of CAT . A CAA review found that " mixing [ commercial ] operations with other users is considered undesirable , even <unk> " by commercial operators . However this position has resulted in extensive Class A controlled airspace with complex boundaries , including some running down to the ground , prohibiting <unk> access to airspace , resulting in high numbers of GA flights operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who could not get formal <unk> of an air traffic service . Coupled with pilot navigation errors , hundreds of airspace <unk> have been recorded every year . 
 <unk> in the number of CAT operations , and in the number of airports they operate from , has resulted in a corresponding increase in Class A controlled airspace . Between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally , and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above England and Wales , leading to a perception within the GA community of being squeezed out . There are particular problems for GA around large airports , where Class A controlled airspace extends to ground level . The concentration of commercial operations and high demand for GA in the South East of England have also resulted in extensive areas of Class A controlled airspace there , which serve to channel uncontrolled GA operations through high @-@ collision @-@ risk hot spots . 
 
 = = = Aerodrome access = = = 
 
 Regional airports , such as Edinburgh Airport , have experienced strong growth in CAT operations in recent years . These operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with GA , and although there is no evidence of deliberate discrimination , the effect has been to discourage or exclude it . GA aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges , including the imposition of handling fees in some cases . Some airports restrict or deny GA parking , and others limit or refuse certain GA activity . As a result , light GA aircraft are now rarely or never seen at large , busy international airports such as Heathrow , <unk> , Gatwick and Manchester . 
 In addition to this de facto loss of facilities , the number of aerodromes in the UK has been in decline over the last 50 years , as a result of increasing <unk> and the closure of airfields built during WWII . Alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with closure , for example North <unk> , or actually being closed , as happened to Ipswich <unk> and Bristol <unk> Airport . Referring to the importance of a " functioning national network of GA airfields " , especially where GA performs an air transport role , the CAA states that " there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue , especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be lost . " 
 
 = = = Planning system = = = 
 
 The planning system is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes . With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them , and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive , a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue . However , there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes , and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact . Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation , the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process , and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made . GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to Local Planning Authorities , and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission , or grant it with restrictive conditions . Little <unk> is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted , thereby inhibiting further development . Such restrictions , if poorly conceived , can make GA operations <unk> or even unsafe . 
 
 = = Criticism = = 
 
 Public opinion towards aviation generally is worsening , based on increasing environmental concerns relating to emissions and noise , and private flying has been criticised by <unk> to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity . In terms of environmental complaints and <unk> made to the CAA that relate specifically to GA , noise is " by far " the most common subject . Half of the 2 @,@ 000 noise complaints made annually to the CAA concern GA operations , most of which relate to aerobatics , helicopters using private sites , air balloon incidents , parachute dropping , and alleged low flying . 
 Planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that " in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports . " This is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in , including : repetitive circuit flying at low @-@ altitude near an aerodrome , during which aircraft are audible for long periods ; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider <unk> activities concentrated around the drop zone or aerodrome , also audible for long periods ; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aerobatics ; and piston @-@ engines on full power in areas of low background noise , leading to the perception that such noise is more <unk> . In an attempt to alleviate these problems , the majority of aerodromes implement noise abatement procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas , and more than 50 are required by the government to provide <unk> facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators . 
 
 
 = SMS Zrínyi = 
 
 SMS Zrínyi ( " His Majesty 's ship Zrínyi " ) was a Radetzky @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship ( <unk> ) of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( <unk> Kriegsmarine ) , named for the <unk> , a noble Croatian family . Zrínyi and her sisters , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and Radetzky , were the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . 
 During World War I , Zrínyi saw action in the Adriatic Sea . She served with the Second Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's battleships and shelled <unk> as part of the bombardment of the key seaport of Ancona , Italy , during May 1915 . However , Allied control of the Strait of Otranto meant that the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was , for all intents and purposes , effectively <unk> up in the Adriatic . Nonetheless , the presence of the Zrínyi and other battleships tied down a substantial force of Allied ships . 
 With the war going against the Austrians by the end of 1918 , Zrínyi was prepared to be transferred to the new State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . On 10 November 1918 — just one day before the end of the war , navy officers sailed the battleship out of Pola ( <unk> ) and eventually surrendered to a squadron of American submarine chasers . Following the handover to the United States Navy , she was briefly designated USS Zrínyi . In the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ <unk> , the transfer was not recognized ; instead , Zrínyi was given to Italy and broken up for scrap . 
 
 = = Design and construction = = 
 
 Zrínyi was built at the <unk> <unk> <unk> dockyard in <unk> , the same place where her sister ships were built earlier . She was laid down on 15 November 1908 and launched from the slipway on 12 April 1910 . The <unk> used on Zrínyi 's deck was the only material Austria @-@ Hungary had to purchase abroad to build the ship . The ship was completed by 15 July 1911 , and on 22 November 1911 she was commissioned into the fleet . She was the last ship of the class to be completed and had a crew of 880 to 890 officers and men . 
 Zrínyi was 138 @.@ 8 m ( <unk> ft 4 in ) long , and had a beam of 24 @.@ 6 m ( 80 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 508 long tons ( 14 @,@ <unk> t ) normally , and up to 15 @,@ <unk> long tons ( 16 @,@ <unk> t ) with a full combat load . She was powered by two @-@ shaft four @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower . The ship had a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Zrínyi was the first warship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to use fuel oil to supplement her 12 <unk> @-@ type coal @-@ fired boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . 
 The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts , four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) L / 44 and one 47 mm L / 33 quick @-@ firing guns . Furthermore , the ship 's boats were equipped with two 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) landing guns for operations shore . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , one on each broadside and one in the stern . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships were accompanied by the cruiser SMS Admiral <unk> and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans . 
 In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the <unk> Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought <unk> di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar <unk> , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at <unk> , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of <unk> and Ottomans . <unk> by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from <unk> , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force . 
 During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS <unk> <unk> , that made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron . 
 
 = = = World War I = = = 
 
 At that time of the assassination of <unk> Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsburg class . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships broke out of <unk> , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were then recalled before seeing action . 
 On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the <unk> , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , <unk> , was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries were also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at <unk> . Additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola . 
 The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the <unk> for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts . 
 Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the <unk> coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies . 
 
 = = = Post @-@ war fate = = = 
 
 After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the Austrians and the south <unk> and , in due course , <unk> the ships . The ship had been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Armistice , and had left Pola with her sister ship , Radetzky . They were soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships <unk> American flags and sailed south along the Adriatic coast to <unk> Bay near Spalato ( also known as <unk> ) . They appealed for American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She had apparently been turned over to the fledgling south <unk> state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan <unk> , who presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( <unk> ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant <unk> <unk> , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship remained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations that would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale that struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 . 
 On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS <unk> took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and <unk> , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 . 
 
 
 = Geopyxis carbonaria = 
 
 Geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family <unk> . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf <unk> cup , <unk> <unk> cup , or pixie cup . The small , <unk> @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They have a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies are commonly found on soil where brush has recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it is primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also forms biotrophic associations with the roots of Norway spruce . 
 
 = = Taxonomy = = 
 
 The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes <unk> von <unk> and Lewis David de <unk> as Peziza carbonaria . <unk> <unk> Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea <unk> transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . <unk> carbonaria , published by Heinrich <unk> in 1884 , is a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph <unk> proposed the variety Geopyxis carbonaria var. <unk> in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Peziza <unk> from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This taxon was synonymized with G. carbonaria by <unk> <unk> in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald <unk> about a decade later . 
 The specific epithet carbonaria derives from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf <unk> cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " <unk> <unk> cup " . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 The fruitbodies ( <unk> ) of Geopyxis <unk> are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have <unk> @-@ like spots ( <unk> ) . The stipe is small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expands abruptly into the cup . The brownish flesh of the fungus is thin and brittle . It does not have any distinctive taste , but has an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The edibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruitbodies are <unk> and unlikely to be harvested for eating . 
 
 = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = 
 
 In mass , the spores are whitish . The spores are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( <unk> ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external <unk> . The asci are 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses are slightly club @-@ shaped , <unk> , and have irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and are not forked or lobed . The <unk> , the layer of cells below the hymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells . 
 
 = = = Similar species = = = 
 
 The closely related <unk> elf cup ( Geopyxis <unk> ) has a pale orange to yellowish <unk> that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also has larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it grows on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . <unk> <unk> , which grows habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores that contain two oil droplets . Other genera with similar species with which G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . 
 
 = = Habitat and distribution = = 
 
 Geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The <unk> litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil <unk> as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The fungus prefers fruiting in <unk> with thin <unk> duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire stands as morels , although the former is usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the same area as G. carbonaria include those from the genera <unk> , <unk> , Peziza , and <unk> . 
 The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extends north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey . 
 
 = = Ecology = = 
 
 Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( <unk> <unk> ) . It had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic interaction with lodgepole pine ( Pinus <unk> ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria were able to infect the cortex of the tree <unk> , but did not penetrate the <unk> . These traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate <unk> , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed <unk> . Additionally , the fungus produces the enzyme <unk> <unk> , and can break down the complex organic <unk> lignin — features characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary <unk> net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria might be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the right conditions . <unk> and colleagues suggest that its below @-@ ground association with spruce roots protects it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive <unk> production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " . 
 Large <unk> of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in <unk> areas . <unk> was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruitbodies were sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by the millions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 . 
 
 
 = Gold dollar = 
 
 The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted . 
 A gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of <unk> caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins were being <unk> or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the American Civil War . 
 Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by <unk> . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , Congress ended the series . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton 's recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold . 
 In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , and were now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces were struck by August Bechtler , Christopher 's son . 
 Soon after the <unk> began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi <unk> became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . <unk> persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on the new design for the silver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht 's design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other . 
 <unk> was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the <unk> legislation that became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James <unk> McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and <unk> , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht 's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He told Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ <unk> , were unpopular and had not been struck for more than twenty years . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for the time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay 's committee recommended against it . 
 Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . There was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an annular gold dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , who replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold <unk> in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht 's successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle . 
 McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked by <unk> from the Whig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be <unk> and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half <unk> , the coins being similar in size . McKay did not respond <unk> , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph <unk> , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea had been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . Another Whig , Massachusetts 's Charles Hudson , related that Patterson had sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry <unk> , who assured the House that the counterfeiting allegations were greatly exaggerated . The point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar were wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where <unk> were not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. <unk> , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate , becoming law on March 3 , 1849 . 
 
 = = Preparation = = 
 
 The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief <unk> Franklin <unk> , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The <unk> in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. <unk> . 
 When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly <unk> ) planned to undermine the chief engraver 's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre <unk> Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . The Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the <unk> , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre , 
 The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and <unk> for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply to those who had questioned my ability for the work . The result , I believe , was satisfactory . 
 
 = = Original design = = 
 
 The Type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of Liberty , facing left , with a <unk> or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim . 
 Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design were generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the <unk> , <unk> , lightest , coin in this country ... it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and <unk> , and salt pork . Oberon might have paid Puck with it for bringing the blossom which bewitched <unk> . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated that " there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from out of state . <unk> dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers notes that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar is beautiful to <unk> " . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre 's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . There are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune the design . <unk> dies were sent by Longacre 's <unk> Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies were produced . Of the coins struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " <unk> Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the changes made during production was the inclusion of Longacre 's initial " L " on the truncation of Liberty 's neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production had borne the initial of its designer . All issues beginning in 1850 bear the <unk> Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new San Francisco Mint . 
 The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ <unk> worth of <unk> . As silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 were the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to circulate . 
 As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William <unk> alleged that that Patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. <unk> , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would be , to help fill the need for change . With the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit that there were complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and <unk> about reports the Mint had experimented with annular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none had been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while there would be technical difficulties in the production of the annular dollar , these could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen the production problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit 's replacement , James Ross <unk> , concerning the issue on June 7 . As U.S. coins were required to bear some device <unk> of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an annular coin . 
 The Act of February 21 , 1853 , that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre 's princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making the gold dollar larger in this way had been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and had been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie 's desire for an annular coin stalled the matter . In May 1854 , <unk> sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to <unk> properly from the press , were more than trivial . 
 Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became <unk> , and were sent back to Philadelphia for melting and <unk> . On most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date is not fully detailed . The Type 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the latter year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . To correct the problems , Longacre enlarged the head of Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the <unk> on the <unk> closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design <unk> so much that early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses are identical . 
 
 = = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = = 
 
 The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a <unk> feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image is an <unk> copy of the design Longacre had made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus <unk> or <unk> Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For the reverse , Longacre adapted the " agricultural wreath " he had created for the reverse of the three @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of North and South . This wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the Flying Eagle cent . 
 Art historian Cornelius <unk> <unk> the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the <unk> of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a <unk> engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western <unk> , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . " 
 
 = = War years = = 
 
 The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ <unk> at Dahlonega . Roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great <unk> from Dahlonega in the series . 
 The other candidate for the <unk> from that mint is the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies were shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles were produced . Records of how many coins were struck and when have not survived . Since dies crack in time , and all the mints were supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega were turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia had by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 were put aside for <unk> . Normally , they would have been sent to Philadelphia to await the following year 's meeting of the United States <unk> Commission , when they would be available for testing . Instead , these were sent to the initial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , are unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized . 
 Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 <unk> . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 . 
 The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver were acceptable currencies , and paper money traded at a discount . In the rest of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new <unk> the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war . 
 
 = = Final years , abolition , and collecting = = 
 
 Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — the mintage fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin 's existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The Mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would not be <unk> rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government were melted and <unk> , generating large mintages of that denomination . This was done in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , which did not occur until the end of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint . The government expected that the resumption of specie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins . 
 In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . <unk> coins was becoming more popular , and a number of <unk> put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 25 at the <unk> 's window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . They were popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . The coins were often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . The dollars were often damaged in the process ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded that <unk> were successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of <unk> , willing to pay the Mint 's premium of $ <unk> per coin . Another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present . 
 James <unk> , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to <unk> who specifically requested it . " The gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on account of its small size , and it suffers more <unk> from <unk> than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , with James P. Kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use has been found for this coin " . Later that year , the new director , Edward O. <unk> , issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of ornament . The last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the gold dollar , along with the three @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 . 
 A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ <unk> were struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The <unk> , gold dollars brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread <unk> in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . The 2014 edition of <unk> <unk> 's A Guide Book of United States Coins rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( <unk> @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types have dates valued at $ 300 in that grade . 
 
 = = <unk> gold dollars = = 
 
 The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These were minted for various public events , did not circulate , and none used Longacre 's design . 
 
 
 = Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction = 
 
 The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or <unk> ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and <unk> . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction involves addition of a sulfur ylide to a <unk> , aldehyde , <unk> , or <unk> to produce the corresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction is <unk> favoring trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial <unk> . The synthesis of epoxides via this method serves as an important <unk> alternative to the traditional <unk> reactions of <unk> . 
 The reaction is most often employed for <unk> via methylene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews have been published . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ <unk> <unk> with substituted <unk> derivatives . The attempted <unk> @-@ like reaction failed and a <unk> oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur <unk> and <unk> did not afford <unk> as had the phosphorus and arsenic <unk> . " 
 The subsequent development of ( <unk> ) methanide , ( <unk> ) <unk> and ( <unk> ) methanide , ( <unk> ) <unk> ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the <unk> or <unk> group . A negative charge is transferred to the <unk> and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring . In the related <unk> reaction , the formation of the much stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond prevents <unk> formation and instead , <unk> takes place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate . 
 The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing <unk> to the favored anti betaine over the <unk> betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of the central bond into the <unk> necessary for <unk> attack on the sulfonium . 
 The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity : 
 <unk> of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine . 
 <unk> of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility . 
 <unk> hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by <unk> formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond . 
 <unk> of charges in the betaine by <unk> such as lithium with greater <unk> allowing more <unk> rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis is diverse . The reaction has come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with <unk> well beyond the original publications . It has seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful <unk> tool in the organic repertoire . 
 
 = = = Types of ylides = = = 
 
 Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the <unk> carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium <unk> , e.g. <unk> iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general format for the reagent is shown on the right . 
 Use of a sulfoxonium allows more <unk> preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium contains a <unk> bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium does not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the <unk> by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and <unk> <unk> by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents . 
 The vast majority of reagents are <unk> at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or <unk> as hydrogen ) . <unk> reagents are much rarer but have been described : 
 If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( <unk> ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and are typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become <unk> sluggish : examples involving <unk> are widespread , with many fewer involving <unk> and virtually no examples involving other <unk> 's . For these , the related <unk> reaction is typically more appropriate . 
 If the ylide carbon is substituted with an <unk> or <unk> group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These have been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = <unk> = H ) . The substitution pattern on <unk> reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of the reaction as per the criteria above . 
 If the ylide carbon is substituted with an <unk> group the reagent is referred to as an <unk> ylide . The size of the <unk> groups are the major factors in selectivity with these reagents . 
 The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically <unk> , have been used to synthesize reagents that can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in <unk> substrates . 
 
 = = = Synthesis of epoxides = = = 
 
 Reactions of sulfur ylides with <unk> and <unk> to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides have been reported , as shown below . 
 The reaction has been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the <unk> <unk> total synthesis , which produces the <unk> drug <unk> , and the <unk> <unk> total synthesis which produces the <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = Synthesis of aziridines = = = 
 
 The synthesis of aziridines from <unk> is another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provides an alternative to amine transfer from <unk> . Though less widely applied , the reaction has a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the <unk> equivalent . The examples shown below are representative ; in the latter , an <unk> forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine . 
 
 = = = Synthesis of <unk> = = = 
 
 For addition of sulfur ylides to <unk> , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained with sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups have been shown compatible with the reaction including <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> ( the example below involves a <unk> <unk> ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition tends to predominate over 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition . 
 
 = = = Other reactions = = = 
 
 In addition to the reactions originally reported by Johnson , Corey , and Chaykovsky , sulfur ylides have been used for a number of related <unk> reactions that tend to be grouped under the same name . 
 With epoxides and aziridines the reaction serves as a ring @-@ expansion to produce the corresponding <unk> or <unk> . The long reaction times required for these reactions prevent them from occurring as significant side reactions when <unk> epoxides and aziridines . 
 Several <unk> wherein the ylide serves as a " nucleophilic carbenoid equivalent " have been reported . 
 Living <unk> using <unk> as the catalyst and ( <unk> ) methanide as the <unk> have been reported for the synthesis of various complex polymers . 
 
 = = <unk> variations = = 
 
 The development of an enantioselective ( i.e. yielding an enantiomeric excess , which is labelled as " ee " ) variant of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction remains an active area of academic research . The use of <unk> sulfides in a stoichiometric fashion has proved more successful than the corresponding catalytic variants , but the substrate scope is still limited in all cases . The catalytic variants have been developed almost exclusively for enantioselective purposes ; typical <unk> reagents are not <unk> expensive and the <unk> reactions can be carried out with <unk> amounts of ylide without raising costs significantly . <unk> sulfides , on the other hand , are more costly to prepare , spurring the advancement of catalytic enantioselective methods . 
 
 = = = <unk> reagents = = = 
 
 The most successful reagents employed in a stoichiometric fashion are shown below . The first is a <unk> <unk> that has been employed in the synthesis of the β @-@ <unk> compound <unk> ( <unk> ) but is limited by the availability of only one <unk> of the reagent . The synthesis of the axial <unk> is <unk> via the 1 @,@ 3 @-@ <unk> effect which reduces the <unk> of the equatorial lone pair . The conformation of the ylide is limited by <unk> strain and approach of the aldehyde is limited to one face of the ylide by <unk> interactions with the methyl <unk> . 
 The other major reagent is a camphor @-@ derived reagent developed by <unk> Aggarwal of the University of Bristol . Both <unk> are easily synthesized , although the yields are lower than for the <unk> reagent . The ylide conformation is determined by interaction with the bridgehead <unk> and approach of the aldehyde is blocked by the camphor <unk> . The reaction employs a <unk> base to promote formation of the ylide . 
 
 = = = <unk> reagents = = = 
 
 <unk> reagents have been less successful , with most variations suffering from poor yield , poor <unk> , or both . There are also issues with substrate scope , most having limitations with methylene transfer and <unk> <unk> . The trouble stems from the need for a nucleophilic sulfide that efficiently generates the ylide which can also act as a good leaving group to form the <unk> . Since the factors underlying these <unk> are at odds , tuning of the catalyst properties has proven difficult . <unk> below are several of the most successful <unk> along with the yields and enantiomeric excess for their use in synthesis of ( E ) <unk> oxide . 
 Aggarwal has developed an alternative method employing the same sulfide as above and a novel <unk> involving a <unk> carbenoid formed in situ . The method too has limited substrate scope , failing for any <unk> possessing basic <unk> due to competitive consumption of the carbenoid . 
 
 
 = Treaty of Ciudad Juárez = 
 
 The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was a peace treaty signed between the then President of Mexico , Porfirio Díaz , and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21 , 1911 . The treaty put an end to the fighting between forces supporting Madero and those of Díaz and thus concluded the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution . 
 The treaty stipulated that Díaz , as well as his vice president Ramón Corral , were to step down by the end of May , and that he was to be replaced by Francisco León de la Barra as interim president and hold presidential elections . Those who had suffered losses due to the revolution would be the <unk> , and there would be a general amnesty . Díaz resigned on May 25 , and interim president Francisco León de la Barra was the new incumbent . Díaz and his family , his vice president Corral , plus José Yves Limantour and <unk> <unk> left Mexico for exile . 
 <unk> , the treaty did not mention or institute any social reforms that Madero had vaguely promised on previous occasions . It also left the <unk> state essentially intact . Additionally , Madero supported the unpopular idea that all land disputes were to be settled through the courts , staffed by the old judges , a decision that led to outbreaks of sporadic violence , particularly in rural areas . 
 On June 7 , 1911 , Madero entered Mexico City . In October 1911 he was elected president , under the banner of the <unk> <unk> <unk> , along with José María <unk> <unk> , his new running mate as vice @-@ president . Madero pushed aside Francisco <unk> Gómez , the vice presidential candidate for the Anti @-@ <unk> Party in 1910 , as being too moderate . 
 
 = = Military developments leading up to the treaty = = 
 
 The rebellion against the government of Porfirio Díaz broke out in late 1910 , after Díaz had his rival Francisco Madero imprisoned and had announced his own victory in a falsified election . Madero 's earlier vague promises of agrarian reforms had attracted many supporters . He himself escaped from prison and fled to Texas , from where he issued his famous Plan of San Luis <unk> . This manifesto called for an armed uprising against the <unk> and establishment of free and democratic elections . As a response to Madero 's proclamation , violent clashes began throughout Mexico in November 1910 . 
 In the Guerrero district of Chihuahua , Pascual Orozco attacked Federal troops and sent dead soldiers ' clothing back to Díaz with the message , " <unk> <unk> van las <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( " Here are the <unk> , send me more <unk> . " ) He then began operations which threatened Ciudad Juárez . Additionally , political support for Madero 's rebellion came from Abraham González , who accepted the Plan of San Luis <unk> . 
 At roughly the same time , agrarian unrest in the state of Morelos turned into a full blown rebellion under the leadership of the Zapata brothers , <unk> and <unk> . 
 
 = = = Orozco and Villa take Ciudad Juárez = = = 
 
 Encouraged by the news of the uprisings , Madero crossed the border back into Mexico in February 1911 . He was joined by <unk> Villa and Orozco and in April the army began approaching Ciudad Juárez . Orozco and Villa led the way with 500 men each , while Madero followed up with 1 @,@ 500 riders . The city was besieged by the end of the month , after Madero 's army encountered some resistance in the <unk> countryside . Madero asked the commander of the city 's garrison to surrender but the latter refused , hoping that the fortifications he had constructed would allow him to defend the city until reinforcements arrived . Concerned also with the possibility that a direct attack on the town would cause artillery shells to cross the border into the United States which could provoke an outside intervention , and faced with a series of peace proposals from Díaz , Madero hesitated in attacking the city . He in fact ordered his commanders to lift the siege . Orozco , however <unk> the order and , joined by Villa , attacked . After two days of fighting the city fell to the insurrectionists . Madero intervened personally to spare the life of the city 's commander , Gen. Navarro , whom both Orozco and Villa wanted executed for his previous killing of rebel <unk> . This , coupled with the fact that both leaders were ignored by Madero in his political appointments , outraged and estranged them from him . 
 
 = = = Zapata in south and central Mexico = = = 
 
 At about the same time that Villa and Orozco were marching on Ciudad Juárez , the <unk> revolt gathered strength and spread to the states of Puebla , <unk> , Mexico , Michoacán and Guerrero . On April 14 , Madero had <unk> Zapata officially designated as his representative in the region . However , Zapata was worried that if he did not fully control all the major towns in Morelos by the time that Madero concluded negotiations with Díaz , the demands of his agrarian movement and the issue of the autonomy of Morelos would be ignored or sidelined . Zapata 's first military action was to take the town of <unk> where he obtained essential supplies . Subsequently Zapata , for political and strategic reasons , decided to attack the city of Cuautla . In order to mislead his opponents however , he initially attacked and captured the towns of <unk> de <unk> ( which was subsequently <unk> by federal forces ) and <unk> . From there he made a wide circle around Cuautla and captured <unk> and <unk> where he gathered more supplies , munitions and soldiers . By May , out of all the major urban centers in the region , only Cuautla and the capital of Morelos , <unk> , remained outside of his control . 
 Zapata began the attack on Cuautla on May 13 with 4000 troops against 400 elite soldiers of the so @-@ called " Golden Fifth " ; the Fifth Cavalry Regiment of the Federal Army . The battle took almost a week and has been described as " six of the most terrible days of battle in the whole Revolution " . It consisted of house to house fighting , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and no quarter given by either side . General <unk> Huerta arrived in nearby <unk> with 600 reinforcements , but decided not to come to the relief of Cuautla as he was afraid that the capital would revolt in his absence . On May 19 , the remains of the " Golden Fifth " pulled out of the town which was then occupied by Zapata 's soldiers . 
 The successful capture of Cuautla made Zapata a hero to ordinary people throughout Mexico and new <unk> were written about him . After Zapata 's taking of Cuautla , the federal government controlled only five states and some urban areas . Porfirio Díaz himself later stated that , while he felt that he could defend against Villa and Orozco in Chihuahua , the fall of Cuautla was the event which persuaded him to agree to peace with Madero . 
 
 = = The compromise = = 
 
 As early as March 1911 , Madero 's representatives met in New York with Díaz 's finance minister , José Yves Limantour , and the Mexican ambassador to the US in order to discuss the possibility of peace between the two sides . Limantour proposed an end to the hostilities and offered an amnesty for all revolutionaries , the resignation of the then vice president Ramón Corral , the replacement of four Díaz cabinet ministers and ten state governors by ones chosen by Madero , and the establishment of the principle of " no @-@ reelection " which would prevent Díaz from seeking yet another term as president ( which would have been his ninth ) . Madero responded positively although he also stated that any kind of peace deal had to include an immediate resignation by Díaz . 
 Faced with the siege of Ciudad Juárez and the outbreak of rebellion in Morelos , Díaz and members of his cabinet became more willing to negotiate and launched a " <unk> peace offensive " aimed at Madero . This was largely a result of panic among the large landowners associated with the Díaz regime ( the <unk> ) and the financial elite , which represented a " moderate " wing within the government . Some among the <unk> in fact , expected that Zapata would soon march on Mexico City itself , unless peace was concluded with Madero . 
 The moderate view within the Díaz government was represented by Jorge <unk> Estañol who in a <unk> to the minister of foreign affairs wrote that there were two <unk> taking place in Mexico : a political revolution , based mostly in the north , whose aim was mostly to establish free elections and remove Díaz himself from power , and a social revolution whose aim was " anarchy " which was spreading throughout the Mexican countryside . Estañol recommended coming to terms with the first group of revolutionaries , by agreeing to the principle of no re @-@ election and a general amnesty , in order to prevent the second group from succeeding . In addition to his fear of " anarchy " , Estañol was also worried that the social revolution would lead to a military intervention by the United States . 
 Estañol 's views represented those of the portion of the upper class which was willing to come to terms with at least a portion of the middle class in order to crush the peasant uprisings , as exemplified by those of Zapata , which were <unk> throughout Mexico . Limantour , who broadly agreed with Estañol , had the support of the Mexican <unk> , who feared the <unk> of Mexican international credit and a general economic crisis as a result of ongoing social unrest , as well as that of the large landowners who were willing to come to terms with Madero if it would put an end to the agrarian uprisings . 
 These social group were in turn opposed by the more reactionary elements within Díaz 's government , mostly concentrated in the federal army , who though that the rebels should be dealt with through brute force . This faction was represented by General <unk> Huerta , who would later carry out an attempted coup d 'état against Madero . Likewise , the general , and potential successor to Díaz , Bernardo Reyes stated in a letter to Limantour that " the repression ( against the insurrectionists ) should be carried out with the <unk> energy , punishing without any pity anyone participating in the armed struggle " . In the end however , Díaz dismissed the advice from his generals as " <unk> @-@ like <unk> " and chose to seek peace with the moderate wing of the revolution . Limantour had finally managed to persuade him to resign . 
 At the same time there was also disagreement among the rebels . The " left wing " of the revolutionary movement , represented by Zapata and Orozco ( Villa for the time being tended to support Madero ) , warned against any possible compromises with Díaz . In the end their suspicions proved correct as the treaty that was eventually signed neglected issues of social and agrarian land reform that were central to their struggle . 
 
 = = The treaty 's terms = = 
 
 The most significant point of the treaty was that Porfirio Díaz , and his vice president , Ramón Corral , resign and that de la Barra , acting as interim president organize free elections as soon as possible . 
 Additionally , the treaty stipulated that : 
 An amnesty for all revolutionaries be declared , with the option for some of them to apply for membership in the <unk> . 
 The revolutionary forces were to be <unk> as soon as possible and the federal forces were to be the only army in Mexico . This was in order to appease the army , which had opposed a compromise with Madero . 
 Madero and his supporters had the right to name fourteen provisional state governors , and to approve la Barra 's cabinet . 
 <unk> were to be established for relatives of the soldiers who had died fighting the rebels . 
 <unk> and judges , as well as state legislators , that had been appointed or " elected " under Díaz were to retain their offices . 
 
 = = <unk> and results = = 
 
 The treaty was signed on May 21 . Díaz resigned accordingly on May 25 . Francisco de la Barra became the interim president . Madero entered Mexico City on June 7 . 
 Zapata however refused to recognize the interim government of de la Barra , and for the time being the fighting in Morelos continued . Madero met with Zapata on several occasions during June . While initially Zapata trusted Madero , with time he became increasingly concerned that the goals of " his revolution " were not being fulfilled . He was particularly angry that Madero did not plan on carrying out any kind of agrarian reform , or the breakup of large <unk> . Additionally , the press in Mexico City , controlled by the landowners began referring to Zapata as a bandit and federal generals , such as Huerta , continued attacking his troops under the pretext that Zapata failed to <unk> in violation of the treaty . <unk> fighting in southern Mexico continued . In November 1911 , shortly after Madero 's inauguration , Zapata issued the famous Plan of <unk> , in which the <unk> denounced Madero and instead recognized Pascual Orozco as the rightful president and leader of the revolution . 
 Madero also earned the great <unk> of other revolutionaries , including , Pascual Orozco . Madero 's first act after the treaty was signed was a gesture of reconciliation with the Díaz regime . As a result of the treaty he was given the right to appoint members of the la Barra cabinet . He chose mostly upper class <unk> , including his wife for the post in the treasury . He also maintained the existing federal system , by keeping the sitting judges of the Supreme Court , the legislators in federal and state assemblies and the <unk> of the various federal agencies . <unk> <unk> , who was going to become a major revolutionary in his own right and a future president of Mexico , stated that , after the treaty , Madero had " deliver ( ed ) to the <unk> a dead revolution which will have to be fought over again " . Díaz , after leaving for exile in France , observed that " Madero has unleashed a tiger , let us see if he can control him " . 
 Orozco , who saw himself as being instrumental in Madero 's victory over Díaz , was merely appointed as a commander of the <unk> in Chihuahua , which increased his resentment . When he tried to run for governor of the state , Madero supported his opponent , Abraham González and eventually pressured Orozco to drop out of the race . When , in the aftermath of the Plan of <unk> , Madero ordered Orozco to lead federal troops to suppress Zapata , Orozco refused . In March 1912 , Orozco issued his Plan of <unk> and formally declared himself in rebellion against Madero . 
 
 
 = The Feast of the Goat = 
 
 The Feast of the Goat ( Spanish : La fiesta del chivo , 2000 ) is a novel by the Peruvian Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa . The book is set in the Dominican Republic and portrays the assassination of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo , and its aftermath , from two distinct standpoints a generation apart : during and immediately after the assassination itself , in May 1961 ; and thirty five years later , in 1996 . Throughout , there is also extensive reflection on the <unk> of the dictatorship , in the 1950s , and its significance for the island and its inhabitants . 
 The novel follows three interwoven storylines . The first concerns a woman , Urania Cabral , who is back in the Dominican Republic , after a long absence , to visit her ailing father ; she ends up recalling incidents from her youth and recounting a long @-@ held secret to her aunt and cousins . The second story line focuses on the last day in Trujillo 's life from the moment he wakes up onwards , and shows us the regime 's inner circle , to which Urania 's father once belonged . The third <unk> depicts Trujillo 's assassins , many of whom had previously been government loyalists , as they wait for his car late that night ; after the assassination , this story line shows us the assassins ' persecution . Each aspect of the book 's plot reveals a different viewpoint on the Dominican Republic 's political and social environment , past and present . 
 <unk> are shown the regime 's downward spiral , Trujillo 's assassination , and its aftermath through the eyes of <unk> , conspirators , and a middle @-@ aged woman looking back . The novel is therefore a <unk> portrait of dictatorial power , including its psychological effects , and its long @-@ term impact . The novel 's themes include the nature of power and corruption , and their relationship to machismo and sexual perversion in a <unk> hierarchical society with strongly gendered roles . Memory , and the process of remembering , is also an important theme , especially in Urania 's narrative as she recalls her youth in the Dominican Republic . Her story ( and the book as a whole ) ends when she recounts the terrible events that led to her leaving the country at the age of 14 . The book itself serves as a reminder of the atrocities of dictatorship , to ensure that the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation . 
 Vargas Llosa <unk> fictional elements and historical events : the book is not a documentary , and the Cabral family , for instance , is completely fictional . On the other hand , the characters of Trujillo and Trujillo 's assassins are drawn from the historical record ; Vargas Llosa <unk> real historical incidents of brutality and oppression into these people 's stories , to further illuminate the nature of the regime and the responses it provoked . In Vargas Llosa 's words , " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . [ . . . ] I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . " 
 The Feast of the Goat received largely positive reviews , with several reviewers commenting on the book 's depiction of the relationship between sexuality and power , and on the graphic descriptions of violent events . 
 A film version of the novel was released in 2005 , starring Isabella <unk> , Paul Freeman , and Tomas <unk> . Jorge <unk> Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana wrote a theatrical adaptation in 2003 . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 The Feast of the Goat is only the second of Vargas Llosa 's novels to be set outside Peru ( the first being The War of the End of the World ) . It is also unusual because it is the first to have a female protagonist : as critic Lynn <unk> writes of the leading character in The Feast of the Goat , and also Vargas Llosa 's subsequent book The Way to Paradise , " both are utterly unlike any of the other female characters in his previous novels " . 
 The novel examines the dictatorial regime of Rafael <unk> Trujillo Molina in the Dominican Republic . Trujillo was , in historian Eric <unk> 's words , " a towering influence in Dominican and Caribbean history " who presided over " one of the most durable regimes of the twentieth century " during the thirty @-@ one years between his seizure of power in 1930 and his assassination in 1961 . Trujillo had trained with the United States Marine Corps during the United States occupation of the island , and graduated from the <unk> Military Academy in 1921 . After the U.S. departed in 1924 , he became head of the Dominican National Police which , under his command , was transformed into the Dominican National Army and Trujillo 's personal " virtually autonomous power base " . 
 Trujillo was officially dictator only from 1930 to 1938 , and from 1942 to 1952 , but remained in effective power throughout the entire period . Though his regime was broadly nationalist , Daniel <unk> comments that he had " no particular ideology " and that his economic and social policies were basically progressive . 
 The novel 's title is taken from the popular Dominican merengue <unk> al chivo ( " They <unk> the Goat " ) , which refers to Trujillo 's assassination on May 30 , 1961 . <unk> is a style of music created by <unk> <unk> in the 1920s and actively promoted by Trujillo himself ; it is now considered the country 's national music . Cultural critics Julie Sellers and Stephen <unk> comment about this particular merengue that , by <unk> the dictator as an animal who could be turned into a <unk> ( as frequently happened with goats struck down on the Dominican Republic 's highways ) , the song " gave those performing , listening to and dancing to this merengue a sense of control over him and over themselves that they had not experienced for over three decades . " Vargas Llosa quotes the lyrics to <unk> al chivo at the beginning of the novel . 
 
 = = Plot summary = = 
 
 The novel 's narrative is divided into three distinct strands . One is centred on Urania Cabral , a fictional Dominican character ; another deals with the conspirators involved in Trujillo 's assassination ; and the third focuses on Trujillo himself . The novel alternates between these storylines , and also jumps back and forth from 1961 to 1996 , with frequent flashbacks to periods earlier in Trujillo 's regime . 
 The Feast of the Goat begins with the return of Urania to her hometown of Santo Domingo , a city which had been renamed Ciudad Trujillo during Trujillo 's time in power . This storyline is largely introspective and deals with Urania 's memories and her inner turmoil over the events preceding her departure from the Dominican Republic thirty @-@ five years earlier . Urania escaped the crumbling Trujillo regime in 1961 by claiming she planned to study under the tutelage of nuns in Michigan . In the following decades , she becomes a prominent and successful New York lawyer . She finally returns to the Dominican Republic in 1996 , on a whim , and finds herself compelled to confront her father and elements of her past she has long ignored . As Urania speaks to her ailing father , Agustin Cabral , she recalls more and more of the anger and disgust that led to her thirty @-@ five years of silence . Urania retells her father 's descent into political disgrace , and the betrayal that forms the <unk> of both Urania 's storyline and that of Trujillo himself . 
 The second and third storylines are set in 1961 , in the weeks prior to and following Trujillo 's assassination on 30 May . Each assassin has his own background story , explaining his motivation for his involvement in the assassination plot . Each has been <unk> by Trujillo and his regime , by torture and brutality , or through assaults on their pride , their religious faith , their morality , or their loved ones . Vargas Llosa <unk> the tale of the men as memories recalled on the night of Trujillo 's death , as the conspirators lie in wait for " The Goat " . <unk> with these stories are the actions of other famous <unk> of the time : Joaquín Balaguer , the puppet president ; Johnny Abbes García , the merciless head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) ; and various others — some real , some <unk> of historical figures , and some purely fictional . 
 The third storyline is concerned with the thoughts and motives of Rafael <unk> Trujillo Molina himself . The chapters concerning The Goat recall the major events of his time , including the slaughter of thousands of Dominican Haitians in 1937 . They also deal with the Dominican Republic 's tense international relationships during the Cold War , especially with the United States under the presidency of John F. Kennedy , and Cuba under Castro . Vargas Llosa also speculates upon Trujillo 's innermost thoughts and paints a picture of a man whose physical body is failing him . Trujillo is tormented by <unk> and impotence ; and this storyline intersects with Urania 's narrative when it is revealed that Urania was sexually assaulted by Trujillo . He is unable to achieve an erection with Urania , and in frustration and anger he rapes her with his hands . This event is the core of Urania 's shame , and her hatred towards her father . In addition , it is the cause of Trujillo 's repeated anger over the " <unk> little <unk> " that witnessed his impotence and emotion , and the reason he is en route to sleep with another girl on the night of his assassination . 
 In the novel 's final chapters , the three storylines intersect with increasing frequency . The tone of these chapters is especially dark as they deal primarily with the horrific torture and death of the assassins at the hands of the SIM , the failure of the coup , the rape of Urania , and the concessions made to Trujillo 's most vicious supporters allowing them to enact their horrific revenge on the conspirators and then escape the country . The book ends as Urania prepares to return home , determined this time to keep in touch with her family back on the island . 
 
 = = Characters = = 
 
 
 = = = Modern day = = = 
 
 Urania Cabral and her father Agustín Cabral appear in both the modern day and historical portions of the novel . In the year 1996 , Urania returns to the Dominican Republic for the first time since her departure at the age of 14 . She is a successful New York lawyer who has spent most of the past 35 years trying to overcome the <unk> of her childhood , a goal she pursues through an academic fascination with Trujillo and Dominican history . Urania is deeply troubled by the events of her past , and is compelled to confront her father Agustín about his role in those events . Urania visits her father , finding him weakened by age and a severe stroke , so much so that he is barely able to respond physically to her presence , let alone speak . Agustín listens <unk> as Urania recounts his past as " <unk> Cabral " , a high @-@ ranking member of Trujillo 's inner circle , and his drastic fall from grace . Urania details Agustín 's role in the events that led to her rape by the Dominican leader , and to her subsequent lifetime of celibacy and emotional trauma . Agustín 's character in the modern day portion of the novel serves primarily as a sounding board for Urania 's <unk> of the Trujillo era and the events that surrounded both Agustín Cabral 's disgrace and Urania 's escape from the country . His responses are minimal and non @-@ vocal , despite the <unk> of Urania 's accusations and the <unk> of his own actions during Trujillo 's reign . 
 
 = = = The Trujillo regime = = = 
 
 Rafael Trujillo , known also as The Goat , The Chief , and The <unk> , is a fictionalized character based on the real dictator of the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 and the official President of the Republic from 1930 to 1938 and 1943 to 1952 . In The Feast of the Goat , Vargas Llosa imagines the innermost thoughts of the dictator , and retells The Goat 's last hours from his own perspective . Trujillo 's character struggles with aging and the physical problems of <unk> and impotence . Through fictional events and first person narrative , the reader is given insight into the man who , during his " thirty @-@ one years of <unk> political crimes " , modernized the country 's infrastructure and military , but whose regime 's attacks against its enemies overseas ( particularly the attempted assassination of <unk> <unk> , president of Venezuela ) led to the imposition of economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic by the Organization of American States in the 1950s . The resultant economic downturn , in conjunction with other factors , leads to the CIA supported assassination plot that ends Trujillo 's life on May 30 , 1961 . 
 Trujillo 's regime is supported by Johnny Abbes García , the head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) , a brutal man to whom many " <unk> , ... executions , ... sudden falls into disgrace " are attributed . Abbes and his intelligence officers are notorious for their cruelty , particularly their habit of killing dissidents by throwing them into shark @-@ infested waters . Colonel Abbes " may be the devil , but he 's useful to the Chief ; everything bad is attributed to him and only the good to Trujillo " . Trujillo 's son , Ramfis Trujillo , is a loyal supporter of the Chief . After unsuccessful attempts at schooling in the United States , Ramfis returns to the Dominican Republic to serve in his father 's military . He is a well @-@ known <unk> . Upon Trujillo 's death , Ramfis seeks revenge , even going so far as to torture and kill his uncle by marriage , General Jose Roman , for his part in the assassination conspiracy . 
 Joaquín Balaguer , Trujillo 's puppet president is also a supporter , and initially his seemingly <unk> character holds no real power . Following Trujillo 's death , the calm and <unk> of Balaguer bring about real change in his character , and General <unk> comments that " this insignificant man whom everyone had always considered a mere clerk , a purely decorative figure in the regime , began to acquire surprising authority " . It is Balaguer who guides much of the action in the last sections of the book . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The storyline concerning the assassination primarily follows the four conspirators who directly participate in Trujillo 's death . Antonio Imbert <unk> is one of the few conspirators who survives the violent <unk> that follow Trujillo 's assassination . Imbert is a politician who becomes disillusioned with the deception and cruelty of the Trujillo regime . His first plan to kill Trujillo was <unk> by the unsuccessful attempted overthrow of the regime by Cuban paramilitary forces . Now convinced of the difficulty of his task , Imbert joins the other conspirators in plotting Trujillo 's death . Among the others is Antonio de la Maza , one of Trujillo 's personal guards . Antonio 's brother is killed as part of a government cover @-@ up and Antonio swears revenge upon Trujillo . Salvador <unk> <unk> , known as " Turk " , is a devout Catholic who , in <unk> at the regime 's many crimes against God , swears an oath against Trujillo . Turk eventually turns himself in for fear that the regime was <unk> his family . Both Turk and his innocent brother are then tortured for months . His father remains loyal to Trujillo and <unk> Turk to his face . Despite all of this , Turk refuses to commit suicide and does not lose faith in God . He is later executed by Ramfis and other high level government men . Turk 's close friend , <unk> García Guerrero , known as Amadito , is a Lieutenant in the army who gave up his beloved as proof of his loyalty to Trujillo , and then later was forced to kill her brother to prove himself to Trujillo . Amadito 's disgust with himself and disillusionment with the regime lead to his decision to help to kill Trujillo . Following the assassination he hides out with de la Maza and dies fighting . In the aftermath of the assassination , Amadito and Antonio de la Maza choose to fight the members of SIM who come to arrest them , <unk> to die in battle rather than be captured and tortured . 
 
 = = Major themes = = 
 
 The Feast of the Goat 's major themes include political corruption , machismo , memory , and writing and power . Olga Lorenzo , reviewer for The Melbourne Age , suggests that overall Vargas Llosa 's aim is to reveal the irrational forces of Latin tradition that give rise to <unk> . 
 
 = = = Political corruption = = = 
 
 The structure of Dominican society was hierarchical , with strongly gendered roles . Rafael Trujillo , the ruler , was a cruel dictator who haunts the people of Santo Domingo even 35 years after his death . He is a true <unk> , ruling with brutality and corruption . He creates a personality cult in his capitalist society and encourages <unk> within his regime . Prior to promotion to a position of responsibility , an officer is required to pass a " test of loyalty " . His people are to remain loyal to him all cost , and are periodically tested by public humiliation and <unk> even though acts of <unk> were rare . Trujillo <unk> women and children as an expression of political and sexual power , and in some cases takes the wife or child of his lieutenants , many of whom still remain <unk> loyal . Even the church and military institutions are employed to give women to the <unk> for pleasure . 
 Many of the assassins had belonged to the Trujillo regime or had at one point been its staunch supporters , only to find their support for him eroded by the state 's crimes against its people . Imbert , one of the assassins , sums up this realization in a comment prompted by the murder of the Mirabal sisters : " They kill our fathers , our brothers , our friends . And now they 're killing our women . And here we sit , resigned , waiting our turn . " In an interview , Vargas Llosa describes the corruption and brutality of Trujillo 's regime : " He had more or less all the common traits of a Latin American dictator , but pushed to the extreme . In cruelty , I think he went far far away from the rest — and in corruption , too . " 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 According to literary scholar Peter Anthony <unk> , the two important components of machismo are aggressive behaviour and hyper @-@ sexuality . <unk> behaviour is exhibited by displays of power and strength , while hyper @-@ sexuality is revealed through sexual activity with as many partners as possible . These two components shape the portrayal of Trujillo and his regime in The Feast of the Goat . As Lorenzo observes , Vargas Llosa " reveals traditions of machismo , of abusive fathers , and of child @-@ rearing practices that repeat the <unk> of children , so that each generation <unk> a withering of the soul to the subsequent one . " 
 In a display of both aspects of machismo , Trujillo demanded of his aides and cabinet that they provide him with sexual access to their wives and daughters . Mario Vargas Llosa wrote of Trujillo 's machismo and treatment of women , " [ h ] e went to bed with his ministers ' wives , not only because he liked these ladies but because it was a way to test his ministers . He wanted to know if they were ready to accept this extreme humiliation . <unk> the ministers were prepared to play this grotesque role — and they remained loyal to Trujillo even after his death . " Trujillo 's sexual conquests and public <unk> of his enemies also serve to affirm his political power and machismo . In <unk> 's words , " The implication is that maximum <unk> equals political dominance . " 
 Trujillo 's attempted sexual conquest of Urania is an example of both political manipulation of Agustín Cabral and sexual power over young women . However , as Trujillo 's penis remains flaccid throughout the encounter and he is humiliated in front of the young girl , the encounter fails to satisfy his requirements for machismo . 
 
 = = = Memory = = = 
 
 All of the novel 's storylines concern memory in some sense or another . The most apparent confrontation of memory is on the part of Urania Cabral , who has returned to the Dominican Republic for the first time in 30 years , and is forced to confront her father and the <unk> that led her to leave the country at 14 . She was the victim of sexual abuse at the hands of the dictator himself , a sacrifice her father made to try to gain favor with the dictator again , a fact to which she alludes throughout the book , but which is only revealed at the very end : the book concludes with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins , who never knew the true reason she left the country . When her aunt is surprised that she remembers all these details , she responds that while she <unk> many things , " I remember everything about that night . " For Urania , forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable . Her father , on the other hand , is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering , since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking ; however , Urania is angry that he chose to forget these things while he was still capable of acknowledging them . 
 Memory is also important in the sections of the novel that deal with the assassins . Each recalls the events that led him to take part in the assassination of Trujillo . These incidents included the 1956 <unk> kidnapping and murder , the 1960 murder of the Mirabal sisters , and the 1961 split with the Catholic Church . These historical events are used by Vargas Llosa to connect the assassins with specific moments that demonstrate the violence of Trujillo 's regime . Trujillo , too , is shown reflecting on the past , not least his own formation and training at the hands of the US Marines . 
 But above all Mario Vargas Llosa uses the fictional Urania to facilitate the novel 's attempt at remembering the regime . The novel opens and closes with Urania 's story , effectively framing the narrative in the terms of remembering the past and understanding its legacy in the present . In addition , because of her academic study of the history of the Trujillo regime , Urania is also <unk> the memory of the regime for the country as a whole . This is in keeping with one purpose of the book , which is to ensure that the atrocities of the dictatorship and the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation . 
 
 = = = Writing and power = = = 
 
 In her treatment of the novel , María Regina Ruiz claims that power gives its <unk> the ability to make prohibitions ; prohibitions that are reflected in history , the study of which reveals what is and what is not told . The government 's actions in The Feast of the Goat demonstrate the discourse of prohibition : foreign newspapers and magazines were prohibited from entering Trujillo 's country as they were seen as a threat to the government 's ideas . Mario Vargas Llosa takes part in this discourse by recounting what was prohibited . 
 Ruiz notes that writing also has the power to transform reality . It brings the reader back to the past , allowing the reader to comprehend myths or distorted stories told by historians . Ruiz contends that knowing the past is crucial to one 's understanding of the present that takes us to <unk> , and argues that The Feast of the Goat can thus be seen as a <unk> discourse that gives power to history recreation . 
 The construction of <unk> surrounding the events of Trujillo 's regime allow a degree of freedom from the <unk> that took places . Author Julia Alvarez contends that these events can " only finally be understood by fiction , only finally be <unk> by the imagination " , while Richard Patterson claims that Vargas Llosa " <unk> , and to a large degree <unk> " Trujillo and his brutal reign through use of narrative structure . Vargas Llosa 's writing acts as a <unk> force for this period in history . 
 
 = = <unk> and fiction = = 
 
 The novel is a combination of fact and fiction . <unk> together these two elements is important in any historical novel , but especially in The Feast of the Goat because Vargas Llosa chose to narrate an actual event through the minds of both real and fictional characters . Some characters are fictional , and those that are non @-@ fictional still have fictionalized aspects in the book . The general details of the assassination are true , and the assassins are all real people . While they lie in wait for the Dictator to arrive , they <unk> actual crimes of the regime , such as the murder of the Mirabal sisters . However , other details are invented by Vargas Llosa , such as Amadito 's murder of the brother of the woman he loved . 
 Those within the regime are also a mix of fictional characters and real people . President Balaguer is real , but the entire Cabral family is completely fictional . According to <unk> , Vargas Llosa " uses history as a starting point in constructing a fictionalized account of Trujillo 's " spiritual colonization " of the Dominican Republic as experienced by one Dominican family . The fictional Cabral family allows Vargas Llosa to show two sides of the Trujillo regime : through Agustin , the reader sees ultimate dedication and sacrifice to the leader of the nation ; through Urania , the violence of the regime and the legacy of pain it left behind . Vargas Llosa also fictionalized the internal thoughts of the characters who were non @-@ fictional , especially those of the Goat himself . According to literary scholar Richard Patterson , " Vargas Llosa 's expands all the way into the very " dark area " of Trujillo 's consciousness ( as the storyteller <unk> to conceive it ) . " 
 Vargas Llosa also built an image of the regime with the troubled historical events . With regard to the historical accuracy of the book , Vargas Llosa has said " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . The only limitation I imposed on myself was that I was not going to <unk> anything that couldn 't have happened within the framework of life in the Dominican Republic . I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . " 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 The realist style of The Feast of the Goat is recognized by some reviewers as being a break from a more allegorical approach to the dictator novel . The novel received largely positive reviews , most of which were willing to accept sacrifices of historical accuracy in favour of good storytelling . 
 A common comment on the novel is the graphic nature of the many acts of torture and murder which are depicted in the novel . Vargas lets the reader see the <unk> of an oppressive regime with a degree of detail not often used by his <unk> in Latin American literature , as Michael Wood suggests in the London Review of Books : " Vargas Llosa ... tells us far more about the details of day @-@ to @-@ day intrigue , and the <unk> , sadistic <unk> of torture and murder . " Walter Kirn of the New York Times suggests that the " <unk> scenes of dungeon <unk> and torture sessions " cast other aspects of the novel in a pale light , draining them of their significance and impact . Similarly , Kirn implies that the " narrative machinery " mentioned by Wood as being somewhat unwieldy also produces a largely superfluous storyline . The plot line centered on Urania Cabral is described by <unk> as being an emotional centre that focuses the novel , and Wood agrees that her confrontations with past demons hold the readers attention . In contrast , Kirn 's review states that Urania 's segments are " <unk> and atmospheric ... [ and ] seem to be on loan from another sort of book . " 
 Most reviews of The Feast of the Goat make either indirect of direct reference to the relationship between sexuality and power . Salon reviewer Laura Miller , writer for The Observer Jonathan <unk> , Walter Kirn , and Michael Wood each detail the connection between Trujillo 's gradual loss of ultimate control , both over his body and his followers . The means by which Trujillo reinforces political power through sexual acts and begins to lose personal conviction as his body fails him are topics of frequent discussion among reviewers . 
 In 2011 Bernard <unk> , author of the 1978 non @-@ fiction book Trujillo . The Death of the Goat , accused Vargas @-@ Llosa of plagiarism . 
 
 = = Adaptations = = 
 
 An English @-@ language film adaptation of the novel was made in 2005 , directed by Luis Llosa , Mario Vargas Llosa 's cousin . It stars Isabella <unk> as Urania Cabral , Paul Freeman as her father Agustin , Stephanie <unk> as <unk> and Tomas <unk> as Rafael <unk> Trujillo . It was filmed in both the Dominican Republic and in Spain . Reviewing the film for the trade paper Variety , critic Jonathan Holland called it " less a feast than a somewhat rushed , but thoroughly enjoyable , three @-@ course meal " , commenting that the main difference from the source novel was the sacrifice of psychological nuance . 
 The novel has also been adapted for the stage , by Jorge <unk> Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana , directed by Jorge Triana : the play was put on ( in Spanish , but with simultaneous translation to English ) at <unk> <unk> ( <unk> / chivo ) in New York in 2003 ; and the production moved to Lima in 2007 . A feature of the novel 's stage version is that the same actor plays both Agustin Cabral and Rafael Trujillo . For reviewer Bruce Weber , this makes the point " that Trujillo 's control of the nation depended on <unk> collaborators " . 
 
 
 = Charles Eaton ( RAAF officer ) = 
 
 Charles Eaton , OBE , AFC ( 21 December 1895 – 12 November 1979 ) was a senior officer and <unk> in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , who later served as a diplomat . Born in London , he joined the British Army upon the outbreak of World War I and saw action on the Western Front before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 . <unk> as a bomber pilot to No. 206 Squadron , he was twice captured by German forces , and twice escaped . Eaton left the military in 1920 and worked in India until moving to Australia in 1923 . Two years later he joined the RAAF , serving initially as an instructor at No. 1 Flying Training School . Between 1929 and 1931 , he was chosen to lead three expeditions to search for lost aircraft in Central Australia , gaining national attention and earning the Air Force Cross for his " zeal and devotion to duty " . 
 In 1939 , on the eve of World War II , Eaton became the inaugural commanding officer of No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron at the newly established RAAF Station Darwin in Northern Australia . Promoted group captain the following year , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1942 . He took command of No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , Northern Territory , in 1943 , and was mentioned in despatches during operations in the South West Pacific . <unk> from the RAAF in December 1945 , Eaton took up diplomatic posts in the Dutch East Indies , heading a United Nations commission as Consul @-@ General during the Indonesian National Revolution . He returned to Australia in 1950 , and served in Canberra for a further two years . <unk> known as " Moth " Eaton , he was a farmer in later life , and died in 1979 at the age of 83 . He is commemorated by several memorials in the Northern Territory . 
 
 = = Early life and World War I = = 
 
 Charles Eaton was born on 21 December 1895 in Lambeth , London , the son of William Walpole Eaton , a <unk> , and his wife Grace . <unk> in <unk> , Charles worked in <unk> Town Council from the age of fourteen , before joining the London Regiment upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . Attached to a bicycle company in the 24th Battalion of the 47th Division , he arrived at the Western Front in March 1915 . He took part in trench bombing missions and attacks on enemy lines of communication , seeing action in the Battles of <unk> Ridge , <unk> , <unk> , and the Somme . 
 On 14 May 1915 , Eaton transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , undergoing initial pilot training at Oxford . While he was landing his Maurice <unk> <unk> at the end of his first solo flight , another student collided with him and was killed , but Eaton emerged <unk> . He was commissioned in August and was awarded his wings in October . Ranked lieutenant , he served with No. 110 Squadron , which operated <unk> <unk> " Elephant " fighters out of <unk> , defending London against <unk> airships . <unk> to the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1918 , he was posted the following month to France flying <unk> <unk> single @-@ engined bombers with No. 206 Squadron . On 29 June , he was shot down behind enemy lines and captured in the vicinity of <unk> . <unk> in <unk> prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , Germany , Eaton escaped but was recaptured and court @-@ <unk> , after which he was kept in solitary confinement . He later effected another escape and succeeded in rejoining his squadron in the final days of the war . 
 
 = = Between the wars = = 
 
 Eaton remained in the RAF following the cessation of hostilities . He married <unk> Godfrey in St. Thomas 's church at Shepherd 's Bush , London , on 11 January 1919 . <unk> to No. 1 Squadron , he was a pilot on the first regular passenger service between London and Paris , ferrying delegates to and from the Peace Conference at Versailles . Eaton was sent to India in December to undertake aerial survey work , including the first such survey of the Himalayas . He resigned from the RAF in July 1920 , remaining in India to take up employment with the Imperial Forest Service . After successfully applying for a position with the Queensland <unk> Service , he and his family migrated to Australia in 1923 . Moving to South <unk> , Victoria , he enlisted as a flying officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) at Laverton on 14 August 1925 . He was posted to No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Point Cook , as a flight instructor , where he became known as a strict disciplinarian who " trained his pilots well " . Here Eaton acquired his nickname of " Moth " , the Air Force 's basic trainer at this time being the De Havilland DH.60 Moth . Promoted flight lieutenant in February 1928 , he flew a Moth in the 1929 East @-@ West Air Race from Sydney to Perth , as part of the celebrations for the Western Australia Centenary ; he was the sixth competitor across the line , after fellow RFC veteran Jerry <unk> . 
 Regarded as one of the RAAF 's most skilful cross @-@ country pilots and <unk> , Eaton came to public attention as leader of three military expeditions to find lost aircraft in Central Australia between 1929 and 1931 . In April 1929 , he coordinated the Air Force 's part in the search for aviators Keith Anderson and Bob Hitchcock , missing in their aircraft the Kookaburra while themselves looking for Charles <unk> Smith and Charles Ulm , who had force landed the Southern Cross in north Western Australia during a flight from Sydney . Three of the RAAF 's five " ancient " <unk> <unk> went down in the search — though all crews escaped injury — including Eaton 's , which experienced what he labelled " a good crash " on 21 April near Tennant Creek after the engine 's <unk> melted . The same day , Captain Lester Brain , flying a <unk> aircraft , located the wreck of the Kookaburra in the <unk> Desert , approximately 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wave Hill . Setting out from Wave Hill on 23 April , Eaton led a ground party across rough terrain that reached the crash site four days later and buried the crew , who had perished of thirst and exposure . Not a particularly religious man , he recalled that after the burial he saw a perfect cross formed by <unk> cloud in an otherwise clear blue sky above the Kookaburra . The Air Board described the RAAF 's search as taking 240 hours flying time " under the most trying conditions ... where a forced landing meant certain crash " . In November 1930 , Eaton was selected to lead another expedition for a missing aircraft near <unk> Rock , but it was called off soon afterwards when the pilot showed up in Alice Springs . The next month , he was ordered to search for <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> , who had disappeared in the biplane Golden Quest 2 while attempting to discover <unk> 's Reef . <unk> a total of four DH.60 <unk> , the RAAF team located the missing men near <unk> Creek on 7 January 1931 , and they were rescued four days later by a ground party accompanied by Eaton . <unk> in nearby Alice Springs , he recommended a site for the town 's new airfield , which was approved and has remained in use since its construction . 
 Eaton was awarded the Air Force Cross on 10 March 1931 " in recognition of his zeal and devotion to duty in conducting flights to Central Australia in search of missing aviators " . The media called him the " ' Knight <unk> ' of the desert skies " . Aside from his crash landing in the desert while searching for the Kookaburra , Eaton had another narrow escape in 1929 when he was test flying the Wackett <unk> I with Sergeant Eric Douglas . Having purposely put the biplane trainer into a spin and finding no response in the controls when he tried to recover , Eaton called on Douglas to bail out . When Douglas stood up to do so , the spin stopped , apparently due to his torso changing the <unk> over the tail plane . Eaton then managed to land the aeroplane , he and his passenger both badly shaken by the experience . In December 1931 , he was posted to No. 1 Aircraft Depot at Laverton , where he continued to fly as well as performing administrative work . Promoted squadron leader in 1936 , he undertook a clandestine mission around the new year to scout for suitable landing grounds in the Dutch East Indies , primarily Timor and Ambon . <unk> civilian clothes , he and his companion were arrested and held for three days by local authorities in <unk> , Dutch Timor . Eaton was appointed commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 21 Squadron in May 1937 , one of his first tasks being to undertake another aerial search in Central Australia , this time for <unk> Sir Herbert <unk> , who was subsequently discovered alive and well . Later that year , Eaton presided over the court of inquiry into the crash of a Hawker Demon biplane in Victoria , recommending a gallantry award for <unk> William <unk> , who had leapt into the Demon 's burning wreckage in an effort to rescue its pilot ; <unk> subsequently received the Albert Medal for his heroism . 
 Following a 1937 decision to establish the first north Australian RAAF base , in April 1938 Eaton , now on the headquarters staff of RAAF Station Laverton , and Wing Commander George Jones , Director of Personnel Services at RAAF Headquarters , began developing plans for the new station , to be commanded by Jones , and a new squadron that would be based there , led by Eaton . The next month they flew an Avro <unk> on an inspection tour of Darwin , Northern Territory , site of the proposed base . <unk> meant that No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron was not formed until 6 February 1939 at Laverton . Jones had by now moved on to another posting but Eaton took up the squadron 's command as planned . Promoted to wing commander on 1 March , he and his equipment officer , Flying Officer <unk> , were ordered to build up the unit as quickly as possible , and established an initial complement of fourteen officers and 120 airmen , plus four Ansons and four Demons , within a week . An advance party of thirty NCOs and airmen under <unk> began moving to Darwin on 1 July . Staff were initially accommodated in a former <unk> built during World War I , and life at the newly established air base had a " distinctly raw , pioneering feel about it " according to historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark . <unk> , though , was high . On 31 August , No. 12 Squadron launched its first patrol over the Darwin area , flown by one of seven Ansons that had so far been delivered . These were augmented by a flight of four CAC Wirraways ( replacing the originally planned force of Demons ) that took off from Laverton on 2 September , the day before Australia declared war , and arrived in Darwin four days later . A fifth <unk> in the flight crashed on landing at Darwin , killing both crewmen . 
 
 = = World War II = = 
 
 Once war was declared , Darwin began to receive more attention from military planners . In June 1940 , No. 12 Squadron was " <unk> " to form two additional units , Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin and No. 13 Squadron . No. 12 Squadron retained its <unk> flight , while its two flights of Ansons went to the new squadron ; these were replaced later that month by more capable Lockheed <unk> . Eaton was appointed CO of the base , gaining promotion to temporary group captain in September . His squadrons were employed in escort , maritime reconnaissance , and coastal patrol duties , the <unk> aircraft having to be sent to RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , after every 240 hours flying time — with a consequent three @-@ week loss from Darwin 's strength — as deep maintenance was not yet possible in the Northern Territory . Soon after the establishment of Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin , Minister for Air James <unk> visited the base . <unk> his own light plane , he was greeted by four Wirraways that proceeded to escort him into landing ; the Minister subsequently complimented Eaton on the " keen @-@ ness and efficiency of all ranks " , particularly considering the challenging environment . When <unk> died in the Canberra air disaster shortly afterwards , his pilot was Flight Lieutenant Robert Hitchcock , son of Bob Hitchcock of the Kookaburra and also a former member of Eaton 's No. 21 Squadron . 
 As senior air commander in the region , Eaton sat on the Darwin Defence Co @-@ ordination Committee . He was occasionally at <unk> with his naval counterpart , Captain <unk> Thomas , and also incurred the ire of trade unionists when he used RAAF staff to <unk> ships in Port Darwin during industrial action ; Eaton himself took part in the work , <unk> coal alongside his men . On 25 February 1941 , he made a flight north to reconnoitre Timor , Ambon , and <unk> in Dutch New Guinea for potential use by the RAAF in any Pacific conflict . By April , the total strength based at RAAF Station Darwin had increased to almost 700 officers and airmen ; by the following month it had been augmented by satellite airfields at Bathurst Island , <unk> <unk> , Batchelor , and Katherine . <unk> over command of Darwin to Group Captain Frederick <unk> in October , Eaton took charge of No. 2 Service Flying Training School near <unk> <unk> , New South Wales . His " marked success " , " <unk> energy " , and " <unk> in handling men " while in the Northern Territory were recognised in the new year with his appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire . Eaton became CO of No. 1 Engineering School and its base , RAAF Station Ascot Vale , Victoria , in April 1942 . Twelve months later in Townsville , Queensland , he formed No. 72 Wing , which subsequently deployed to <unk> in Dutch New Guinea , comprising No. 84 Squadron ( flying CAC Boomerang fighters ) , No. 86 Squadron ( P @-@ 40 <unk> fighters ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( A @-@ 31 <unk> dive bombers ) . His relations with North @-@ Eastern Area Command in Townsville were strained ; " mountains were made out of <unk> " in his opinion , and he was reassigned that July to lead No. 2 <unk> and <unk> School in Port <unk> , South Australia . 
 On 30 November 1943 , Eaton returned to the Northern Territory to establish No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , comprising No. 1 and No. 2 Squadrons ( flying Bristol Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Bristol Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . He developed a good relationship with his Dutch personnel , who called him " <unk> Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , Eaton 's forces participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 , in which he regularly flew on missions himself . Through March – April , his Beaufighters attacked enemy shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations <unk> and <unk> , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . On 19 April , he organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , employing thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters to destroy the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , the results earning him the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole , for his " splendid effort " . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment in the days leading up to it . In June – July , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on <unk> . Eaton was recommended to be mentioned in despatches on 28 October 1944 for his " <unk> and distinguished service " in NWA ; this was promulgated in the London Gazette on 9 March 1945 . 
 <unk> his tour with No. 79 Wing , Eaton was appointed Air Officer Commanding Southern Area , Melbourne , in January 1945 . The German submarine U @-@ <unk> operated off southern Australia during the first months of 1945 , and the few combat units in Eaton 's command were heavily engaged in anti @-@ submarine patrols which sought to locate this and any other U @-@ boats in the area . The Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , considered the sporadic attacks to be partly " nuisance value " , designed to draw Allied resources away from the front line of the South West Pacific war . In April , Eaton complained to Bostock that intelligence from British Pacific Fleet concerning its ships ' movements eastwards out of Western Area was hours out of date by the time it was received at Southern Area Command , leading to RAAF aircraft missing their rendezvous and wasting valuable flying hours searching empty ocean . There had been no U @-@ boat strikes since February , and by June the naval authorities indicated that there was no pressing need for air cover except for the most important vessels . 
 
 = = Post @-@ war career and legacy = = 
 
 Eaton retired from the RAAF on 31 December 1945 . In recognition of his war service , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau with Swords by the Dutch government on 17 January 1946 . The same month , he became Australian consul in Dili . He had seen an advertisement for the position and was the only <unk> with experience of the area . While based there , he accompanied the provincial governor on visits to townships damaged in Allied raids during the war , taking care to be <unk> about the part played by his own forces from No. 79 Wing . In July 1947 , Dutch forces launched a " police action " against territory held by the fledgling Indonesian Republic , which had been declared shortly after the end of the war . Following a ceasefire , the United Nations set up a commission , chaired by Eaton as Consul @-@ General , to monitor progress . Eaton and his fellow commissioners believed that the ceasefire was serving the Dutch as a cover for further penetration of republican enclaves . His requests to the Australian government for military observers led to deployment of the first peacekeeping force to the region ; the Australians were soon followed by British and US observers , and enabled Eaton to display a more realistic impression of the situation to the outside world . The Dutch administration strongly opposed the presence of UN forces and accused Eaton of " <unk> " , but the Australian government refused to recall him . Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949 , he became Australia 's first secretary and <unk> d <unk> to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In 1950 , he returned to Australia to serve with the Department of External Affairs in Canberra . After retiring from public service in 1951 , he and his wife farmed at <unk> , Victoria , and cultivated orchids . They later moved to <unk> , where Eaton was involved in promotional work . 
 Charles Eaton died in <unk> on 12 November 1979 . <unk> by his wife and two sons , he was <unk> . In accordance with his wishes , his ashes were scattered near Tennant Creek , site of his 1929 forced landing during the search for the Kookaburra , from an RAAF <unk> on 15 April 1981 . His name figures prominently in the Northern Territory , commemorated by Lake Eaton in Central Australia , Eaton Place in the Darwin suburb of <unk> , Charles Eaton Drive on the approach to Darwin International Airport , and the Charles Moth Eaton <unk> Bar in the Tennant Creek <unk> Hotel . He is also honoured with a display at the Northern Territory Parliament , and a National Trust memorial at Tennant Creek Airport . At the RAAF 's 2003 History Conference , Air Commodore Mark <unk> , recalling Eaton 's search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions between the wars , commented : " Today , we might think of Eaton perhaps as the pioneer of our contribution to assistance to the civil community — a tradition that continues today . Perhaps I might <unk> your memory to a more recent series of rescues no less hazardous for all concerned — the amazing location of missing <unk> <unk> Dubois , <unk> <unk> and Tony <unk> by our P @-@ 3s that guided the Navy to their eventual rescue . My observation is that such activities remain vital for our relevance in that we must remain connected , supportive and responsive to the wants and needs of the Australian community . " 
 
 
 = Tina Fey = 
 
 Elizabeth <unk> " Tina " Fey ( / <unk> / ; born May 18 , 1970 ) is an American actress , comedian , writer , and producer . She is best known for her work on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live ( 1998 @-@ 2006 ) , for her impression of former Alaska Governor and 2008 Vice @-@ Presidential candidate Sarah Palin , and for creating acclaimed series 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt ( 2015 – present ) . She is also well known for appearing in films such as Mean Girls ( 2004 ) , Baby Mama ( 2008 ) , Date Night ( 2010 ) , <unk> Most Wanted ( 2014 ) , and Sisters ( 2015 ) . 
 Fey broke into comedy as a featured player in the Chicago @-@ based improvisational comedy group The Second City . She then joined SNL as a writer , later becoming head writer and a performer , known for her position as co @-@ anchor in the Weekend Update segment . In 2004 , she co @-@ starred in and wrote the screenplay for Mean Girls , which was adapted from the 2002 self @-@ help book Queen Bees and <unk> . After leaving SNL in 2006 , she created the television series 30 Rock for Broadway Video , a situation comedy loosely based on her experiences at SNL . In the series , Fey portrays the head writer of a fictional sketch comedy series . In 2008 , she starred in the comedy film Baby Mama , alongside former SNL co @-@ star Amy Poehler . Fey next appeared in the 2010 comedy film Date Night and the animated film Megamind . In 2015 , she created and produced the television series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt , originally for NBC and eventually for Netflix . Her recent films include Sisters and Whiskey <unk> <unk> . 
 Fey has received eight Emmy Awards , two Golden Globe Awards , five Screen Actors Guild Awards , and four Writers Guild of America Awards and was nominated for a Grammy Award for her autobiographical book <unk> , which topped The New York Times Best <unk> list for five weeks . In 2008 , the Associated Press gave Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year award for her satirical portrayal of Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin in a guest appearance on SNL . In 2010 , Fey was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American <unk> , becoming the youngest @-@ ever recipient of the award . On January 13 , 2013 , Fey hosted the 70th Golden Globe Awards with her long @-@ time friend and fellow comedian , Amy Poehler , to critical acclaim . The duo hosted again the following two years , generating the highest ratings for the annual ceremony in a decade and receiving similar acclaim . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Fey was born on May 18 , 1970 , in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania , a suburb of Philadelphia . Her mother , Zenobia " <unk> " ( née <unk> ) , is a <unk> employee ; her father , Donald Henry Fey ( died 2015 , age 82 ) , was a university grant proposal writer . She has a brother , Peter , who is eight years older . Fey 's mother , who was born in <unk> , Greece , is the daughter of Greek immigrants : <unk> <unk> , Fey 's maternal grandmother , left <unk> , <unk> , Greece on her own , arriving in the United States in February 1921 . 
 Fey 's father had English , German , and Northern Irish ancestry ; one of Fey 's paternal great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ <unk> was John Hewson ( 1744 – 1821 ) , a textile manufacturer who immigrated to America with the support of Benjamin Franklin , enabling Hewson to quickly open a <unk> factory in the Kensington neighborhood of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . According to a genealogical DNA test arranged by the television series Finding Your Roots , Fey 's ancestry is 94 % European , 3 % Middle Eastern , and 3 % from the <unk> . 
 Fey was exposed to comedy early : 
 At age 11 , Fey read Joe Franklin 's Seventy Years of Great Film <unk> for a school project about comedy . She grew up watching Second City Television , and has cited Catherine O <unk> as a role model . 
 Fey attended <unk> @-@ <unk> Elementary School and Beverly Hills Middle School in Upper Darby . By middle school , she knew she was interested in comedy . Fey attended Upper Darby High School , where she was an honors student , a member of the choir , drama club , and tennis team , and co @-@ editor of the school 's newspaper , The <unk> . She also anonymously wrote the newspaper 's satirical column , The Colonel . Following her graduation in 1988 , Fey enrolled at the University of Virginia , where she studied play @-@ writing and acting and was awarded the <unk> Prize . She graduated in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama . 
 After college , she worked as a <unk> during the day at the <unk> YMCA and took classes at Second City at night . 
 
 = = Career = = 
 
 
 = = = Saturday Night Live ( 1997 – 2006 ) = = = 
 
 While performing shows with The Second City in 1997 , Fey submitted several scripts to NBC 's variety show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , at the request of its head writer Adam McKay , a former performer at Second City . She was hired as a writer for SNL following a meeting with SNL creator Lorne Michaels , and moved to New York from Chicago . Fey told The New Yorker , " I 'd had my eye on the show forever , the way other kids have their eye on Derek <unk> . " Originally , Fey " struggled " at SNL . Her first sketch to air starred Chris Farley in a <unk> <unk> Raphael satire . Fey went on to write a series of parodies , including one of ABC 's morning talk show The View . She co @-@ wrote the " Sully and Denise " sketches with Rachel Dratch , who plays one of the teens . 
 Fey was an extra in a 1998 episode , and after watching herself , decided to diet and lost 30 pounds . She told The New York Times , " I was a completely normal weight , but I was here in New York City , I had money and I couldn 't buy any clothes . After I lost weight , there was interest in putting me on camera . " In 1999 , McKay stepped down as head writer , which led Michaels to approach Fey for the position . She became SNL 's first female head writer that year . 
 In 2000 , Fey began performing in sketches , and she and Jimmy Fallon became co @-@ anchors of SNL 's Weekend Update segment . Fey said she did not ask to audition , but that Michaels approached her . Michaels explained that there was chemistry between Fey and Fallon , though the decision was " kind of risky " at the time . Her role in Weekend Update was well received by critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote : " ... Fey delivers such blow <unk> – poison filled jokes written in long , precisely <unk> sentences unprecedented in Update history – with such a bright , sunny countenance makes her all the more <unk> delightful . " Dennis Miller , a former cast member of SNL and anchor of Weekend Update , was pleased with Fey as one of the anchors for the segment : " ... Fey might be the best Weekend Update anchor who ever did it . She writes the funniest jokes " . Robert Bianco of USA Today , however , commented that he was " not <unk> " of the pairing . 
 In 2001 , Fey and the rest of the writing staff won a Writers Guild of America Award for SNL 's 25th anniversary special . The following year at the 2002 Emmy Awards ceremony , they won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Program . 
 When Fallon left the show in May 2004 , he was replaced on Weekend Update by Amy Poehler . It was the first time that two women co @-@ anchored Weekend Update . Fey revealed that she " hired " Poehler as her co @-@ host for the segment . The reception was positive , with Rachel <unk> of the Chicago Tribune noting that the pairing " has been a hilarious , pitch @-@ perfect success as they play @-@ off each other with quick one @-@ liners and deadpan delivery " . 
 The 2005 – 2006 season was her last ; she departed to develop 30 Rock for Broadway Video . At the time she left , the 117 episodes she co @-@ hosted made her SNL 's longest @-@ serving Weekend Update anchor , a mark that would later be passed by her replacement , Seth Meyers . In Rolling Stone Magazine 's February , 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date , Fey was ranked third in importance ( behind John <unk> and Eddie Murphy ) . They credited her with " salvaging ' Update ' from a decade @-@ long losing streak , " and " slapping SNL out of its late @-@ <unk> coma . " 
 
 = = = 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) = = = 
 
 In 2002 , Fey suggested a pilot episode for a situation comedy about a cable news network to NBC , which rejected it . The pilot was reworked to revolve around an SNL style series , and was accepted by NBC . She signed a contract with NBC in May 2003 , which allowed her to remain in her SNL head writer position at least through the 2004 – 2005 television season . As part of the contract , Fey was to develop a prime @-@ time project to be produced by Broadway Video and NBC Universal . The pilot , directed by Adam Bernstein , centered on Liz Lemon , the head writer of a variety show on NBC , and how she managed her relationships with the show 's volatile stars and the new head of the network . In October 2006 , the pilot aired on NBC as 30 Rock . Although the episode received generally favorable reviews , it finished third in its timeslot . 
 The network renewed the series for a second season , which began in October 2007 . The show 's third season premiered on October 30 , 2008 . The premiere episode drew 8 @.@ 5 million viewers , the highest ratings of the series . 
 In 2007 , Fey received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series . The show itself won the 2007 Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series ( and did so again for two subsequent years ) . In 2008 , she won the Golden Globe , Screen Actors Guild , and Emmy awards all in the category for Best Actress in a Comedy Series . The following year , Fey again won the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award in the same categories , and was nominated for an Emmy Award . In early 2010 , Fey received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress , and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Lead Actress . 30 Rock was renewed for the 2010 – 2011 season in March 2010 . The series returned for the 2011 – 2012 season , though due to Fey 's pregnancy with her second child , the season premiere was delayed until <unk> . Fey 's performance on the show was inspired by Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , and later used Louis @-@ Dreyfus to play the stand @-@ in for the character of Liz Lemon in flashback scenes during the live episode of the fifth season . On May 11 , 2012 , it was announced that the show had been renewed for a seventh and final season , to premiere October 4 , 2012 , with 13 episodes . After receiving 13 Emmy Award nominations and two wins for this final season , 30 Rock ended its critically acclaimed run with 112 Emmy award nominations . It has been cited as one of the greatest TV series of all time and it is considered to have one of the greatest <unk> in television history . 
 
 = = = Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt = = = 
 
 In 2015 , Fey created and produced the television comedy Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt with fellow 30 Rock @-@ <unk> Robert Carlock . The series stars Ellie <unk> as the titular character who escapes from a <unk> cult and moves to New York . It also stars Fey 's former co @-@ star Jane Krakowski , as well as <unk> <unk> ( who had previously appeared in four 30 Rock episodes ) and Carol Kane . Although it was originally produced for NBC , it was eventually sold to Netflix and immediately renewed for a second season . The show premiered on March 6 , 2015 to critical acclaim . 
 On July 16 , 2015 , the series was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Comedy Series . Fey herself was nominated both as the creator / executive producer of the series and for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her guest performance as Marcia , a <unk> prosecutor in reference to Marcia Clark . 
 
 = = = Feature films = = = 
 
 In 2002 , Fey appeared in the surreal comedy Martin & <unk> . She made her debut as writer and co @-@ star of the 2004 teen comedy Mean Girls . Characters and behaviors in the movie are based on Fey 's high school life at Upper Darby High School and on the non @-@ fiction book Queen Bees and <unk> by <unk> Wiseman . The cast includes other past cast members of SNL including Tim Meadows , <unk> <unk> , and Amy Poehler . The film received favorable reviews , and was a box office success , grossing US $ 129 million worldwide . 
 In a 2004 interview , Fey expressed that she would like to write and direct movies . In 2006 , Fey worked on a movie script for Paramount Pictures , which was to feature <unk> Baron Cohen , by the name of Curly <unk> and Vic Thrill , based loosely on the true story of a <unk> rock musician . In 2007 , she was cast in the animated comedy film Aqua Teen <unk> Force <unk> Movie Film for Theaters as the Aqua <unk> ' mother , a giant <unk> . 
 She received her <unk> card after appearing in Artie <unk> 's Beer League released in 2006 , in which she was compelled to join for " ... a thousand dollars " . 
 Fey and former SNL <unk> Amy Poehler starred in the 2008 comedy Baby Mama . The movie was written and directed by Michael <unk> . The plot concerns Kate ( Fey ) , a business woman , who wants a child but , discovering she has only a million @-@ to @-@ one chance of getting pregnant , decides to find a surrogate : Angie ( Poehler ) , a white @-@ trash <unk> . Baby Mama received mixed reviews , but critics enjoyed Fey 's performance . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote : " Fey is a delight to watch throughout . Able to convey Kate 's intentions and feelings through the simple looks and <unk> , she never <unk> her situation ; nor does her efficient , <unk> side become overbearing . " The movie grossed over US $ 64 million at the box office . 
 Fey 's projects after 2008 include a voice role in the English @-@ language version of the Japanese animated film <unk> . In 2009 , she appeared in The <unk> of <unk> , alongside Ricky Gervais , Jennifer Garner , Rob Lowe , and Christopher Guest . Her next film role was in Shawn Levy 's 2010 comedy Date Night , a feature that focuses on a married couple , played by Fey and Steve Carell , who go on a date ; however , the night goes awry for the two . Also in the same year , she voiced <unk> <unk> , a television reporter , in the DreamWorks animated film Megamind ( 2010 ) . With a total worldwide gross of US $ 321 million , Megamind is Fey 's most commercially successful picture to date . It earned US $ 173 million outside the U.S. and US $ 148 million domestically . 
 In 2013 , Fey starred alongside Paul <unk> in the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Admission , based on the Jean <unk> <unk> novel by the same name . The film was directed by Paul <unk> . Fey later starred in the 2014 comedy @-@ drama This Is Where I Leave You , helmed by Date Night director Shawn Levy . As was the case with Baby Mama , although both of these films received generally mixed reviews , Fey 's performances were well received by film critics . 
 In 2015 , it was announced Fey would be the narrator for the Disney Nature film Monkey Kingdom , which was released in theaters on April 17 , 2015 . She then re @-@ teamed with Poehler , starring in the 2015 comedy film Sisters as the title characters , and received positive reviews for her role . In 2016 , Fey starred in the biographical war comedy @-@ drama Whiskey <unk> <unk> , based on the memoir The <unk> Shuffle : Strange Days in Afghanistan and Pakistan , to positive reviews . 
 
 = = = Subsequent SNL appearances = = = 
 
 On February 23 , 2008 , Fey hosted the first episode of SNL after the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . For this appearance , she was nominated for an Emmy in the category of Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program . Fey hosted SNL for a second time on April 10 , 2010 , and for her appearance she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series . 
 From September to November 2008 , Fey made multiple guest appearances on SNL to perform a series of parodies of Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin . On the 34th season premiere episode , aired September 13 , 2008 , Fey imitated Palin in a sketch , alongside Amy Poehler as Hillary Clinton . Their <unk> included Clinton <unk> Palin about her " Tina Fey glasses " . The sketch quickly became NBC 's most @-@ watched viral video ever , with 5 @.@ 7 million views by the following Wednesday . Fey reprised this role on the October 4 show , on the October 18 show where she was joined by the real Sarah Palin , and on the November 1 show , where she was joined by John McCain and his wife <unk> . The October 18 show had the best ratings of any SNL show since 1994 . The following year Fey won an Emmy in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her impersonation of Palin . Fey returned to SNL in April 2010 , and reprised her impression of Palin in one sketch titled the " Sarah Palin Network " . Fey once again did her impression of Palin when she hosted Saturday Night Live on May 8 , 2011 . 
 In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly put her Palin impersonation on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , writing , " Fey 's <unk> spot @-@ on SNL impersonation of the <unk> <unk> ( and her ability to strike a balance between comedy and cruelty ) made for truly transcendent television . " Rolling Stone called her Palin impression " [ arguably ] the most brilliant move SNL ever made " . 
 
 = = = Other work = = = 
 
 In 1997 , Fey and other members of The Second City provided voices for the <unk> game Medieval Madness . 
 In 2000 , Fey partnered with fellow SNL cast member Rachel Dratch in the Off Broadway two @-@ woman show Dratch & Fey at the <unk> Citizens Brigade Theater in New York City . The production was well received by critics . Tim Townsend of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the fun part of watching Fey and Dratch perform was " seeing how comfortable they are with each other " . He concluded that the production " isn 't about two women being funny ... Dratch and Fey are just funny . Period . " One of the SNL sketches , " Sully and Denise " , originated at The Second City . 
 On August 13 , 2007 , Fey made a guest appearance in the Sesame Street episode " The <unk> " . She appeared as a guest judge on the November 25 , 2007 episode of the Food Network program Iron <unk> America . 
 Fey has appeared as <unk> Bell in Disney 's campaign " Year of a Million Dreams " . She has also done commercials for American Express and Garnier <unk> . 
 On April 5 , 2011 , Fey 's autobiography , <unk> , was released to a positive review from The New York Times . 
 In 2011 , Fey narrated The Secret Life of Girls , a two @-@ hour @-@ long radio documentary produced by The Kitchen Sisters . She introduced stories of women and girls from around the world , and also shared memories of her own girlhood and mother . 
 In 2012 , Fey made her rapping debut on the <unk> <unk> ( Donald <unk> ) <unk> <unk> . <unk> is a former writer on 30 Rock , on which he worked with Fey . Fey was also featured as herself in the <unk> episode " <unk> America " . 
 
 = = <unk> and acting style = = 
 
 Fey is known for her deadpan humor and delivery ; her " sardonic wit " has become a trademark of hers , upon which several critics have commented in their reviews of Fey 's work . According to Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara , Fey " project [ s ] both oblivious security and hyper @-@ alert insecurity with the same expression " in her performances , while The Chronicle 's Dillon Fernando wrote that the actress specializes in " <unk> , <unk> and ironic comedy " . On Fey 's comedic prowess , Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels <unk> that his former employee " has a very clear take on things ... It always comes from a place of intelligence and there is just an edge to it . " Michaels concluded , " It 's not fearful . It 's strong and confident and you recognise the voice and most of the time you agree with it . " Writing for The Guardian , Christopher Goodwin believes that Fey " fashioned her comic persona around her glasses " , which she has worn since 1995 ; Fey joked that " <unk> make anyone look <unk> " . 
 <unk> <unk> to use herself as the butt of her own jokes , Fey is also well known for <unk> self @-@ deprecating humor , as demonstrated throughout her performance as Liz Lemon in 30 Rock . In an article ranking Fey 's six greatest jokes , David <unk> of The Guardian wrote that the performer 's work continues to feature her " trademark mix of <unk> , self @-@ deprecation and pop @-@ culture <unk> . " Fey 's self @-@ deprecating comedic style inspired Ashley <unk> of The Atlantic to recognize her as comedian <unk> <unk> 's successor because of their similar humor . Critics have been divided in their opinions and discussions of Fey 's use of self @-@ deprecating humor , and its effect on women as a female comic ; while blogger Kate Harding disapproved of Fey 's performance in 30 Rock because " I 'm torn between being sad that she apparently doesn 't see [ beauty ] in herself and being <unk> off that she 's reinforcing the idea that having brown hair , glasses , and a figure that 's maybe a size 2 instead of a 0 actually equals ugly " , Jessica G. of <unk> defended the actress , writing that Fey 's performance is " supposed to be parodying precisely the kinds of media that reinforce ideas that unconventional women are unworthy . " Writing that Harding misunderstood Fey 's intentions , the author concluded that her self @-@ deprecation " is precisely what makes her relatable " , elaborating that " [ women ] have many moments of self @-@ doubt , and seeing someone as successful as Tina Fey be self @-@ deprecating gives us all permission to be <unk> . " Sophie Caldecott of <unk> defended Fey 's <unk> and tendency to <unk> her own physical appearance : " She mocks her own appearance , sure , but she does so in a way that consistently shows up our culture for placing so much importance on how women look , as if that ’ s the most interesting thing about us ... Her comic persona on 30 Rock , Liz Lemon , can be laughed at for many things , but her career managerial style and ability is not one of them . " Caldecott concluded , " In reality , self @-@ deprecation is an art that <unk> everywhere <unk> in ... In fact , I defy you to find a good male comedian who isn ’ t a master of self @-@ deprecation . <unk> make fun of themselves for many reasons , mostly because it is the most readily accessible source of inspiration but also because it is the most generous one . " Observing that Fey 's material lacks " <unk> " , <unk> <unk> of the Hartford Courant wrote that Fey 's comedy " is not simply an iteration of self @-@ deprecating femininity passing itself off as humor . In itself , this <unk> the current generation of female <unk> from earlier generations of performers who were told , more or less , to use themselves not as a sounding board for ideas but as a punching bag for insults . " 
 As an actress , Fey has developed a reputation for portraying " the hilarious , self @-@ deprecating unmarried career woman " in most of her films to @-@ date . The Boston Globe 's <unk> Paige defended her limited filmography by writing that , unlike most film actors , Fey remains " realistic about her range as a leading lady and says she ’ s been deliberate about only taking on parts for which she actually seems suited . " Fey explained that she approaches each role asking herself , " Would I be plausible in this role , in this job ? " However , her role as Kate Ellis in 2015 's Sisters provided Fey with an opportunity to stray from playing the type @-@ A female characters for which she has become known . The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott wrote , " We ’ re used to seeing Ms. Fey ... as an anxious <unk> using her <unk> sarcasm as a weapon against both her own <unk> and the <unk> and train wrecks who surround her . This time , she gets to be the train wreck . " In 30 Rock , Fey 's comedic acting was heavily influenced by both physical and improvisational comedy while , as a writer , her " carefully written scripts " were often quirky and character @-@ driven . 
 
 = = In the media = = 
 
 In 2002 , Fey was ranked in the Hot 100 List at number 80 on Maxim magazine , which used photos taken earlier by Rolling Stone calling her " the thinking man 's sex symbol " . She was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People in 2003 , and one of People magazine 's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . In 2007 , Fey placed seventh on the Hot 100 List on <unk> She repeated the appearance the following year , being voted as number one on the list . 
 In 2001 , Entertainment Weekly named Fey as one of their Entertainers of the Year for her work on Weekend Update . In 2007 , she was named one of the magazine 's Entertainers of the Year , and placed number two in 2008 . In 2009 , Fey was named as Entertainment Weekly 's fifth individual in their 15 Entertainers of the 2000s list . In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly crowned Fey as " The Once and Future Queen " ( an allusion to The Once and Future King ) in their feature on " Women Who Run TV , " calling her " the funniest woman in the free world . " <unk> quoted Mindy <unk> as saying , " I always feel unoriginal bringing up Tina as my inspiration , but she 's everyone 's inspiration for a reason . " The column also quoted praise by <unk> <unk> and Lena Dunham . 
 The newspaper editors and broadcast producers of the Associated Press voted Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year as the performer who had the greatest impact on culture and entertainment in 2008 , citing her impression of Sarah Palin on SNL . She has appeared on Forbes ' annual Celebrity 100 list of the 100 most powerful celebrities in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 at No. 99 , No. 86 , No. 90 , No. 92 , and No. 79 respectively . 
 In 2007 , the New York Post included Fey in New York 's 50 Most Powerful Women , ranking her at number 33 . Fey was among the Time 100 , a list of the 100 most influential people in the world , in 2007 and 2009 , as selected annually by Time magazine . Fey 's featured article for the 2009 list was written by 30 Rock co @-@ star , Alec Baldwin . She was selected by Barbara Walters as one of America 's 10 Most <unk> People of 2008 . 
 In September 2011 , Fey was ranked at the top of Forbes magazine 's list of the highest @-@ paid TV actresses . 
 In June 2010 , it was announced Fey would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2011 . 
 In 2014 , Fey was recognized by Elle Magazine during The Women in Hollywood Awards , honoring women for their outstanding achievements in film , spanning all aspects of the motion picture industry , including acting , directing , and producing . 
 
 = = Charity work = = 
 
 Fey 's charity work includes support of <unk> <unk> , an organization that sponsors autism research . In April 2008 , she participated in Night of Too Many Stars , a comedy benefit show for autism education . 
 Fey is also a supporter of Mercy Corps , a global relief and development organization , in their campaign to end world hunger . Fey narrated a video for Mercy Corps 's Action Center in New York City , describing hunger as a symptom of many wider world problems . She also supports the Love Our Children USA organization , which fights violence against children , who named her among their Mothers Who Make a <unk> , in 2009 . She was the 2009 national spokesperson for the Light the Night Walk , which benefits the Leukemia & <unk> Society . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 In 1994 , two years after Fey joined Chicago 's Second City improvisational theatre troupe , she began dating Jeff Richmond , a piano player who later became Second City 's musical director and then a composer on 30 Rock . They married in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on June 3 , 2001 . They have two daughters : Alice Zenobia Richmond ( born September 10 , 2005 ) and Penelope Athena Richmond ( born August 10 , 2011 ) . In April 2009 , Fey and Richmond purchased a US $ 3 @.@ 4 million apartment on the Upper West Side in New York City . 
 Fey has a scar a few inches long on the left side of her chin and cheek , the cause of which remained unexplained to the public until a 2008 Vanity Fair profile by Maureen <unk> , and subsequently in her autobiographical book , where she revealed that " during the spring semester of kindergarten , I was <unk> in the face by a stranger in the <unk> behind my house " . 
 
 = = Filmography = = 
 
 
 = = = Film = = = 
 
 
 = = = Television = = = 
 
 
 = = = Video games = = = 
 
 
 = = Awards and nominations = = 
 
 
 
 = WASP @-@ 44 = 
 
 WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star in constellation <unk> that has the Jupiter @-@ size planet WASP @-@ 44b in orbit . The star is slightly less massive and slightly smaller than the Sun ; it is also slightly cooler , but is more metal @-@ rich . The star was observed by SuperWASP , an organization in search of planets , starting in 2009 ; manual follow @-@ up observations used WASP @-@ 44 's spectrum and measurements of its radial velocity led to the discovery of the transiting planet WASP @-@ 44b . The planet and its star were presented along with WASP @-@ <unk> and WASP @-@ <unk> on May 17 , 2011 by a team of scientists testing the idea that Hot Jupiters tend to have circular orbits , an assumption that is made when the orbital <unk> of such planets are not well @-@ constrained . 
 
 = = <unk> history = = 
 
 WASP @-@ 44 was observed between July and November 2009 by the WASP @-@ South , a station of the SuperWASP planet @-@ searching program based at the South African Astronomical Observatory . Observations of the star revealed a periodic decrease in its brightness . WASP @-@ South , along with the SuperWASP @-@ North station at the <unk> de los <unk> Observatory on the Canary Islands , collected 15 @,@ <unk> photometric observations , allowing scientists to produce a more accurate light curve . Another set of observations yielded a 6 @,@ 000 point photometric data set , but the light curve was prepared late and was not considered in the discovery paper . 
 In 2010 , a European science team investigated the star using the <unk> spectrograph and collected seventeen spectra of WASP @-@ 44 . From the spectra , radial velocity measurements were <unk> . Analysis of collected <unk> data ruled out the possibility that the detected radial velocity was caused by the blended spectrum of a spectroscopic binary star , supporting the possibility that the body orbiting WASP @-@ 44 was indeed a planet , designated WASP @-@ 44b . 
 The <unk> <unk> Telescope at La <unk> Observatory in Chile was used to follow up on the discovery <unk> WASP @-@ 44 , searching for a point at which the planet <unk> , or crossed in front of , its host star . One transit was detected . 
 WASP @-@ 44 , its recently discovered planet , the planets orbiting WASP @-@ 45 and WASP @-@ 46 , and a discussion exploring the validity of the common assumption amongst scientists that closely orbiting Hot Jupiter planets have highly circular orbits unless proven otherwise , were reported in a single discovery paper that was published on May 17 , 2011 by the Royal Astronomical Society . The paper was submitted to the Monthly <unk> of the Royal Astronomical Society on May 16 , 2011 . 
 
 = = Characteristics = = 
 
 WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star ( the same class of star as the Sun ) that is located in the <unk> constellation . WASP @-@ 44 has a mass that is 0 @.@ 951 times that of the Sun . In terms of size , WASP @-@ 44 has a radius that is 0 @.@ <unk> times that of the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 has an effective temperature of <unk> K , cooler than the Sun . However , the star is metal @-@ rich with relation to the Sun . Its measured metallicity is [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 06 , or 1 @.@ 148 times that the amount of iron found in the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 's <unk> ( outermost layer ) is not active . The star also does not <unk> at a high velocity . 
 The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 9 . It cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye . 
 
 = = Planetary system = = 
 
 There is one known planet in the orbit of WASP @-@ 44 : WASP @-@ 44b . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass of 0 @.@ <unk> Jupiters . Its radius is 1 @.@ 14 times that of Jupiter . WASP @-@ 44b orbits its host star every 2 @.@ <unk> days at a distance 0 @.@ <unk> AU , approximately 3 @.@ 47 % the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . With an orbital inclination of <unk> , WASP @-@ 44b has an orbit that exists almost edge @-@ on to its host star with respect to Earth . <unk> @-@ 44b 's orbital <unk> is fit to 0 @.@ <unk> , indicating a mostly circular orbit . 
 
 
 = Elephanta Caves = 
 
 Elephanta caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri ( literally " the city of caves " ) in Mumbai Harbour , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra . The island , located on an arm of the Arabian Sea , consists of two groups of caves — the first is a large group of five Hindu caves , the second , a smaller group of two Buddhist caves . The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures , representing the Shaiva Hindu sect , dedicated to the Lord Shiva . 
 The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries , although the identity of the original builders is still a subject of debate . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All the caves were also originally painted in the past , but now only traces remain . 
 The main cave ( Cave 1 , or the Great Cave ) was a Hindu place of worship until Portuguese rule began in 1534 , after which the caves suffered severe damage . This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect , and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the artwork . It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) . 
 
 = = Geography = = 
 
 Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri , is about 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) east of the Apollo Bunder ( Bunder in Marathi means a " pier for embarkation and <unk> of passengers and goods " ) on the Mumbai Harbour and 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of <unk> <unk> in <unk> . The island covers about 10 km2 ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) at high tide and about 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) at low tide . Gharapuri is small village on the south side of the island . The Elephanta Caves can be reached by a ferry from the Gateway of India , Mumbai , which has the nearest airport and train station . The cave is closed on Monday . 
 The island is 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) in length with two hills that rise to a height of about 150 m ( 490 ft ) . A deep ravine cuts through the heart of the island from north to south . On the west , the hill rises gently from the sea and stretches east across the ravine and rises gradually to the extreme east to a height of 173 m ( 568 ft ) . This hill is known as the Stupa hill . Forest growth with clusters of <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> trees cover the hills with scattered palm trees . Rice fields are seen in the valley . The fore shore is made up of sand and mud with mangrove bushes on the fringe . Landing <unk> sit near three small hamlets known as Set Bunder in the north @-@ west , <unk> Bunder in the northeast , and Gharapuri or Raj Bunder in the south . 
 The two hills of the island , the western and the eastern , have five rock @-@ cut caves in the western part and a brick stupa on the eastern hill on its top composed of two caves with a few rock @-@ cut cisterns . One of the caves on the eastern hill is unfinished . It is a protected island with a <unk> zone according to a <unk> issued in 1985 , which also includes " a prohibited area " that stretches 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from the shoreline . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Since no inscriptions on any of the island have been discovered , the ancient history of the island is <unk> , at best . <unk> , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , and <unk> , the demon devotee of Shiva , are both credited with building temples or cut caves to live . Local tradition holds that the caves are not man @-@ made . 
 The Elephanta caves are " of unknown date and attribution " . Art historians have dated the caves in the range of late 5th to late 8th century AD . Archaeological excavations have unearthed a few <unk> coins dated to 4th century AD . The known history is traced only to the defeat of <unk> rulers of Konkan by the <unk> Chalukyas emperor <unk> II ( <unk> – <unk> ) in a naval battle , in 635 AD . Elephanta was then called Puri or <unk> , and served as the capital of the Konkan Mauryas . Some historians attribute the caves to the Konkan Mauryas , dating them to the mid @-@ 6th century , though others refute this claim saying a relatively small kingdom like the Konkan Mauryas could not undertake " an almost superhuman excavation effort , " which was needed to <unk> the rock temples from solid rock and could not have the skilled labor to produce such " high quality " sculpture . 
 Some other historians attribute the construction to the Kalachuris ( late 5th to 6th century ) , who may have had a feudal relationship with the Konkan Mauryas . In an era where polytheism was prevalent , the Elephanta main cave <unk> the monotheism of the <unk> <unk> sect , a sect to which Kalachuris as well as Konkan Mauryas belonged . 
 The Chalukyas , who defeated the Kalachuris as well as the Konkan Mauryas , are also believed by some to be creators of the main cave , in the mid @-@ 7th century . The Rashtrakutas are the last claimants to the creation of the main cave , <unk> to the early 7th to late 8th century . The Elephanta Shiva cave resembles in some aspects the 8th @-@ century <unk> rock @-@ temple Kailash at <unk> . The Trimurti of Elephanta showing the three faces of Shiva is akin to the Trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu and Mahesh ( Shiva ) , which was the royal insignia of the Rashtrakutas . The Nataraja and Ardhanarishvara sculptures are also attributed to the Rashtrakutas . 
 Later , Elephanta was ruled by another Chalukyan dynasty , and then by Gujarat Sultanate , who surrendered it to the Portuguese in 1534 . By then , Elephanta was called Gharapuri , which denotes a hill settlement . The name is still used in the local Marathi language . The Portuguese named the island " Elephanta Island " in honour of a huge rock @-@ cut black stone statue of an elephant that was then installed on a mound , a short distance east of Gharapuri village . The elephant now sits in the <unk> <unk> zoo in Mumbai . 
 Portuguese rule saw a decline in the Hindu population on the island and the abandonment of the Shiva cave ( main cave ) as a regular Hindu place of worship , though worship on <unk> , the festival of Shiva , continued and still does . The Portuguese did considerable damage to the sanctuaries . Portuguese soldiers used the reliefs of Shiva in the main cave for target practice , <unk> only the Trimurti sculpture . They also removed an inscription related to the creation of the caves . While some historians solely blame the Portuguese for the destruction of the caves , others also cite water @-@ logging and dripping <unk> as additional damaging factors . The Portuguese left in 1661 as per the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of <unk> , daughter of King John IV of Portugal . This marriage shifted possession of the islands to the British Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles . 
 Though the main cave was restored in the 1970s , other caves , including three consisting of important sculptures , are still badly damaged . The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 as per the cultural criteria of UNESCO : the caves " represent a masterpiece of human creative genius " and " bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a <unk> which is living or which has disappeared " . 
 
 = = Overview = = 
 
 The island has two groups of caves in the rock @-@ cut architectural style . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All caves were painted in the past , but only traces remain . The larger group of caves , which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island , is well known for its Hindu sculptures . The primary cave , numbered as Cave 1 , is about 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) up a hillside , facing the ocean . It is a rock @-@ cut temple complex that covers an area of 5 @,@ 600 m2 ( 60 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and consists of a main chamber , two lateral chambers , courtyards , and subsidiary shrines . It is 39 metres ( 128 ft ) deep from the front entrance to the back . The temple complex is the abode of Shiva , depicted in widely celebrated carvings which reveal his several forms and acts . 
 On the eastern part of the island , on the Stupa Hill , there is a small group of caves that house Buddhist monuments . This hill is named after the religious Stupa monument that they display . One of the two caves is incomplete , while the other contains a Stupa made in brick . 
 
 = = Main cave = = 
 
 The main cave , also called the Shiva cave , Cave 1 , or the Great Cave , is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) square in plan with a hall ( <unk> ) . At the entrance are four doors , with three open <unk> and an aisle at the back . <unk> , six in each row , divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers . The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals . The cave entrance is aligned with the north – south axis , unusual for a Shiva shrine ( normally east – west ) . The northern entrance to the cave , which has 1 @,@ 000 steep steps , is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period . The left panel depicts Yogishvara ( The Lord of <unk> ) and the right shows Nataraja ( Shiva as the Lord of Dance ) . The central Shiva shrine ( see 16 in plan below ) is a free @-@ standing square cell with four entrances , located in the right section of the main hall . Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves . The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance . 
 Each wall has large carvings of Shiva , each more than 5 metres ( 16 ft ) in height . The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall and is flanked by <unk> ( a half @-@ man , half @-@ woman representation of Shiva ) on its left and Gangadhara to its right , which denotes the River Ganges ' descent from Shiva 's matted locks . Other carvings related to the legend of Shiva are also seen in the main hall at strategic locations in exclusive <unk> ; these include <unk> , depicting Shiva 's marriage to the goddess Parvati , <unk> or <unk> , the slaying of the demon Andhaka by Shiva , Shiva @-@ Parvati on Mount Kailash ( the abode of Shiva ) , and <unk> , depicting the demon @-@ king Ravana shaking Kailash . 
 The main cave blends Chalukyan architectural features such as massive figures of the divinities , guardians , and square pillars with custom capitals with Gupta artistic characteristics , like the depiction of mountains and clouds and female hairstyles . 
 <unk> : 
 
 = = = Shiva @-@ Parvati on Kailash and Ravana lifting Kailash = = = 
 
 The carving on the south wall to the east of the portico depicts Shiva and Parvati seated on their abode Mount Kailash . The four @-@ armed Shiva is seen with a crown and a disc behind it ( all damaged ) , the sacred thread across his chest , and a dressing gown covering up to the knee . Parvati , dressed in her finery with her hair falling to the front , looks away . Behind her at the right is a woman attendant holding the child , identified with her son Kartikeya , the war @-@ god . Many male and female attendants are seen behind the main figures . Shiva 's attendant , the skeleton @-@ like Bhringi , is seated at his feet . Other figures , not distinct , depict , among others , a royal @-@ looking tall person , ascetics , a fat figure , a dwarf , a bull ( the mount of Shiva ) , features of a Garuda , and two monkeys . The scenic beauty of the mountain is sculpted with the sky background amidst heavenly beings showering flowers on Shiva @-@ Parvati . This scene is interpreted as a gambling scene , where Parvati is angry as Shiva cheats in a game of dice . 
 The carved panel facing this one is a two @-@ level depiction of Ravana lifting Kailash . The upper scene is Mount Kailash , where Shiva and Parvati are seated . The eight @-@ armed , three @-@ eyed Shiva wears headgear with a crescent and disc behind it . Most of his arms are broken , two of them resting on attendants ' heads . The Parvati figure , seated facing Shiva , remains only as a trunk . The panel is flanked by door keepers . <unk> of Shiva are also seen in the relief but mostly in a damaged state . Bhringi is seated near Shiva 's feet and to his left is the elephant @-@ headed son of Shiva , Ganesha . In this ensemble , the ten @-@ headed demon @-@ king Ravana is seen , with only one head left unscathed , and out of his twenty arms , only a few are discernible . Around Ravana are several demons . Numerous figures are seen above Shiva : the god Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , to his left ; a skeleton @-@ figure ; and in a recess , Parvati 's mount , a tiger is depicted . 
 A legend relates to both these panels . Once , Parvati was annoyed with Shiva . At this moment , Ravana , who was passing by Mount Kailash , found it as an obstruction to his movement . Upset , Ravana shook it vigorously and as a result , Parvati got scared and <unk> Shiva . Enraged by Ravana 's arrogance , Shiva stamped down on Ravana , who sang praises of Shiva to free him of his misery and turned into an ardent devotee of Shiva . Another version states that Shiva was pleased with Ravana for restoring Parvati 's <unk> and blessed him . 
 
 = = = Trimurti , Gangadhara and Ardhanarishvara = = = 
 
 Described as a " masterpiece of Gupta @-@ Chalukyan art " , the most important sculpture in the caves is the Trimurti , carved in relief at the back of the cave facing the entrance , on the north @-@ south axis . It is also known as Trimurti <unk> and <unk> . The image , 6 m ( 20 ft ) in height , depicts a three @-@ headed Shiva , representing <unk> Shiva . The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva : creation , protection , and destruction . The right half @-@ face ( west face ) shows him as a young person with sensuous lips , <unk> life and its vitality . In his hand he holds an object resembling a <unk> , depicting the promise of life and creativity . This face is closest to that of Brahma , the creator or <unk> or <unk> , the feminine side of Shiva and creator of joy and beauty . The left half @-@ face ( east face ) is that of a <unk> young man , displaying anger . This is Shiva as the terrifying <unk> or Bhairava , the one whose anger can <unk> the entire world in flames , leaving only ashes behind . This is also known as <unk> @-@ Shiva , the Destroyer . The central face , benign and <unk> , resembles the <unk> Vishnu . This is <unk> , " master of positive and negative principles of existence and <unk> of their harmony " or Shiva as the <unk> <unk> in deep meditation praying for the preservation of humanity . The aspects <unk> and <unk> ( not carved ) faces are considered to be at the back and top of the sculpture . The Trimurti sculpture , with the Gateway of India in the background , has been adopted as the logo of the Maharashtra Tourism Department ( <unk> ) . 
 The Gangadhara image to the right of the Trimurti is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati , the former bearing the River Ganges as she descends from heaven . The carving is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 5 @.@ 207 m ( 17 @.@ 08 ft ) high . The image is highly damaged , particularly the lower half of Shiva seen seated with Parvati , who is shown with four arms , two of which are broken . From the crown , a cup with a triple @-@ headed female figure ( with broken arms ) , representing the three sacred rivers Ganges , <unk> , and <unk> , is depicted . Shiva is sculpted and <unk> with ornaments . The arms hold a <unk> serpent whose hood is seen above his left shoulder . Another hand ( partly broken ) gives the semblance of Shiva hugging Parvati , with a head of matted hair . There is a small snake on the right hand and a tortoise close to the neck , with a bundle tied to the back . An ornamented <unk> covers his lower torso , below the waist . Parvati is carved to the left of Shiva with a <unk> hair dress , fully <unk> with ornaments and jewellery , also fully draped , with her right hand touching the head of a female attendant who carries Parvati 's dress case . The gods Brahma and Indra , with their mystic <unk> and mounts , are shown to the right of Shiva ; Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , is shown to the left of Parvati . Many other details are defaced but a kneeling figure in the front is inferred to be the king who ordered the image to be carved . There are many divinities and attendant females at the back . The whole setting is under the sky and cloud scenes , with men and women , all dressed , shown showering flowers on the deities . 
 In the chamber to the east of the Trimurti is the four @-@ armed Ardhanarishvara carving . This image , which is 5 @.@ 11 m ( 16 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , has a headdress ( double @-@ folded ) with two <unk> draped towards the female head ( Parvati ) and the right side ( Shiva ) depicting curled hair and a crescent . The female figure has all the ornamentation ( broad armlets and long bracelets , a large ring in the ear , jewelled rings on the fingers ) but the right male figure has <unk> hair , armlets and <unk> . One of his hands rests on Nandi ’ s left horn , Shiva 's mount , which is fairly well preserved . The pair of hands at the back is also bejewelled ; the right hand of the male holds a serpent , while the left hand of the female holds a mirror . The front left hand is broken but conjectured as holding the robe of the goddess . The central figure is surrounded by divinities . 
 
 = = = Shiva slaying Andhaka and Wedding of Shiva = = = 
 
 The engraved panel in the north end of the aisle is considered to be a unique sculpture , and shows Bhairava , or <unk> , a <unk> form of Shiva . In the carved panel Shiva 's consort is seen sitting next to him , looking <unk> . A female attendant is next to her . The central figure , which is much ruined below the waist , is 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) high and posed as if running . His headgear has a <unk> on the back , a skull and cobra over the forehead , and the crescent high on the right . His facial expression is of intense anger discerned from his <unk> brow , swollen eyes , and <unk> . The legs and five of the eight arms are broken , attributed to Portuguese vandalism . The smaller broken image Andhaka is seen below Bhairava 's image . It is interpreted that Shiva is <unk> him with the front right hand , as conjectured by the spear seen hanging without any hold . Also seen is the back hand lifted up and holding an elephant 's skin as a cover ; the elephant 's head , carved <unk> , and trunk are seen hanging from the left hand . The second left hand depicts a snake coiled round it . The hand holds a bowl to collect the blood dripping from the slain Andhaka . Furthermore , pieces of a male and two female forms , figures of two ascetics , a small figure in front , a female figure , and two dwarfs are also seen in the carved panel . An unusual sculpture seen above the head of the main figure of Shiva is of a " very wide bottle with a curved groove in the middle of it " , which can interpreted variously as : the <unk> or the <unk> or a Shiva shrine . 
 The niche image carved on the south wall is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati shown getting married ( Kalyanasundara icon ) . Parvati is seen standing to Shiva 's right , the ordained place for a Hindu bride at the wedding . The carvings are substantially damaged ; only one of Shiva 's four hands is fully seen and the right leg is missing . Shiva has a headdress with a shining disc attached to it . His garments are well @-@ draped , and well @-@ tied at the waist . The sacred thread is seen across his chest . Parvati is carved as a perfect figure with <unk> hair dress , well adorned with jewellery and is draped tightly to display depressions below the waist only . She is seen with a coy expression and is led by her father who has his right hand on her shoulder . Even though both her hands are damaged , it is inferred that her left hand <unk> Shiva 's right hand as a mark of holy alliance . Brahma is sitting as the officiating priest for the marriage . Vishnu is witness to the marriage . Mena , the mother of Parvati , is seen standing next to Vishnu . The moon @-@ god Chandra , seen with a wig and a crescent , is standing behind Parvati holding a circular pot with nectar for the marriage ceremony . Just above the main images , a galaxy of divinities , bearded sages , <unk> ( nymphs ) , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Bhringi , and other male and female attendants are seen as witness to the marriage ceremony showering flowers on the divine couple . 
 
 = = = Yogishvara and Nataraja = = = 
 
 The panel to the east of the north portico is Shiva in a <unk> position called <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . <unk> a Buddha , Shiva is in a dilapidated condition with only two broken arms . Shiva is seated in <unk> <unk> posture ( cross legged ) on a lotus carried by two <unk> . His crown is carved with details adorned by a crescent , a round frill at the back , and hair <unk> dropping on either side of the shoulders . His face is calm in <unk> , his eyes half @-@ closed . This represents Shiva in penance sitting amidst the <unk> mountains after the death of his first wife Sati , who was later reborn as Parvati . He is surrounded by divinities in the sky and attendants below . Also seen is a plantain with three leaves already open and one opening , as well as a <unk> blossom . These are flanked by two attendants . Other figures discerned from a study of the broken images are : Vishnu riding Garuda on a plantain leaf ; the Sun @-@ god Surya riding a fully <unk> horse ( head missing ) ; a saint with a rosary ; two female figures in the sky draped up to their thighs ; a faceless figure of the moon with a water container ; three identical figures of a male flanked by two females ; the skeleton of a sage ; Brahma ( without one arm ) riding a swan ; and Indra without his mount ( elephant missing ) . 
 The panel carving in the west niche opposite Yogishvara depicts Shiva as Nataraja performing the <unk> ( cosmic dance ) . The niche is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) high and set low on the wall . He wears well @-@ decorated headgear . The Shiva image displays a dance pose and had ten arms , but the first right and third left hands are missing . The remaining first right arm is held across the breast and touches the left side , the second right hand that is seen damaged with an out @-@ <unk> pose is broken at the elbow . The third arm is damaged at the elbow , and the fourth is also broken but inferred to have held a <unk> ( skull @-@ club ) . The left arms , seen hanging , are damaged near the wrists . The third hand is bent ( but broken ) towards Parvati standing on the side and the fourth hand is raised up . The right thigh ( broken ) is lifted up , and the left leg is not seen at all , the elaborate armlets are well @-@ preserved and a skirt round the waist is tied by a ribbon . A tall figurine of Parvati stands to the left of Shiva , which is also seen partly broken but well bejewelled . An airborne female figure is seen behind Parvati . Other figures seen in the relief are : Vishnu riding a Garuda ; Indra riding his elephant ; the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha ; Kartikeya ; <unk> ; sages and attendants . 
 
 = = = Main cave shrine = = = 
 
 The central shrine is a free @-@ standing square cell , with entrances on each of its sides . Each door is flanked by two <unk> ( gate keepers ) . The Linga , the symbol of Shiva in union with the <unk> , and the symbol of Parvati together symbolise the supreme unity that is deified by the shrine . The Linga is set on a raised platform above the floor of the shrine by 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Six steps lead to this level from the floor level . The height of the eight <unk> varies from 4 @.@ 521 – 4 @.@ 623 m ( 14 @.@ 83 – 15 @.@ 17 ft ) . All are in a damaged condition except those at the southern door to the shrine . The southern gate statue has many unusual features – unusual headgear ; a large skull above the forehead ; lips parted with protruding teeth ; statues adorned with a single bead necklace , <unk> , plain twisted armlets and thick <unk> ; a <unk> right shoulder ; a globe held at <unk> level ; the robe is held at the right thigh by the left hand , and the legs are <unk> . 
 
 = = = East wing = = = 
 
 Several courtyards to the east and west of the main cave are blocked , though there is a 17 m ( 56 ft ) <unk> courtyard that is accessible by entering the eastern part and climbing nine steps . A temple on the southern wall of the court depicts a well @-@ preserved <unk> . The circular pedestal seen in the courtyard in front of the Shiva 's shrine near the east end , in the open area , is said to be the seat of Nandi , Shiva 's mount . 
 On each side of the steps leading to the temple @-@ cave portico is a winged lion , or <unk> , each seated with a raised <unk> . The portico has chambers at each end and a Linga @-@ shrine at the back . Five low steps and a threshold lead into the central Linga @-@ shrine which is 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) wide and 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep and has a <unk> path ( <unk> @-@ path ) around it . At the back of the portico , near the east end , is a gigantic statue of a four @-@ armed <unk> with two attendant demons . At the north end is a standing figure holding a trident . His left hand rests on a defaced demon @-@ figure . The west wall depicts the <unk> @-@ <unk> ( eight mother goddesses ) , flanked by Kartikeya and Ganesha , the sons of Shiva . Some of <unk> are depicted with children , but all of them are shown by their respective mounts ( bull , swan , <unk> , a Garuda , etc . ) which identify them . At the east end of the portico is another chapel with a plain interior and sunken floor . Water <unk> in this chapel . 
 
 = = = West wing = = = 
 
 The west wing , entered through the main cave , is in a semi @-@ ruined state . It has a small chapel and a cistern enclosed within the <unk> cave , which is believed to be Buddhist . Another shrine to the west of the courtyard , with a portico , has carvings of Shiva in a <unk> pose seated on a lotus carried by “ two fat , heavy , <unk> figures ” . This carving also depicts a three @-@ faced bearded <unk> and several other figurines . Entering through the back door of the portico is a cave enshrined with a <unk> Shiva Linga erected over roughly hewn <unk> . At the door entrance on both flanks , statues of <unk> standing over demons and two fat , poised figures are seen . On the southern side of the door is an ensemble of a number of statues . <unk> among these is the Shiva carving , which is depicted with six arms and the third eye in the forehead . Though in a partly ruined state , the carving shows Shiva with an ornamented crown fixed with a crescent , seen carrying a cobra in the left hand , a club in another hand , and discerned to be in a dancing pose . Next to this image are a figure under a plantain tree and a Shiva image ( Yogishvara ) seated on a lotus . Also seen in the panel are a male figure riding a bull with a bell <unk> to its neck , a female figure and another carving to left of Shiva , a female figure with a jewel on her forehead with <unk> looped headdress , Indra riding an elephant , Vishnu with four arms , holding a discus in one of his left hands and riding on Garuda flanked by a small flying figure , and a male figure with crescent in his hair . 
 
 = = Other notable caves = = 
 
 To the south @-@ east of the Great Cave is the second excavation , which faces east @-@ northeast . It includes a chapel at the north end . The front of this cave is completely destroyed ; only fragments of some semi @-@ columns remain . The interior has suffered water damage . The portico is 26 m ( 85 ft ) long and 11 m ( 36 ft ) deep . The chapel is supported by eight eight @-@ cornered columns and two <unk> @-@ columns and is irregular in shape . At the back of the portico are three chambers ; the central one has an altar and a water channel ( <unk> ) , though the Linga is lost . The shrine door has some traces of sculpture ( a boy , a fat figure , alligators on the frieze , and broken animal figures at the head of a <unk> ) . The door @-@ keepers of the shrine are now in fragments . 
 A little to the south of the last cave is another cave in worse condition , with water damage . It is a portico in which each end probably had a chapel or room with pillars in front . Two of them have cells at the back . The central door at the back of the portico leads to a damaged shrine . The shrine door has door @-@ keepers at each side , leaning on dwarfs with flying figures over the head , with door @-@ keepers and demons on the <unk> and <unk> . The shrine is a plain room 6 m ( 20 ft ) deep by 5 @.@ 7 m ( 19 ft ) wide with a low altar , holding a Linga . South of this cave is a cavern that may be used as a cistern . 
 Above these caves is a tiger sculpture , which was worshipped as the tiger goddess <unk> . This sculpture may be a guardian of the north entrance of Cave 1 . A Linga is also found near a small pond at top of the hill . <unk> depicting a stone with a sun and a moon and a mother <unk> a child ( now moved ) were also found nearby . 
 Across the top of the ravine from Cave 1 is large hall known as <unk> 's Temple ( cave ) . The portico has four pillars and two pilasters . The hall has 3 chambers at the back , the central one a shrine and the rest for priests ( both are plain rooms ) . The door of the central shrine has pilasters and a frieze , with the threshold having lion figures at the end . The shrine has an altar , a water channel , and hole in the centre , in which a statue of Parvati may have been worshipped . A 17th @-@ century record states that " this cave [ has ] a beautiful gate with a porch of exquisitely wrought marble " and two idols , one of goddess <unk> <unk> and a head being in a large square seat . 
 Passing along the face of the eastern hill to the north of <unk> 's cave is a small Hindu excavation with a <unk> , which was probably to be three cells , but was abandoned following the discovery of a flaw in the rock . Towards the east of hill is a dry pond , with large artificial boulders and Buddhist cisterns along its banks . At the end of the north spur of the main hill is a mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa . 
 
 = = Preservation = = 
 
 The threats to Elephanta Caves have been identified as the following : developmental pressures ( mainly due to its location within the Mumbai harbour ) , <unk> pressure due to growth of population of the communities residing on the island , industrial growth of the port facilities close to the island , no risk preparedness plan to address natural <unk> such as earthquake , cyclones and terrorist attacks , <unk> tourism and tourist facilities on the island , and poor management of the heritage monument . 
 Preservation of Elephanta Island as a whole with its monuments has been ensured both through legislation and by physical restoration of the caves and its sculptures . The basic <unk> enacted are : The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act of 1958 and Rules ( 1959 ) ; The Elephanta Island ( Protected Monument ) Rules of 1957 , which prohibits mining , quarrying , blasting , excavation and other operations near the monument ; the Antiquities and Art <unk> Act promulgated in 1972 with its Rules promulgated in 1973 ; a <unk> issued in 1985 declaring the entire island and a 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) area from the shore as " a prohibited area " ; a series of Maharashtra State Government environmental acts protecting the site ; the 1966 Regional and Town Planning Act ; and the 1995 Heritage Regulations for Greater Bombay . 
 The Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , <unk> Circle , on the basis of the above legislation and rules , maintain and manage the monuments . The physical measures undertaken for conservation cover include <unk> of the rock face , construction of supports to the cave structures where pillars have collapsed , and consolidation of cave floors and construction of a parapet wall surrounding the site . In addition , visitor facilities at the site have been upgraded ( such as toilet facilities , <unk> construction , pathways , and a flight of steps from the jetty to the caves ) . An on @-@ site museum has been established and a conservation plan has been put in place . Overall , conservation of the property is stated to be good . The site receives approximately 25 @,@ 000 visitors per month . Public information <unk> are also available at the venue of the monuments . During the World Heritage Day on 18 April and World Heritage Week between 19 and 25 November there are special events held at the caves . Another popular event organised is an annual traditional dance festival that attracts many visitors . 
 After declaring the caves a World Heritage Site , UNESCO granted $ 100 @,@ 000 to document the site 's history and draw up a site plan . A part of the grant was used for conservation of the caves . Based on assessments by UNESCO , management plans include : better communication and collaboration between the ASI , on @-@ site staff , and other responsible government departments ; improved public information and awareness programs ; monitoring environmental impact of tourists on the cave and island environment ; greater attention to the maintenance of the rocks to address water <unk> into the caves ; and daily monitoring of both structural and chemical conservation measures . 
 The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage ( <unk> ) is also involved with the Archaeological Survey of India in improving the local conditions at the cave site . A book has been published jointly by UNESCO , <unk> and the Government of India which presents a comprehensive site plan for restoration and a brief history of each sculpture constructed inside the caves . 
 
 
 = Devin Townsend = 
 
 Devin <unk> Townsend ( born May 5 , 1972 ) is a Canadian musician , songwriter and record producer . He was the founder , songwriter , vocalist , and guitarist in extreme metal band Strapping Young Lad from 1994 to 2007 and has an extensive career as a solo artist . 
 After performing in a number of heavy metal bands in high school , Townsend was discovered by a record label in 1993 and was asked to perform lead vocals on Steve Vai 's album Sex & Religion . After recording and touring with Vai , Townsend was discouraged by what he found in the music industry , and vented his anger on the solo album Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing released under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He soon assembled a band under the name , and released the critically acclaimed City in 1997 . Since then , he has released three more studio albums with Strapping Young Lad , along with solo material released under his own independent record label , <unk> Records . 
 Townsend 's solo albums , a diverse mix of hard rock , progressive metal , ambient , and new @-@ age , have featured a varying lineup of supporting musicians . In 2002 he formed the Devin Townsend Band , a dedicated lineup which recorded and toured for two of his solo releases . In 2007 , he disbanded both Strapping Young Lad and the Devin Townsend Band , taking a break from touring to spend more time with his family . After a two @-@ year hiatus , he began recording again , and soon announced the formation of the Devin Townsend Project . The project began with a series of four albums , released from 2009 to 2011 , each written in a different style , and Townsend continues to record and tour under the new moniker . 
 Across all his bands and projects , Townsend has released twenty @-@ three studio albums and three live albums . Townsend 's trademark production style , featuring a heavily <unk> wall of sound , has been compared to the styles of Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . His versatile vocal delivery ranges from screaming to an opera @-@ esque singing , and his songwriting is similarly diverse . Townsend 's musical style is rooted in metal , and his albums are written to express different aspects of his personality . 
 
 = = Biography = = 
 
 
 = = = Early musical career ( 1972 – 1994 ) = = = 
 
 Devin Townsend was born in New Westminster , British Columbia , on May 5 , 1972 . Townsend picked up the banjo when he was five , and began playing guitar when he was 12 . As an early teenager he befriended Brian " Beav " Waddell , who would later play guitars as part of the Devin Townsend Band and bass on the Devin Townsend Project . He participated in several metal bands while he was in high school , and founded Grey Skies at the age of 19 . Around the same time he joined a popular local group called <unk> Thought , replacing <unk> Simon on guitar and playing alongside bassist Byron Stroud , both of whom would later become members of Townsend 's flagship band , Strapping Young Lad . In 1993 , Townsend began writing material under the name Noisescapes , a project he later described as " just as violent as Strapping Young Lad " . 
 Townsend recorded a Noisescapes demo and sent copies to various record labels . <unk> Records responded to Townsend with a record deal and Townsend began work on what was to be the first Noisescapes album , Promise . Shortly afterward , the label introduced him to musician Steve Vai . Impressed with Townsend 's vocal work , Vai offered him the role of the lead vocalist on his new album Sex and Religion . After recording Sex and Religion , Townsend accompanied Vai on a world tour in support of the album . Townsend soon landed a second touring gig , this time with the opening band of Vai 's tour , the Wildhearts . He played live with the band throughout half of 1994 in Europe , and appeared as a guest musician on their single <unk> . <unk> , the band 's frontman , remained close friends with Townsend , later co @-@ writing several songs on Infinity and the <unk> + 4 <unk> EP . 
 While on tour with the Wildhearts , Townsend formed a short @-@ lived thrash metal project with Metallica 's then @-@ bassist Jason Newsted . The band , known as IR8 , featured Newsted on vocals and bass , Townsend on guitar , and Tom Hunting of Exodus on drums . The group recorded a few songs together , although Townsend says that they never intended to go further than that . " People heard about it and thought we wanted to put out a CD , which is absolutely not true , " he explains . " People took this project way too seriously . " A demo tape was put together , but the material was not released until 2002 , when Newsted published the IR8 vs. <unk> compilation . 
 Though Townsend was proud of what he had accomplished so early in his career , he was discouraged by his experience with the music industry . " I was becoming a product of somebody else 's imagination , and it was mixing with my own personality , " he later reflected . " This combination was appalling . " He pushed to get his own projects off the ground . Despite getting notable touring gigs with other musicians , however , Townsend continued to face rejection of his own music . <unk> Records dropped Noisescapes from their label shortly after Townsend accepted Vai 's offer , seeing no commercial appeal in Townsend 's music . " I have a <unk> they only offered me a deal to get me to sing with Steve , " he <unk> . While touring with the Wildhearts , Townsend received a phone call from an A & R representative for Roadrunner Records , expressing an interest in his demos and an intention to sign him . The offer was ultimately rescinded by the head of Roadrunner , who regarded Townsend 's recordings as " just noise " . 
 
 = = = Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing through Infinity ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = = 
 
 In 1994 , Century Media Records offered Townsend a contract to make " some extreme albums " . He agreed to a five @-@ album deal with the record label , and also provided much of the guitar work on the 1994 album Millennium and the 1995 album Hard Wired by Vancouver industrial band Front Line Assembly . Townsend began to record material under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He avoided using his real name at this point in career , looking for a fresh start after his high @-@ profile Vai gig . " At the beginning , I wanted to avoid at all cost to use my name because I was known as the singer for Steve Vai and it wasn 't the best publicity to have , " he later explained . " I was playing somebody else 's music and I was judged in respect to that music . " Townsend produced and performed nearly all the instruments on the debut studio album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , which was released in April 1995 . 
 Following the release of the record , Townsend and several other musician friends he knew in Vancouver recorded his first solo album in 1996 entitled <unk> <unk> – <unk> on <unk> . Written and recorded in under a month , the album was produced as a parody of punk rock bands and documents the act of selling out for mainstream success . Townsend founded his own independent record label , <unk> Records , to release the album . Townsend assembled a permanent lineup of Strapping Young Lad to record City , including prolific metal drummer Gene Hoglan , along with Townsend 's former bandmates <unk> Simon on guitar and Byron Stroud on bass . The industrial @-@ influenced album was released in 1997 . To this day , the album is widely considered Strapping Young Lad 's best work , with Metal Maniacs calling it " groundbreaking " and Revolver naming it " one of the greatest metal albums of all time " . Townsend himself considers it the band 's " ultimate " album . Later that year , Townsend released his second solo album , Ocean Machine : Biomech . The album featured a mix of hard rock , ambient , and progressive rock . 
 After the completion of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , Townsend began to approach a mental breakdown . " I started to see human beings as little <unk> , water based , pink meat , " he explained , " life forms pushing air through themselves and making noises that the other little pieces of meat seemed to understand . " In 1997 , he checked himself into a mental @-@ health hospital , where he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder . The diagnosis helped him understand where the two sides of his music were coming from ; he felt his disorder " gave birth to the two extremes that are Strapping 's City record and Ocean Machine : Biomech . " After being discharged from the hospital , Townsend found that " everything just <unk> " and he was able to write his third solo album , Infinity , which he described as " the parent project " of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , with music influenced by Broadway . Townsend returned to the studio , accompanied by Hoglan , to work on the album , on which Townsend played most of the instruments . Infinity was released in October 1998 . Later in his career , Townsend has cited Infinity as his favorite solo record . 
 With Infinity , Townsend began to label all albums outside of Strapping Young Lad under his own name , dropping the Ocean Machine moniker , to reduce confusion . He wanted to show that despite the highly varied nature of his projects , they are all simply aspects of his identity . The album Biomech was <unk> and <unk> as Ocean Machine : Biomech , under Townsend 's name , to reflect the new arrangement . Townsend 's bandmates began to play two sets at their shows , one as Strapping Young Lad , and one as the Devin Townsend Band , playing songs from Townsend 's solo albums . 
 
 = = = Physicist and Terria ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = 
 
 Townsend 's next project took several years to come to fruition . After the creation of the IR8 demo tape , Townsend and Jason Newsted had begun work on a new project called <unk> , which they described as " heavier than Strapping Young Lad " . When the IR8 tape was leaked , Newsted 's Metallica bandmates James <unk> and Lars <unk> learned of the project . <unk> was " fucking <unk> " that Newsted was playing outside the band , and Newsted was prevented by his bandmates from working on any more side projects . With the project stalled , Townsend instead wrote the album himself , <unk> it Physicist . Townsend assembled his Strapping Young Lad bandmates to record it , the only time this lineup was featured on a Devin Townsend album . The thrash @-@ influenced Physicist was released in June 2000 , and is generally considered a low point in Townsend 's career . Hoglan and the rest of the band were dissatisfied with the way the sound was mixed , and Townsend considers it his worst album to date . 
 Feeling he had " ostracized a bunch of fans " with Physicist , Townsend felt he had the chance to make a more personal and honest record . Townsend was inspired one morning while driving across Canada with his band , and looked to write an " introspective " album dedicated to his homeland . He produced and recorded Terria , a " highly illustrated stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness " album , with Gene Hoglan on drums , Craig McFarland on bass and Jamie Meyer on keyboards . Townsend cited <unk> 's White <unk> as an inspiration for the album . Terria was released in November 2001 . 
 
 = = = Strapping Young Lad through Synchestra ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = = 
 
 Townsend 's solo run lasted until 2002 . After a five @-@ year break from recording , Strapping Young Lad reunited to record a new album . Townsend credits the album , Strapping Young Lad , as an emotional response to the attacks of September 11 , 2001 , in the United States . " If the world 's about to blow up , " said Townsend , " let 's write the soundtrack for it . " The album 's lyrics were based more around fear and insecurity than the " hostile " lyrics of City . Musically , Strapping Young Lad was less industrial than City , and more reminiscent of death metal , with a " larger @-@ than @-@ life " rock production style . Townsend cited Front Line Assembly , <unk> , and <unk> 's Passage as influences . The self @-@ titled album was released in February 2003 . It received lukewarm reviews , with critics finding it inferior to City , but it was the band 's first charting album , entering at <unk> place on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart . 
 While Strapping Young Lad was being reunited , Townsend formed a new , permanent band " on par with Strapping " to record and tour for his solo releases . The Devin Townsend Band consisted of Brian " Beav " Waddell on guitar , Mike Young on bass , Ryan Van <unk> on drums , and Dave Young on keyboards . Townsend performed guitar , vocals , and production , as he did in Strapping Young Lad . Townsend worked on the band 's first album , Accelerated Evolution , at the same time he was working on Strapping Young Lad , spending half the week on one and half on the other . Accelerated Evolution , named for the pace of putting a new band together in under a year , was released a month after Strapping Young Lad . Mike G. of Metal Maniacs called it " the album of the year " , praising it for " the hard @-@ to @-@ accomplish trick of being extreme yet accessible , simultaneously heavy ' n ' <unk> ' yet <unk> and beautiful . " Prior to the formation of the Devin Townsend Band , Townsend had represented his solo releases live with the Strapping Young Lad lineup ; the band would play one set of Strapping Young Lad songs and one set of Devin Townsend songs . After the release of Accelerated Evolution , Townsend 's two bands toured separately for their separate albums . 
 Strapping Young Lad began working on their next album , Alien , in March 2004 . Feeling that the band 's previous album did not live up to expectations , Townsend decided to take his music to a new extreme . To prepare for the new album , Townsend stopped taking the medication prescribed to treat his bipolar disorder . " I think that as an artist , in order for me to get to the next plateau , I kind of feel the need to explore things and sometimes that exploration leads you to places that are a little crazy , " he explains . " And Alien was no exception with that . " Although Townsend considered the album an " impenetrable mass of <unk> " , it was well received on its release , selling 3 @,@ 697 copies in its first week and appearing on several Billboard charts . Around this time , Townsend also contributed to the soundtrack of the video game <unk> : <unk> of Steel . 
 Shortly thereafter Townsend began putting together the next Devin Townsend Band record , with the working title Human . Townsend intended the album as the more " pleasant " counterpart to Alien . " It 's basically a record about coming back down to earth after being in space with Alien for a while . " The album ended up being renamed Synchestra and was released in January 2006 . Townsend showcased a wide variety of musical styles in Synchestra , blending his trademark " pop metal " with influences from folk , polka , and Middle Eastern music . The final Strapping Young Lad album , The New Black , was released later in 2006 . 
 
 = = = Ziltoid the Omniscient and hiatus ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = 
 
 Townsend withdrew from touring to spend time with his family . From home , Townsend completed his second solo ambient album , The <unk> , releasing it exclusively on his website in November 2006 . 
 In May 2007 , Townsend released Ziltoid the Omniscient , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rock opera about the eponymous fictional alien . This was truly a solo album ; he programmed the drums using <unk> from Hell , a software drum machine that uses samples recorded by Tomas <unk> of Meshuggah and played all other instruments himself . Shortly after the album 's release , Townsend announced that he no longer planned to tour or make albums with Strapping Young Lad or the Devin Townsend Band . He explained that he was " burnt out on travelling , touring , and self promotion " and wished to do production work , write albums , and spend time with his family without the stress of interviews or touring . 
 In 2008 , Townsend lent his voice to characters in several episodes of the Adult <unk> cartoon Metalocalypse ( see Musician cameos in Metalocalypse for more ) . The original character design for <unk> the Drummer , one of the series ' main characters , bore a striking resemblance to Townsend . The series ' co @-@ creator <unk> Small acknowledged the similarity , and altered the design before the series began . " We made sure he didn 't look like Devin Townsend . We gave him the <unk> and the <unk> so he wouldn 't look like that . " 
 
 = = = Devin Townsend Project ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = = 
 
 After removing himself from the music industry , Townsend cut his trademark hair off and gave up drinking and smoking . Townsend found it " disconcerting " that he had difficulty writing music without drugs , and that he had trouble identifying his purpose as a musician . He spent a year producing albums in absence of writing , but found it <unk> and decided to " pick up the guitar and just write " . This began a period of " self discovery " where he learned " how to create without drugs " . 
 Over two years , Townsend wrote over 60 songs , and found that they fit into " four distinct styles " . In March 2009 , Townsend announced his plans for a four @-@ album series called Devin Townsend Project , with the goal of clarifying his musical identity and being " <unk> " for the persona he projects to the public . The project 's concept includes a different " theme " and a different group of musicians on each album . 
 Ki , the first album of the Devin Townsend Project <unk> was written to " set the stage " for the subsequent albums . Townsend <unk> his new @-@ found control and sobriety into Ki , a " tense , quiet " album , which contrasts with much of the music he had been known for . Additional female vocals were provided by <unk> Aimee <unk> ( Casualties of Cool ) . Ki was released in May 2009 . 
 The second entry , a " commercial , yet heavy " album called Addicted , was released in November 2009 and features lead vocals from Townsend and Dutch singer Anneke van Giersbergen . Brian " Beav " Waddell was recruited from the Devin Townsend Band to play bass . 
 Townsend returned to the stage in January 2010 , touring North America with <unk> Between the Buried and Me as well as <unk> and Scale the Summit . This was followed by a headlining tour in Australia and a series of high @-@ profile shows in Europe ( for example co @-@ headlining the <unk> Assault festival in Czech Republic ) . He <unk> a North American tour with UK label mates <unk> supporting , which began in October 2010 , and toured in Europe with support from <unk> <unk> and Anneke van Giersbergen . 
 The third and fourth albums in the Devin Townsend Project series , Deconstruction and Ghost , were released simultaneously on June 21 , 2011 . In December 2011 all four Devin Townsend Project albums with additional material were released as the <unk> Us box set . Townsend performed all four of Devin Townsend Project albums in London and recorded them for a DVD box set called By a Thread : Live in London 2011 that was released on June 18 , 2012 . The first three shows were held at the University of London Union , November 10 – 12 , 2011 . Ki , Addicted , and Deconstruction were each performed on one night , respectively . The show for Ghost was held at the Union Chapel , Islington on November 13 , 2011 . These four shows were each entitled " An Evening with the Devin Townsend Project " . 
 Despite the Devin Townsend Project being originally a four @-@ album series , Townsend decided to continue working under the moniker and released the fifth album , Epicloud on September 18 , 2012 . Again featuring Anneke van Giersbergen on vocals , Epicloud appeared on several European charts , peaking at number 8 in Finland . On October 27 , 2012 , Devin Townsend performed a one @-@ off show covering his musical career called The <unk> Circus at <unk> in London . The 3 @-@ hour performance was recorded in high definition and released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 30 , 2013 . Also in 2012 , Townsend played bass on the debut Bent Sea album <unk> . He also produced the record . 
 Another project Townsend has mentioned several times between 2009 and 2012 is <unk> , an album featuring " creepy , bass driven apocalyptic music " created with an " <unk> rig " and an " Icelandic choir " . Working with many projects simultaneously at that time , Townsend stated in 2012 the <unk> project is vying for pole position until " he wakes up and says ' he wants to do it ' " . 
 
 = = = Casualties of Cool and <unk> ( 2012 – present ) = = = 
 
 After Deconstruction and Ghost , Townsend announced a new album , Casualties of Cool , with which he started to work after the release of Epicloud . The album features <unk> Aimee <unk> ( from Ki ) on vocals and Morgan <unk> on drums . Townsend described the album sounds like " haunted Johnny Cash songs " and " late night music " , highlighting it will be different than anything he has done before . Townsend referred the music of the album to be " closest to his heart " at this point of his life , and that it is an important and satisfying project he doesn 't want to rush . 
 The album was completed on November 2013 , and a bonus disc was also made for the album , containing the leftover material from the main album as well as songs from Ghost 2 , the unreleased compilation of leftover tracks from Ghost . Originally in 2012 , Townsend stated that this album will be the sixth and the last album in the Devin Townsend Project series , but he ultimately confirmed that Casualties of Cool is its own project . Townsend also started a <unk> campaign through <unk> to support the release of the album . The funding quickly reached its goal , and all additional funds were put directly to Townsend 's upcoming projects . Casualties of Cool was released on May 14 , 2014 . The album was re @-@ issued worldwide on January 15 , 2016 containing an additional DVD with live footage from the 2014 concert at the Union Chapel in London . 
 From 2009 , Townsend worked on a long @-@ running album project called Z ² , a sequel to the album Ziltoid the Omniscient ( 2007 ) . Originally in 2012 , he <unk> he " may have just written the heaviest thing he 's ever done " for the album , and told there might a surprising lack of Ziltoid himself appearing on the album . However , in August 2013 , a London @-@ based radio station <unk> Radio aired the first episode of Ziltoid Radio , a satirical radio show hosted solely by Ziltoid , this being one element of the Z ² project . Townsend also discussed a " <unk> " or " Ziltoid TV " is preceding the album . Later Townsend stated he has found the project hard to schedule and work with amidst touring and writing , stating " it takes a lot of effort " to keep the content with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humour entertaining . 
 After writing ideas for over 70 songs , Townsend stated he is finally going to finish the whole project , followed by the announcement the album will be released on October 27 , 2014 . The recording process started in May 2014 , and the final project includes the album , a Ziltoid TV program and a live show , with a " big graphic novel comic " and a documentary . The album itself is a double album , with disc one being the main album and disc two featuring Devin Townsend Project material ; according to Townsend , the album 's theme is " Ziltoid against the world " . The Devin Townsend Project disc is called Sky Blue and the Ziltoid disc is called Dark Matters . 
 After finishing the album , Townsend stated the project was " punishing " and an " absolute nightmare to complete " due to amount of material against tight schedules . He also described the hardship of the project by telling " if he was ever going to start drinking [ again ] , the last months would have been it " , but now " he 's starting to get excited again " . Later , " after the chaos of finishing it had subsided " , Townsend stated he is really satisfied with the result . 
 Townsend recently discussed at least a year @-@ long hiatus , beginning after the Z ² show taking place at the Royal Albert Hall on April 13 , 2015 . During the indefinitely long break Townsend intends to " recharge his batteries " , " get some inspiration and experiences " and to " see what the next chapter holds " for him . 
 In 2014 , Devin recorded a ' poppy sounding ' song in Los Angeles with producer Brian <unk> , but has decided against releasing . Devin mentioned he is against the project being contrived due to the current hard rock undertones in popular music . He described it as a " lukewarm heavy metal Devin song " . On December 11 , 2015 Townsend announced via Twitter that he was recording vocals for a song by Steve Vai . 
 As of April 2016 , Devin is in the middle of recording the seventh <unk> album , entitled <unk> at <unk> Studios in Vancouver . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Townsend has been married to Tracy Turner , his girlfriend since he was 19 . She gave birth to their first son , <unk> Liam <unk> Townsend , on October 4 , 2006 . He is a vegetarian . 
 
 = = Musical style = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Townsend designed his two main projects , the aggressive Strapping Young Lad and his more melodic solo material , as counterparts . Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres : death metal , thrash metal , black metal and industrial metal . Townsend 's solo material blends many genres and influences , with elements of atmospheric ambient music , hard rock and progressive rock , along with pop metal and arena rock . He described it as " a highly orchestrated type of expansive music based in hard rock and heavy metal . <unk> and produced with a large amount of ambient elements . " Despite Strapping Young Lad 's greater mainstream acceptance , Townsend identifies more with his solo material , and has never intended Strapping Young Lad to be the focus of his music . 
 
 = = = Production style = = = 
 
 As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of <unk> " , Townsend has developed a trademark production style featuring an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " . Townsend has drawn critical praise for his productions , which " are always marked by a sense of adventure , intrigue , chaotic <unk> and overall <unk> <unk> " , according to Mike G. of Metal Maniacs . Townsend mainly uses Pro Tools to produce his music , alongside other software <unk> such as <unk> <unk> , <unk> Live , and Logic Pro . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Townsend has carried out the mixing and mastering for most of his solo work himself . He has also mixed and remixed work for other artists such as <unk> , August Burns Red and <unk> Signals . 
 
 = = = Playing style = = = 
 
 Townsend mainly uses Open C tuning for both six and seven string guitar . He now also uses Open B tuning and Open B flat tuning ( Open C tuning tuned a half and a whole step down respectively ) on his six string guitars . Townsend 's technique varies from <unk> , power chords and <unk> to sweep @-@ picked arpeggios and tapping techniques . He is also known for his heavy use of <unk> and delay effects . He has expressed that he has no taste for <unk> guitar , saying that " Musically it doesn 't do anything for me " and that he only solos when he thinks that he can within the context of the song . 
 
 = = = Vocals = = = 
 
 Townsend 's employs a variety of vocal techniques in his work , including screaming , growling or even falsetto . His vocal range has been noted to be over 5 octaves ( <unk> to <unk> ) . 
 
 = = = Influences = = = 
 
 Townsend draws influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently heavy metal . Townsend has cited , among others , Judas Priest , <unk> , Frank Zappa , Broadway musicals , <unk> , new @-@ age music , <unk> France , King 's X , <unk> Angel , <unk> , <unk> , Jane 's <unk> , Metallica , Cop Shoot Cop and Fear Factory as his influences , and has also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Townsend lists Paul Horn and Ravi Shankar as the " two most important musicians in his life " . The two songs that Townsend credits with changing the way he thought about music are " The Burning Down " by King 's X , and " Up the Beach " by Jane 's <unk> . City was influenced by bands such as <unk> and Cop Shoot Cop , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica . He is also influenced by orchestral and classical composers such as John Williams , Trevor Jones and Igor Stravinsky . 
 
 = = Discography = = 
 
 
 
 = Zagreb Synagogue = 
 
 The Zagreb Synagogue ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> ) was the main place of worship for the Jewish community of Zagreb in modern @-@ day Croatia . It was constructed in 1867 in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia within the Austrian Empire , and was used until it was demolished by the fascist authorities in 1941 in the Axis @-@ aligned Independent State of Croatia . 
 The <unk> Revival synagogue , designed after the <unk> <unk> in Vienna , was located on modern @-@ day Praška Street . It has been the only purpose @-@ built Jewish house of worship in the history of the city . It was one of the city 's most prominent public buildings , as well as one of the most esteemed examples of synagogue architecture in the region . 
 Since the 1980s , plans have been made to rebuild the synagogue in its original location . Due to various political circumstances , very limited progress has been made . Major disagreements exist between the government and Jewish organizations as to how much the latter should be involved in decisions about the reconstruction project , including proposed design and character of the new building . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Encouraged by the 1782 <unk> of <unk> of Emperor Joseph II , Jews first permanently settled in Zagreb in the late eighteenth century , and founded the Jewish community in 1806 . In 1809 the Jewish community had a rabbi , and by 1811 it had its own cemetery . As early as 1833 , the community was permitted to buy land for construction of a synagogue , but did not have sufficient money to finance one at the time . 
 By 1855 , the community had grown to 700 members and , on October 30 of that year , the decision was made to build a new Jewish synagogue . The construction committee , appointed in 1861 , selected and purchased a parcel of land at the corner of Maria Valeria Street ( now Praška Street ) and Ban <unk> Square , the central town square . However , a new urban planning scheme of 1864 reduced the area available for construction , and the community decided to buy another parcel of 1 @,@ 540 square metres ( 16 @,@ 600 sq ft ) in Maria Valeria Street , approximately 80 metres ( 260 ft ) south of the original location . 
 
 = = = Design and construction = = = 
 
 Franjo Klein , a Vienna @-@ born Zagreb architect , was commissioned to build the synagogue . Klein , a representative of romantic <unk> , modeled the building on the <unk> <unk> <unk> ( 1858 ) , a <unk> Revival temple designed by Ludwig Förster . It became a prototype for synagogue design in Central Europe . Zagreb Synagogue used the already developed round arch style ( <unk> ) , but did not adopt Förster 's early oriental motifs . 
 The composition of the main facade , with its dominant drawn @-@ out and elevated projection and the two symmetrical lower lateral parts , reflects the internal division into three naves . At ground @-@ floor level , the front was distinguished by the three @-@ arch entrance and <unk> , whereas the first @-@ floor level had a high <unk> with an elevated arch and the <unk> <unk> on the staircases . 
 The synagogue occupied the greater part of the plot , facing west . It <unk> from the street regulation @-@ line in accordance with the rule then still enforced in Austria – Hungary , prohibiting non @-@ Catholic places of worship from having a public entrance from the street . The synagogue had a wider and slightly higher central nave and two narrower naves ; unlike Förster 's synagogue in Vienna , it did not have a <unk> plan . 
 Construction began in 1866 and was completed the following year . The synagogue was officially consecrated on September 27 , 1867 , a ceremony attended by representatives of city and regional authorities , Zagreb public figures , and many citizens . It was the first prominent public building in Zagreb 's lower town , and its architecture and scale aroused general admiration and praise . 
 
 = = = 19th and early 20th century = = = 
 
 With the new synagogue , an organ was introduced into religious service . The small minority of Orthodox Jews found this change to be intolerable , and they began to hold their services separately , in rented rooms . 
 In the 1880 earthquake , the synagogue suffered minor damage and was repaired the following year . 
 Largely due to immigration from Hungary , Bohemia and Moravia , the Jewish population of Zagreb quickly grew in size : from 1 @,@ 285 members in 1887 to 3 @,@ 237 members in 1900 , and then to 5 @,@ 970 members in 1921 . The synagogue became too small to accommodate the needs of the ever @-@ growing community . In 1921 a renovation was undertaken to increase the number of available seats . A 1931 plan to increase the capacity to <unk> seats was ultimately abandoned . A central heating system was installed in 1933 . 
 
 = = = Demolition during World War II = = = 
 
 During the 1941 collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia under the Axis invasion in the April War , the Independent State of Croatia was created . It was ruled by the extreme nationalist Ustaša regime . The Ustaša quickly started with the systematic persecution of the Jews , modeled after the Nazi Germany approach , and at times even more brutal . Racial laws were introduced , Jewish property was confiscated , and the Jews were subjected to mass arrests and <unk> to death camps in Croatia and abroad . 
 In October 1941 , the newly installed mayor of Zagreb , Ivan Werner , issued a decree ordering the demolition of the Praška Street synagogue , ostensibly because it did not fit into the city 's master plan . The demolition began on October 10 , 1941 , proceeding slowly so as not to damage the adjacent buildings ; it was finished by April 1942 . The whole process was photographed for propaganda purposes , and the photographs were shown to the public at an antisemitic exhibition first held in Zagreb . It was also shown in Dubrovnik , <unk> , Sarajevo , Vukovar and <unk> , as an illustration of the " solution of the Jewish question in Croatia " . 
 A fragment of the film footage of the demolition was discovered five decades later by the film director <unk> <unk> during research for his 1993 documentary feature , Decline of the Century : <unk> of L. Z. ; 41 seconds of the film survives . This footage was also shown in Mira Wolf 's documentary , The Zagreb Synagogue 1867 @-@ 1942 ( 1996 ) , produced by Croatian <unk> . 
 The synagogue 's eight valuable Torah scrolls were saved due to an intervention by Leonardo Grivičić , an entrepreneur and industrialist who lived next door from Mile <unk> , a minister in the Ustaša government . He was also close to <unk> Ante Pavelić and the Third Reich 's ambassador to Croatia , Edmund <unk> @-@ <unk> . Although Grivičić did not have a significant political role in the Independent State of Croatia , he was considered trustworthy . On October 9 , 1941 , he learned about the regime 's plan to start the demolition of the synagogue on the following morning . By that evening , Grivičić secretly relayed the information to the synagogue 's chief cantor , <unk> , and during the night , the Torah scrolls were moved to safety . 
 Shortly after the destruction of the synagogue , the Catholic archbishop of Zagreb <unk> <unk> delivered a <unk> in which he said : " A house of God of any faith is a holy thing , and whoever harms it will pay with their lives . In this world and the next they will be punished . " . 
 The only surviving fragments of the building — the wash @-@ basin and two memorial tables from the <unk> , as well as some parts of a column — were saved by Ivo Kraus . He pulled them from the rubble shortly after the end of World War II . The wash @-@ basin and the memorial tables are now in the Zagreb City Museum . The column fragments are kept by the Jewish Community of Zagreb . 
 
 = = Reconstruction efforts = = 
 
 
 = = = 1945 – 1990 = = = 
 
 Only one in five Croatian Jews survived the Holocaust of World War II . Between 1948 and 1952 , nearly one half of the surviving members of Jewish Community of Zagreb opted for emigration to Israel , and the community dropped to one @-@ tenth of its pre @-@ war membership . The Yugoslav communist regime <unk> virtually all real estate owned by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , including the plot in Praška Street . All this , combined with the new regime 's general hostility toward religion , made reconstruction of the synagogue nearly impossible . 
 After World War II , the vacant site of the former synagogue was used as a makeshift volleyball court . The volleyball court made way for a prefabricated department store building , constructed in 1959 . The department store was completely destroyed in a fire on December 31 , 1980 , and was subsequently dismantled . Despite some earlier ideas about a permanent department store building on the same spot , and a 1977 architecture competition for its design , no construction took place . Instead , the parcel was turned into a parking lot , which it remains to this day . 
 After 1986 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb began to consider a Jewish cultural center and a memorial synagogue . Two architects , Branko <unk> and Boris <unk> , both of whom participated in the failed 1977 department store competition , came forward on their own accord and contributed their ideas for a new Jewish center in Praška Street . <unk> 's vision was ultimately not accepted by the Jewish community ; instead , plans were being made for the construction of the cultural center and a synagogue , following an international architecture competition . However , despite support for the project both within Yugoslavia and abroad , the issuance of necessary permits was either stalled or denied by the municipal government . The project was not developed . 
 
 = = = 1990 – present = = = 
 
 By the autumn of 1990 , after the first democratic elections in Croatia , the municipal government finally approved the project . An architectural competition was planned for January 1991 . Political turmoil in the country , followed by the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Croatian War of Independence ( 1991 – 1995 ) , caused the project to be put on hold again . In 1994 President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman said to <unk> <unk> , Council member of the Zagreb Jewish community , that they should build the new synagogue at the site of the former synagogue , which will be funded by the Croatian government . <unk> declined the offer believing to be inappropriate when 1800 Catholic churches are left destroyed at the time , during Croatian War of Independence . 
 In the meantime , the Jewish Community of Zagreb sought to legally <unk> its property . The Croatian <unk> law was enacted in 1996 , and the Praška Street parcel was finally returned to the community on December 31 , 1999 . By 2000 , reconstruction activities were invigorated again . An investment study was submitted to the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb in July 2004 and revised in October 2004 . The architecture competition was planned for 2005 . However , a 2005 rift in the Jewish Community of Zagreb resulted in formation of a splinter Jewish community , Bet Israel , led by Ivo and <unk> Goldstein . 
 In September 2006 , the Government of Croatia formed a construction <unk> . It was decided that the project , estimated at the time at <unk> 173 million ( US $ 30 million ) , would be partially financed by the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb , and that both Jewish organizations should be represented in the <unk> . However , the involvement of Bet Israel was deemed unacceptable by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , which is the sole owner of the Praška Street property , and which also sees itself as the sole legal representative of the Zagreb Jewish community . As a consequence , the community and its president , <unk> Kraus , refused further participation in the project under the set conditions . 
 Further disagreements existed about the design and character of the new building . <unk> reconstruction , while feasible , was not seriously contemplated . There was a general agreement that the new building should also have a cultural as well as commercial purpose . While the Jewish Community of Zagreb envisioned a modern design reminiscent of the original synagogue , the Bet Israel advocated building a replica of the original synagogue 's facade , <unk> it as having a powerful symbolism . Opinions of architects , urban planners , and art historians were also divided along similar lines . 
 In 2014 and 2015 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb presented new plans for a 10 @,@ 600 m2 ( 114 @,@ 000 sq ft ) multi @-@ purpose Jewish center and synagogue in Praška Street . 
 
 
 = 1806 Great Coastal hurricane = 
 
 The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts . First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived at the Bahamas by 19 August . The disturbance continued to drift northward and made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina on 22 August . The storm soon moved out to sea as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , <unk> off of New England before dissipating south of Nova Scotia on 25 August as a markedly weaker storm . Several French and British military ships were damaged out at sea . In the Carolinas , salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries suffered considerably , and several individuals were killed . <unk> and vessels endured moderate damage , with many ships wrecked on North <unk> barrier islands . A majority of the deaths caused by the hurricane occurred aboard the Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom offshore of <unk> Inlet , New Jersey , with 21 of the ship 's 48 passengers killed and $ 171 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) in damage to its cargo . Upon arriving in New England , reports indicated extreme rainfall , though no deaths were reported ; in all , the hurricane killed more than 24 individuals along the entirety of its track . 
 
 = = Meteorological history = = 
 
 The Great Coastal hurricane of 1806 was first noted far east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August . Weather historian David M. <unk> followed the disturbance 's track to the Bahamas by 19 August ; intense winds persisted until 21 August , however , approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the <unk> island of <unk> . <unk> currents brought the storm northward , and it approached Charleston , South Carolina on 22 August , where a generally easterly flow preceded the storm indicated its passage far east of the city . The hurricane made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina later that day , though the earliest impacts from the storm started several days earlier , with gusts initially toward the northeast but later curving southwestward . Reports of similar wind shifts throughout the region suggested that the gale persisted , stationary , for several hours . It eventually moved back out to sea while south of Norfolk , Virginia , departing the region on 24 August . The hurricane maintained 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while offshore , equivalent to a Category 2 system on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . While offshore New England , the gale featured a <unk> of winds 90 mi ( 150 km ) wide , and was last observed just south of Nova Scotia on 25 August slightly weaker , with sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . 
 
 = = Impact = = 
 
 The hurricane damaged several vessels while still drifting at sea , <unk> and damaging Jérôme Bonaparte 's fleet and <unk> the 74 @-@ gun French ship of the line Impétueux , which later landed near Cape Henry . 
 In Charleston , South Carolina , the hurricane washed aground several ships and uprooted numerous trees , though damage to the city harbor was minimal . The lighthouse on North Island flanking <unk> Bay collapsed under high winds , and in Georgetown proper , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since the 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane , despite its storm surge being of a lesser size . A cotton field covering 94 acres was ruined nearby . At <unk> , North Carolina , numerous ships experienced damage , while considerable destruction to structures was observed , with many wharves wrecked . Meanwhile , at Wilmington , the hurricane inflicted widespread damage , with many wharves severely damaged , and significant losses sustained by salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries . The gable sections of three masonry houses were destroyed by wind or water , and wooden houses suffered especially badly , with many obliterated and those under construction flattened . One individual died after a wall collapsed and several slaves were killed , one by drowning , at local plantations . At Bald Head Island , the United States Revenue <unk> Service vessel Governor Williams was stripped of its foremast and subsequently ran ashore before being repaired and continuing on its journey . A second boat owned by the agency , the <unk> , was <unk> at port in Wilmington and endured no damage ; similarly , little impact occurred at New Bern . Throughout the storm , several vessels and supplies of stranded sailors were driven aground along the North <unk> coast . On the <unk> Banks , the remains of the <unk> and Atlantic were discovered , and at the Core Banks , a dead body was washed ashore , partially eaten by fish . 
 Moderate damage occurred upon the hurricane 's arrival in Norfolk , Virginia . Winds toppled a number of newly built structures and chimneys , uprooted trees and fences , and washed two <unk> aground . After the storm , alterations to the shoreline around the Chesapeake Bay permitted the full establishment of a town at Willoughby <unk> . The Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom was caught in the hurricane while offshore of <unk> Inlet , New Jersey , en route to New York City from Charleston , but was struck by a large wave which overturned the ship , resulting in the deaths of 21 of its 48 passengers and the loss of $ 171 @,@ 000 of its $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) cargo . The vessel only barely stayed afloat , with 30 <unk> of cotton preventing it from sinking entirely ; survivors were ferried to New York by the British brig Swift , which had then been traveling toward St. John 's , Newfoundland . The hurricane produced strong gusts within the vicinity of New York City , and at Belleville , New Jersey , several peach trees were <unk> and uprooted . Cape Cod , Massachusetts was struck by heavy rain and observed minor damage to its port . At <unk> , meanwhile , an individual witnessed torrential rainfall , recording that a barrel was filled with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of water , and estimating total rainfall reached 36 in ( 91 cm ) there , where the storm devastated local crops and <unk> five cargo ships . At <unk> , meanwhile , severe damage to crops and <unk> was noted , and 18 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall was recorded . Reports in Boston , however , indicate more modest rainfall amounts , with a precipitation rate of 0 @.@ 40 in ( 1 @.@ 0 cm ) per hour noted . 
 
 
 = Forward Intelligence Team = 
 
 Forward Intelligence Teams ( FITs ) are two or more police officers who are deployed by UK police forces to gather intelligence on the ground and in some circumstances , to disrupt activists and deter anti @-@ social behaviour . They use cameras , <unk> and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . An unsuccessful legal challenge has been made against their use of overt surveillance , but in 2009 the Court of Appeal ruled that they must justify retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . Any retained information is recorded on the Crimint database . 
 Political activists have criticised FITs and said that they feel the aim of FIT deployment during protests is to prevent legal protests . Journalists have also complained that FITs attempt to stop them photographing protests and that they conduct surveillance of journalists . A campaign group , Fitwatch , formed in 2007 that aim to obstruct FITs and conduct <unk> on the officers . Two members of the group were arrested at the 2008 Climate Camp on obstruction charges . A similar police surveillance unit , the Video Intelligence Unit is operated by Greater Manchester Police . In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . 
 
 = = History and Purpose = = 
 
 FITs were first formed in the early 1990s , as part of the Public Order Intelligence Unit ( <unk> ) , a section of the Public Order Branch of the Metropolitan Police . They initially targeted football fans , hunt <unk> and political protesters ( since at least 1996 ) , using cameras , <unk> and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . The police officers wear full uniform , and are intended to be a highly visible presence . Their uniform is sometimes different from normal police officers in that the upper half of their yellow fluorescent jackets is blue . Civilian photographers are also employed by the police to work alongside FITs . According to Scotland Yard , the aim of FIT teams at protests is to record evidence of protesters in case disorder occurs later on at a protest . 
 More recently the teams ' purpose has been extended to routine police work on low @-@ level crime and anti @-@ social behaviour and police forces throughout the UK now have their own FITs . Despite the implication in their name that their function is to merely gather intelligence , they are also intended to have a deterrent effect . This approach has been reported to work in reducing reports of anti @-@ social behaviour at times when FITs are deployed in specific neighbourhoods . <unk> Smith , then Home Secretary praised Operation Leopard that used FITs to target youths , in <unk> , Essex stating : 
 " Operation Leopard is exactly the sort of intensive policing that can bring persistent offenders to their senses ... <unk> filming of them and their associates throughout the day and night " 
 Linda <unk> , an activist , has suggested that their tactics are " designed to <unk> people and prevent lawful dissent " . This view is echoed by a police <unk> of their operations at the 2008 Camp for Climate Action which praised FITs at the event for disrupting activists . 
 In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . The move was influenced by the discovery that information collected by FITs , included that which was unrelated to suspected crimes , for example recording who made speeches at demonstrations . 
 In October 2010 , FIT officers in plain clothes were spotted by a press photographer at a protest against companies avoiding tax , despite Commander Bob Broadhurst telling a parliamentary committee in May 2009 , that only <unk> officers distinguishable by their blue and yellow jackets were involved in gathering intelligence at protests . The Metropolitan Police told The Guardian that it was necessary to deploy plain @-@ clothed officers to " gather information to provide us with a relevant and up @-@ to @-@ date intelligence picture of what to expect " . It was the first time that FITs are known to have been deployed in plain clothes . 
 
 = = Legal issues = = 
 
 Liberty brought a judicial review of the overt surveillance practices in May 2008 , which was decided in favour of the police , however the police were asked to clarify their evidence to the Court of Appeal , following an investigation by The Guardian newspaper . 
 In May 2009 , the Court of Appeal ruled that photographs collected by FITs of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept . The ruling was made after Andrew Wood , an arms trade activist , was photographed after challenging the management of Reed <unk> at their <unk> over them organising arms trade exhibitions . Wood argued that police had harassed him and <unk> his right to privacy by photographing him . Lord Collins of <unk> said that the police presence had a " chilling effect " on people who were protesting <unk> . FITs have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . As a result of the ruling the Metropolitan Police 's public order unit , <unk> was forced to <unk> 40 % of the photos of protesters that it held . 
 In a report about the policing of the 2009 G @-@ 20 London summit protests , Denis O 'Connor , the chief <unk> of <unk> , stated that the routine use of FITs at protests " raises fundamental privacy issues and should be reviewed " . He also said that there was " confusion " over the role of FITs and advised that the Home Office should issue guidance over the legality of the surveillance of protesters and the retention of images . 
 
 = = Information processing = = 
 
 The information that FITs collect is stored on the Crimint database , which is used daily by police officers to catalogue criminal intelligence . People are listed by name allowing police to determine which events individuals have attended . <unk> obtained by FITs are used to produce " <unk> cards " consisting of people 's photographs which allows officers to identify people at future events that they attend . For £ 10 , people are able to obtain a list of protests that they have attended from the data held on Crimint under laws in the Data Protection Act 1998 . 
 
 = = Academic response = = 
 
 A 2006 report , The Economics of Mass <unk> calculated that the use of FITs at mass gatherings involves gathering intelligence on roughly 1 @,@ 200 people to record the actions of one person . The report also noted that most of the people on " <unk> cards " , used by the police photographers , were those involved in the organisation of protests and that FITs also attend meetings where demonstrations are organised . 
 
 = = Criticism = = 
 
 Fitwatch ( formed in early 2007 ) campaign against FITs by actively <unk> their operations , and by passively opposing their operations by photographing units ( a form of <unk> ) . 
 In June 2009 , The Guardian released video evidence recorded by a FIT at the 2008 Climate Camp of alleged police brutality against two female members of Fitwatch . The women had asked police officers to reveal their shoulder numbers , as at least four officers had not displayed them . The women attempted to photograph the police officers for evidence , but were forced to the ground , restrained with handcuffs , and had their legs bound with <unk> . They were then placed in restraint positions , arrested , charged and held in custody for four days , including three days in <unk> <unk> , before they were released on bail . The police later <unk> all the charges against the women . The women lodged a complaint with the <unk> over the incident . The journalist George <unk> commented on this case , saying that " the police are turning activism into a crime " and that " the FITs ' methods appear to have been lifted from a <unk> training manual " . He claimed that " anybody who is politically active is filmed , identified , monitored , logged , and cross @-@ checked " . A police <unk> into the operation at <unk> praised the deployment of FITs saying that they were " highly effective and gained good intelligence and disruption " . 
 Three members of Fitwatch were convicted for <unk> FIT officers in June 2008 as they attempted to photograph those attending a No Borders meeting in London . In July 2010 the Inner London Crown Court overturned the men 's convictions , with the judge stating that the protesters ' human rights may have been violated by the FIT officers . 
 On 15 November 2010 , the hosts of the Fitwatch blog were asked by the Police National E @-@ Crime Unit to take down the website due to it " being used to undertake criminal activities " . The request came after a post on the blog after the 2010 student protest in London , which advised students of actions they should take if they were concerned that they were photographed at the demonstration , such as cutting their hair and <unk> of clothing they were wearing . Emily Apple , one of the founders of the site told The Guardian , " Nothing in that post [ giving guidance to student protesters ] has not been said before on our blog or on other sites " . On 17 November 2010 , the Fitwatch website returned , hosted on a web server outside of the UK . 
 The National Union of Journalists ( NUJ ) has criticised FITs for their surveillance and sometimes violent harassment of working journalists . Marc <unk> , who was hospitalised by police after documenting a protest , has said that the teams limit freedom of the press and called on the Home Office to confirm that the police had no right to restrict the work of <unk> . Bob Broadhurst , who is in charge of public order policing at the Metropolitan Police , said in a statement to the NUJ in 2008 that journalists , " on the production of a valid form of accreditation will be able to continue with their work " . The NUJ are to make a formal complaint to the Information Commissioner due to the Metropolitan Police failing to provide details on the surveillance of journalists under the Freedom of Information Act . Bob Broadhurst told photographers at an NUJ conference that he had no faith in the National Press Card ( a form of press pass ) despite journalists needing to prove that they are <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> to an independent authority before they are issued . 
 The BBC TV series <unk> produced an episode entitled What ever happened to people power ? in July 2009 which discussed the use of FITs in targeting activists and journalists . 
 
 = = Similar police units = = 
 
 Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit , whose <unk> officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences . They also record footage of people involved in anti @-@ social behaviour on the streets . The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law . Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their <unk> . Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have <unk> . This has resulted in several offenders being sent back to prison after breaching licence conditions . Since the unit was launched in 2006 more than 900 people have been filmed by the unit . Not all of these people are suspects in crime however , people can be filmed if they are thought to associate with prolific offenders or if they have been stopped in an area of high crime under suspicious circumstances . <unk> Walsh , a civil liberties lawyer , said the unit 's work " could have implications " for the force under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights - the right to privacy . He believes that filming must be a " proportionate and reasonable " response to a crime and that this does not appear to be the case as people are being targeted over what they might do in the future . It is uncertain as to how long data collected by the unit is to be kept but <unk> currently anticipate it will be stored for 5 years . 
 
 
 = Trinsey v. Pennsylvania = 
 
 Trinsey v. Pennsylvania <unk> <unk> 224 was a case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit that confirmed the validity of special elections held without a primary under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the United States Constitution . The case came about due to the death of H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , in a plane crash on April 4 , 1991 . Under the Seventeenth Amendment , state legislatures may give the Governor the power to appoint officials to fill temporarily vacant Senate seats until a special election can be held , and Pennsylvanian law contained a statute executing this and requiring no primaries for the special election . Instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidates . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a <unk> and potential candidate , asked the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania to declare the statute unconstitutional as a violation on the Fourteenth and Seventeenth amendments , because the lack of a primary removed his right to properly vote for candidates and delegated that power to political parties . 
 After deciding that the statute 's subject matter necessitated the strict scrutiny approach , the District Court decided on June 10 , 1991 that it was an unconstitutional violation of the right to vote for and select Senate candidates . This decision was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , who decided against the use of the strict scrutiny approach and , in its absence , ruled that the statute was not a violation of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . Academics have been critical of both the decision reached and the approach used , with one suggesting that the " substantial state interests " test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller would be more appropriate . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 On April 4 , 1991 H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , was killed when his chartered plane collided with a helicopter inspecting its landing gear . Under the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the legislature of each state has the power to permit the governor to fill the vacant seat until a special election can be held . In Pennsylvania , this power had been delegated , and Governor Robert P. Casey signed a writ on May 13 , 1991 , declaring November 5 the date for a special election and temporarily appointing Harris Wofford to fill Heinz 's now @-@ vacant seat . Under Pennsylvanian law , there was no need for a primary in such a situation ; instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidate , who would run in the special election . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a member of the Pennsylvanian electorate and potential candidate , challenged the <unk> of this law , claiming that it violated his rights under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . 
 Trinsey argued that , by failing to allow for primaries , the state legislation prevented him from getting to select a candidate of his choice , and that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment ; the terms of the statute ( and absence of a requirement for primaries ) also allegedly <unk> the rights of the electorate under the Seventeenth Amendment , which required the selection of Senators by popular vote ; Trinsey 's complaint was that the legislation had effectively delegated the power to choose candidates to political parties rather than the electorate . Accordingly , Trinsey filed a motion for a <unk> judgment to state that the statute was unconstitutional , and also requested that Wofford be removed from his seat . <unk> for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , joined by the office of the Governor , argued that the constitution did not require the holding of primary elections to fill vacancies , and that the statute " protected valid and compelling state interests in protecting the validity of the electoral process and limiting the term of a [ <unk> ] appointed Senator " . 
 
 = = Judgment = = 
 
 The case was first heard in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania , where , following oral arguments , the judge dismissed both Trinsey 's motion to remove Wofford and the Commonwealth 's motion to dismiss . On June 10 , 1991 , however , the District Court declared the statute unconstitutional , stating that it violated both the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments due to the failure to ensure " popular participation " through the use of primary elections . This decision was reached following an analysis of the legislative history of the Seventeenth Amendment and electoral processes ; based on this analysis , the court concluded that the Pennsylvanian use of a nomination process before a special election implied a right to vote , which was violated by the lack of a primary and necessitated a strict <unk> of the legislation . After considering the evidence , the court concluded that " the interests the Commonwealth put forth in support of the statute could not <unk> the infringement of the right to vote " , leading to the conclusion that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional . 
 With this " the public , press and political parties quickly turned their attention to the case " , with the Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania ( supported by their Democratic counterparts ) and several prominent politicians intervening . They moved to expedite an appeal to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit . In a unanimous opinion , the Court of Appeals ( consisting of <unk> , Greenberg and Seitz ) confirmed that there was no restriction of any fundamental right , and therefore that the strict scrutiny process did not need to be applied . In the absence of this process , they held that the Seventeenth Amendment did not require primary elections to fill vacancies , and more broadly gave state legislatures wide discretion as to how to hold elections ; as such , the statute did not violate the constitution . In December 1991 the Supreme Court denied a writ of certiorari , presumably because the special election had already taken place in November and the issue was thus moot . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Laura E. Little , writing in the Temple Law Review , notes the <unk> of guidance for either the District Court or Court of Appeals in Trinsey , with no " explicit direction and no direct precedent " from either the constitutional provisions or prior case law to rely on . In the absence of guidance , the Court of Appeals took a narrow view of the issues , something she <unk> . Under Pennsylvanian law , primaries are mandatory in all other elections , and in her opinion the lack of a primary in this case should have been judged to be a violation of Trinsey 's fundamental rights . Combined with the purpose of the Seventeenth Amendment - to ensure direct election - this should have led to the application of the strict scrutiny test , and the decision that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional . Kevin M. Gold instead suggests that the test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller , an analogous decision over the validity of New York state electoral law . In Valenti , the judiciary applied the " substantial state interests " test , which involves simply looking at whether the statute in question <unk> the interests of the states , who under the Seventeenth Amendment are given some discretion as to the electoral process they use . 
 
 
 = Michael Jordan = 
 
 Michael Jeffrey Jordan ( born February 17 , 1963 ) , also known by his initials , MJ , is an American retired professional basketball player . He is also a businessman , and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets . Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards . His biography on the NBA website states : " By acclamation , Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . " Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s . 
 Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina . He was a member of the Tar <unk> ' national championship team in 1982 . Jordan joined the NBA 's Chicago Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick . He quickly emerged as a league star , entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring . His leaping ability , demonstrated by performing slam <unk> from the free throw line in slam dunk contests , earned him the nicknames " Air Jordan " and " His <unk> " . He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball . In 1991 , he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls , and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993 , securing a " three @-@ peat " . Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 – 94 NBA season to pursue a career in baseball , he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996 , 1997 , and 1998 , as well as a then @-@ record 72 regular @-@ season wins in the 1995 – 96 NBA season . Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999 , but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards . 
 Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Awards , ten All @-@ NBA First Team designations , nine All @-@ Defensive First Team honors , fourteen NBA All @-@ Star Game appearances , three All @-@ Star Game MVP Awards , ten scoring titles , three steals titles , six NBA Finals MVP Awards , and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award . Among his numerous accomplishments , Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average ( 30 @.@ 12 points per game ) and highest career playoff scoring average ( 33 @.@ 45 points per game ) . In 1999 , he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN , and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century . Jordan is a two @-@ time <unk> into the Basketball Hall of Fame , having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career , and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ( " The Dream Team " ) . He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015 . 
 Jordan is also known for his product endorsements . He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan <unk> , which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today . Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam as himself . In 2006 , he became part @-@ owner and head of basketball operations for the then @-@ Charlotte Bobcats , buying a controlling interest in 2010 . In 2015 , as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises , Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history and the world 's second @-@ richest African @-@ American . 
 
 = = Early years = = 
 
 Jordan was born in Brooklyn , New York , the son of <unk> ( née Peoples ) , who worked in banking , and James R. Jordan , Sr. , an equipment supervisor . His family moved to Wilmington , North Carolina , when he was a <unk> . 
 Jordan is the fourth of five children . He has two older brothers , Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan , Jr . , one older sister , <unk> , and a younger sister , <unk> . Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the <unk> Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army . 
 
 = = High school career = = 
 
 Jordan attended <unk> A. Laney High School in Wilmington , where he anchored his athletic career by playing baseball , football , and basketball . He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year , but at 5 ' 11 " ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) , he was deemed too short to play at that level . His taller friend , Harvest <unk> Smith , was the only sophomore to make the team . 
 <unk> to prove his worth , Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad , and <unk> several 40 @-@ point games . The following summer , he grew four inches ( 10 cm ) and trained <unk> . Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster , Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play . As a senior , he was selected to the McDonald 's All @-@ American Team after averaging a triple @-@ double : 29 @.@ 2 points , 11 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 10 @.@ 1 assists . 
 Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs , including Duke , North Carolina , South Carolina , Syracuse , and Virginia . In 1981 , Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina , where he <unk> in cultural geography . 
 
 = = College career = = 
 
 As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team @-@ oriented system , he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13 @.@ 4 points per game ( ppg ) on 53 @.@ 4 % shooting ( field goal percentage ) . He made the game @-@ winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown , which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing . Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career . During his three seasons at North Carolina , he averaged 17 @.@ 7 ppg on 54 @.@ 0 % shooting , and added 5 @.@ 0 rebounds per game ( rpg ) . He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All @-@ American First Team in both his sophomore ( 1983 ) and junior ( 1984 ) seasons . After winning the <unk> and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984 , Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft . The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick , after <unk> Olajuwon ( Houston Rockets ) and Sam Bowie ( Portland Trail Blazers ) . One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center . However , the Trail Blazers general manager <unk> <unk> contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center , but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan , in part because Portland already had a guard with similar skills to Jordan , Clyde Drexler . ESPN , citing Bowie 's injury @-@ laden college career , named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history . Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986 . 
 
 = = Professional career = = 
 
 
 = = = Early NBA years ( 1984 – 1987 ) = = = 
 
 During his first season in the NBA , Jordan averaged 28 @.@ 2 ppg on 51 @.@ 5 % shooting . He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas , and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading " A Star Is Born " just over a month into his professional career . Jordan was also voted in as an All @-@ Star starter by the fans in his rookie season . Controversy arose before the All @-@ Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players , led by Isiah Thomas , were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving . This led to a so @-@ called " freeze @-@ out " on Jordan , where players refused to pass him the ball throughout the game . The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play , and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year . The Bulls finished the season 38 – 44 , and lost in the first round of the playoffs in four games to the Milwaukee <unk> . 
 Jordan 's second season was cut short by a broken foot in the third game of the season , which caused him to miss 64 games . Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 – 52 record ( at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history ) , the Bulls made the playoffs . Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return . Against a 1985 – 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history , Jordan set the still @-@ unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2 . The Celtics , however , managed to sweep the series . 
 Jordan had recovered completely by the 1986 – 87 season , and had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history . He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3 @,@ 000 points in a season , averaging a league high 37 @.@ 1 points on 48 @.@ 2 % shooting . In addition , Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess , as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocks in a season . Despite Jordan 's success , Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award . The Bulls reached 40 wins , and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year . However , they were again swept by the Celtics . 
 
 = = = Pistons roadblock ( 1987 – 1990 ) = = = 
 
 Jordan led the league in scoring again in the 1987 – 88 season , averaging 35 @.@ 0 ppg on 53 @.@ 5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award . He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year , as he had averaged 1 @.@ 6 blocks and a league high 3 @.@ 16 steals per game . The Bulls finished 50 – 32 , and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career , as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games . However , the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons , who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the " Bad Boys " . 
 In the 1988 – 89 season , Jordan again led the league in scoring , averaging 32 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 8 % shooting from the field , along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game ( apg ) . The Bulls finished with a 47 – 35 record , and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals , defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way . The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig <unk> at the <unk> in the fifth and final game of the series . However , the Pistons again defeated the Bulls , this time in six games , by utilizing their " Jordan Rules " method of guarding Jordan , which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball . 
 The Bulls entered the 1989 – 90 season as a team on the rise , with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant , and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson . Jordan averaged a league leading 33 @.@ 6 ppg on 52 @.@ 6 % shooting , to go with 6 @.@ 9 rpg and 6 @.@ 3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 – 27 record . They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals beating the <unk> and Philadelphia 76ers . However , despite pushing the series to seven games , the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season . 
 
 = = = First three @-@ peat ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = = 
 
 In the 1990 – 91 season , Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 9 % shooting , 6 @.@ 0 rpg , and 5 @.@ 5 apg for the regular season . The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season . With Scottie Pippen developing into an All @-@ Star , the Bulls had elevated their play . The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs . They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival , the Detroit Pistons , awaited them . However , this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four @-@ game sweep . In an unusual ending to the fourth and final game , Isiah Thomas led his team off the court before the final seconds had concluded . Most of the Pistons went directly to their locker room instead of shaking hands with the Bulls . 
 The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face Magic Johnson and James <unk> and beat the Los Angeles <unk> four games to one , compiling an outstanding 15 – 2 playoff record along the way . Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when , attempting a dunk , Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid @-@ air to lay the shot in . In his first Finals appearance , Jordan posted per game averages of 31 @.@ 2 points on 56 % shooting from the field , 11 @.@ 4 assists , 6 @.@ 6 rebounds , 2 @.@ 8 steals and 1 @.@ 4 blocks . Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award , and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy . 
 Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 – 92 season , establishing a 67 – 15 record , topping their franchise record from 1990 to 91 . Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 4 rebounds and 6 @.@ 1 assists per game on 52 % shooting . After winning a physical 7 @-@ game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games , the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals . The media , hoping to recreate a Magic – Bird rivalry , highlighted the similarities between " Air " Jordan and Clyde " The <unk> " during the pre @-@ Finals hype . In the first game , Jordan scored a Finals @-@ record 35 points in the first half , including a record @-@ setting six three @-@ point field goals . After the sixth three @-@ pointer , he <unk> down the court <unk> as he looked <unk> . <unk> Albert , who broadcast the game , later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying , " I can 't believe I 'm doing this . " The Bulls went on to win Game 1 , and defeat the Blazers in six games . Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35 @.@ 8 ppg , 4 @.@ 8 rpg , and 6 @.@ 5 apg , while shooting 53 % from the floor . 
 In the 1992 – 93 season , despite a 32 @.@ 6 ppg , 6 @.@ 7 rpg and 5 @.@ 5 apg campaign , Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley . <unk> , Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals . The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game @-@ winning shot by John <unk> and a last @-@ second block by Horace Grant , but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader . He averaged a Finals @-@ record 41 @.@ 0 ppg during the six @-@ game series , and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards . He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series , including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games . With his third Finals triumph , Jordan capped off a seven @-@ year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships , but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non @-@ basketball <unk> in his life . 
 
 = = = = <unk> controversy = = = = 
 
 During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993 , controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City , New Jersey , the night before a game against the New York Knicks . In that same year , he admitted to having to cover $ 57 @,@ 000 in gambling losses , and author Richard <unk> wrote a book claiming he had won $ 1 @.@ 25 million from Jordan on the golf course . In 2005 , Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some <unk> decisions . Jordan stated , " Yeah , I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope . Is that <unk> ? Yeah , it depends on how you look at it . If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family , then yeah . " When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it <unk> his livelihood or family , Jordan replied , " No . " 
 
 = = = First retirement and baseball career ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = = 
 
 On October 6 , 1993 , Jordan announced his retirement , citing a loss of desire to play the game . Jordan later stated that the murder of his father earlier in the year also shaped his decision . Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23 , 1993 , at a highway rest area in <unk> , North Carolina , by two teenagers , Daniel Green and Larry Martin <unk> . The <unk> were traced from calls they made on James Jordan 's cellular phone , caught , convicted , and sentenced to life in prison . Jordan was close to his father ; as a child he had imitated his father 's <unk> to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work . He later adopted it as his own signature , displaying it each time he drove to the basket . In 1996 , he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father . 
 In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game , Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992 . The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever @-@ growing celebrity status . Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world . 
 Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7 , 1994 . He reported to spring training in Sarasota , Florida , and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31 , 1994 . Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father , who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player . The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry <unk> , who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball . 
 In 1994 , Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons , a Double @-@ A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox , batting <unk> with three home runs , 51 runs batted in , 30 stolen bases , 114 strikeouts , 51 base on balls , and 11 errors . He also appeared for the <unk> <unk> in the 1994 Arizona Fall League , batting <unk> against the top prospects in baseball . On November 1 , 1994 , his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center . 
 
 = = = " I 'm back " : Return to the NBA ( 1995 ) = = = 
 
 In the 1993 – 94 season , the Bulls , without Jordan , achieved a 55 – 27 record , and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs . But the 1994 – 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier . <unk> at mid @-@ season to ensure a spot in the playoffs , Chicago was 31 – 31 at one point in mid @-@ March . The team received help , however , when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls . 
 In March 1995 , Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike , as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player . On March 18 , 1995 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two @-@ word press release : " I 'm back . " The next day , Jordan wore jersey number 45 ( his number with the Barons ) , as his familiar 23 had been retired in his honor following his first retirement . He took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana <unk> in Indianapolis , scoring 19 points . The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975 . 
 Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half , Jordan played well upon his return , making a game @-@ winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back . He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28 , 1995 . <unk> by Jordan 's comeback , the Bulls went 13 – 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference <unk> against the Orlando Magic . At the end of Game 1 , Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind , leading to the game @-@ winning basket for the Magic ; he would later comment that Jordan " didn 't look like the old Michael Jordan " and that " No. 45 doesn 't explode like No. 23 used to . " Jordan then returned to wearing his old number in the next game , scoring 38 points in a Bulls win . The Bulls were fined $ 30 @,@ 000 for the game : $ 25 @,@ 000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA and $ 5 @,@ 000 for Jordan wearing different shoes . Jordan averaged 31 points per game in the series , but Orlando won the series in 6 games . 
 
 = = = Second three @-@ peat ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = = 
 
 <unk> motivated by the playoff defeat , Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 – 96 season . <unk> by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman , the Bulls dominated the league , starting the season 41 – 3 , and eventually finishing with the then @-@ best regular season record in NBA history ( later surpassed by the 2015 – 16 Golden State Warriors ) : 72 – 10 . Jordan led the league in scoring with 30 @.@ 4 ppg , and won the league 's regular season and All @-@ Star Game MVP awards . 
 In the playoffs , the Bulls lost only three games in four series ( Miami Heat 3 @-@ 0 , New York Knicks 4 @-@ 1 , Orlando Magic 4 @-@ 0 ) . They defeated the Seattle <unk> 4 @-@ 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship . Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time , surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards . He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All @-@ Star Game , regular season and NBA Finals , Willis Reed having achieved the first , during the 1969 – 70 season . Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder , and it was won on Father 's Day , Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title , including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball . 
 In the 1996 – 97 season , the Bulls started out 69 – 11 , but missed out on a second consecutive 70 @-@ win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 – 13 . However , this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone . The Bulls again advanced to the Finals , where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz . The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career . He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a <unk> @-@ beating jump shot . In Game 5 , with the series tied at 2 , Jordan played despite being <unk> and <unk> from a stomach virus . In what is known as the " <unk> Game " , Jordan scored 38 points , including the game @-@ deciding 3 @-@ pointer with 25 seconds remaining . The Bulls won 90 – 88 and went on to win the series in six games . For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances , Jordan received the Finals MVP award . During the 1997 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Jordan posted the first triple double in All @-@ Star Game history in a victorious effort ; however , he did not receive the MVP award . 
 Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 – 20 record in the 1997 – 98 season . Jordan led the league with 28 @.@ 7 points per game , securing his fifth regular @-@ season MVP award , plus honors for All @-@ NBA First Team , First Defensive Team and the All @-@ Star Game MVP . The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season , including surviving a seven @-@ game series with the Indiana <unk> in the Eastern Conference Finals ; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference <unk> with the Knicks . After winning , they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals . 
 The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14 , 1998 , leading the series 3 – 2 . Jordan executed a series of plays , considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history . With the Bulls trailing 86 – 83 with 41 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter , Phil Jackson called a timeout . When play resumed , Jordan received the inbound pass , drove to the basket , and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders , cutting the Utah lead to 86 – 85 . The Jazz brought the ball <unk> and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone , who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman . Malone <unk> with Rodman and caught the pass , but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal . Jordan then <unk> down the court and paused , <unk> his defender , Jazz guard <unk> Russell . With 10 seconds remaining , Jordan started to <unk> right , then crossed over to his left , possibly pushing off Russell , although the officials did not call a foul . With 5 @.@ 2 seconds left , Jordan gave Chicago an 87 – 86 lead with a game @-@ winning <unk> , the climactic shot of his Bulls career . Afterwards , John Stockton missed a game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer . Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three @-@ peat . Once again , Jordan was voted the Finals MVP , having led all scorers averaging 33 @.@ 5 points per game , including 45 in the deciding Game 6 . Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record ; <unk> O <unk> , Magic Johnson , LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece . The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history . Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history . 
 
 = = = Second retirement ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = 
 
 With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring , the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming , and being in the latter stages of an owner @-@ induced <unk> of NBA players , Jordan retired for the second time on January 13 , 1999 . On January 19 , 2000 , Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player , but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards . Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive . He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations , and had the final say in all personnel matters . Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed . He managed to purge the team of several highly paid , unpopular players ( such as forward <unk> Howard and point guard Rod Strickland ) , but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high <unk> Kwame Brown , who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons . 
 Despite his January 1999 claim that he was " 99 @.@ 9 % certain " that he would never play another NBA game , in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback , this time with his new team . Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter , Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training , holding several invitation @-@ only camps for NBA players in Chicago . In addition , Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach , Doug Collins , as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season , a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return . 
 
 = = = Washington Wizards comeback ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = = 
 
 On September 25 , 2001 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards , indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . In an injury @-@ plagued 2001 – 02 season , he led the team in scoring ( 22 @.@ 9 ppg ) , assists ( 5 @.@ 2 apg ) , and steals ( 1 @.@ 42 <unk> ) . However , torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games , the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 – 95 season . Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season , averaging 24 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 4 assists , and 6 @.@ 0 rebounds , and shooting 41 @.@ 9 % from the field in his 53 starts . His last seven appearances were in a reserve role , in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game . 
 Playing in his 14th and final NBA All @-@ Star Game in 2003 , Jordan passed Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar as the all @-@ time leading scorer in All @-@ Star Game history ( a record since broken by Kobe Bryant ) . That year , Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games , starting in 67 of them . He averaged 20 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 1 rebounds , 3 @.@ 8 assists , and 1 @.@ 5 steals per game . He also shot 45 % from the field , and 82 % from the free throw line . Even though he turned 40 during the season , he scored 20 or more points 42 times , 30 or more points nine times , and 40 or more points three times . On February 21 , 2003 , Jordan became the first 40 @-@ year @-@ old to tally 43 points in an NBA game . During his stint with the Wizards , all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out , and the Wizards were the second most @-@ watched team in the NBA , averaging 20 @,@ 172 fans a game at home and 19 @,@ 311 on the road . However , neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards , and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him . At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media , citing their lack of focus and intensity , notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft , Kwame Brown . 
 With the recognition that 2002 – 03 would be Jordan 's final season , tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA . In his final game at his old home court , the United Center in Chicago , Jordan received a four @-@ minute standing ovation . The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11 , 2003 , even though Jordan never played for the team . At the 2003 All @-@ Star Game , Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy <unk> and Allen <unk> , but refused both . In the end he accepted the spot of Vince Carter , who decided to give it up under great public pressure . 
 Jordan 's final NBA game was on April 16 , 2003 in Philadelphia . After scoring only 13 points in the game , Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers , 75 – 56 . Just after the start of the fourth quarter , the First Union Center crowd began chanting " We want Mike ! " . After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins , Jordan finally rose from the bench and re @-@ entered the game , replacing Larry Hughes with 2 : 35 remaining . At 1 : 45 , Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow , and stepped to the line to make both free throws . After the second foul shot , the 76ers in @-@ bounded the ball to rookie John <unk> , who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later , stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench . Jordan received a three @-@ minute standing ovation from his teammates , his opponents , the officials and the crowd of 21 @,@ 257 fans . 
 
 = = Olympic career = = 
 
 Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal @-@ winning American basketball teams . As a college player he participated , and won the gold , in the 1984 Summer Olympics . The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing , Sam Perkins , Chris <unk> , Steve <unk> , and <unk> <unk> . Jordan led the team in scoring , averaging 17 @.@ 1 ppg for the tournament . 
 In the 1992 Summer Olympics , he was a member of the star @-@ studded squad that included Magic Johnson , Larry Bird , and David Robinson and was dubbed the " Dream Team " . Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics . Playing limited minutes due to the frequent <unk> , Jordan averaged 14 @.@ 9 ppg , finishing second on the team in scoring . Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris <unk> are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold as amateurs and professionals . 
 
 = = Post @-@ retirement = = 
 
 After his third retirement , Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position of Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards . However , his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard " <unk> " Hamilton for Jerry <unk> ( although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002 ) . On May 7 , 2003 , Wizards owner Abe <unk> fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations . Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed , and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards . 
 Jordan kept busy over the next few years by staying in shape , playing golf in celebrity charity tournaments , spending time with his family in Chicago , promoting his Jordan Brand clothing line , and riding <unk> . Since 2004 , Jordan has owned Michael Jordan <unk> , a professional closed @-@ course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two <unk> in the premier <unk> championship sanctioned by the American <unk> Association ( <unk> ) until the end of the 2013 season . Jordan and his then @-@ wife Juanita pledged $ 5 million to Chicago 's <unk> Franciscan High School in 2006 , and the Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for <unk> and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls <unk> of America . 
 
 = = = Charlotte Bobcats / Hornets = = = 
 
 On June 15 , 2006 , Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats , becoming the team 's second @-@ largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson . As part of the deal , Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation , with the title " Managing Member of Basketball Operations . " Despite Jordan 's previous success as an <unk> , he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns . A decade earlier , Jordan had made a bid to become part @-@ owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team , the Charlotte Hornets , but talks collapsed when owner George <unk> refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations . 
 In February 2010 , it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats . As February wore on , it emerged that the leading contenders for the team were Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George <unk> . On February 27 , the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group , MJ Basketball Holdings , to buy the team pending NBA approval . On March 17 , the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase , making him the first former player ever to become the majority owner of an NBA team . It also made him the league 's only African @-@ American majority owner . 
 During the 2011 NBA <unk> , The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners wanting to cap the players ' share of basketball @-@ related income at 50 percent and as low as 47 . Journalists observed that , during the labor dispute in 1998 , Jordan had told Washington Wizards then @-@ owner Abe <unk> , " If you can 't make a profit , you should sell your team . " Jason <unk> of <unk> called Jordan a " sellout " wanting " current players to pay for his incompetence . " He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison . 
 During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , which was shortened to 66 games , the Bobcats posted a 7 – 59 record . Their <unk> winning percentage was the worst in NBA history . " I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year . It 's very , very frustrating " , Jordan said later that year . 
 On May 21 , 2013 , Jordan filed papers to change the Bobcats ' name to the Hornets , effective with the 2014 – 15 season . The Hornets name had become available when the original Hornets , who had moved to New Orleans in 2002 , changed their name to the New Orleans <unk> for the 2013 – 14 season . The NBA approved the change on July 18 . The name change became official on May 20 , 2014 . On the same day , the team announced that it had reclaimed the history and records of the original 1988 – 2002 Hornets . 
 
 = = Player profile = = 
 
 Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward ( the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards ) , and as a point guard . Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer . With the Bulls , he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds , including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests . His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash @-@ talk and well @-@ known work ethic . As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan , management had to trade away players who were not " tough enough " to compete with him in practice . To help improve his defense , he spent extra hours studying film of opponents . On offense , he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time . Noted as a durable player , Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 – 87 to 2001 – 02 , when he injured his right knee . He played all 82 games nine times . Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson , Walter Davis , and Jerry West as influences . From the start of his career , Jordan was unique among NBA players in that he had a special " Love of the Game <unk> " written into his contract , which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time , anywhere . 
 Jordan had a versatile offensive game . He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket , as well as drawing <unk> from his opponents at a high rate ; his 8 @,@ 772 free throw attempts are the ninth @-@ highest total of all time . As his career progressed , Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark <unk> jump shot , using his leaping ability to " fade away " from block attempts . According to <unk> Brown , this move alone made him nearly <unk> . Despite media criticism as a " selfish " player early in his career , Jordan 's 5 @.@ 3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to <unk> to his teammates . In later years , the NBA shortened its three @-@ point line to 22 feet ( from 23 feet , 9 inches ) , which coupled with Jordan 's extended shooting range to make him a long @-@ range threat as well — his 3 @-@ point stroke developed from a low 9 / 52 rate ( <unk> ) in his rookie year into a stellar 111 / 260 ( <unk> ) shooter in the 1995 – 96 season . For a guard , Jordan was also a good <unk> ( 6 @.@ 2 per game ) . 
 In 1988 , Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career ( since <unk> by <unk> Olajuwon , David Robinson , and Kevin <unk> ; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season ) . In addition he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard , and combined this with his ball @-@ <unk> ability to become a standout defensive player . He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2 @,@ <unk> , trailing John Stockton and Jason <unk> . Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones . He was also known to have strong eyesight ; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 @-@ inch television clearly from about 50 feet away . 
 
 = = NBA career statistics = = 
 
 
 = = = Regular season = = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season . In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks , Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation , a rarity for an opposing player . After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20 , 1986 , Celtics star Larry Bird described him as " God disguised as Michael Jordan . " 
 Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons ( NBA record ) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles . He was also a fixture on the NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team , making the roster nine times ( NBA record shared with Gary <unk> , Kevin <unk> and Kobe Bryant ) . Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30 @.@ 1 and 33 @.@ 4 points per game , respectively . By 1998 , the season of his Finals @-@ winning shot against the Jazz , he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer . In the regular season , Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs , Jordan would always demand the ball at <unk> time . Jordan 's total of 5 @,@ <unk> points in the playoffs is the highest in NBA history . He retired with 32 @,@ <unk> points in regular season play , placing him fourth on the NBA 's all @-@ time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Karl Malone , and Kobe Bryant . 
 With five regular @-@ season MVPs ( tied for second place with Bill Russell ; only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar has won more , six ) , six Finals MVPs ( NBA record ) , and three All @-@ Star MVPs , Jordan is the most decorated player ever to play in the NBA . Jordan finished among the top three in regular @-@ season MVP voting a record 10 times , and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 . He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship , an NBA championship , and an Olympic gold medal ( doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams ) . 
 Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . In 1999 , an ESPN survey of journalists , athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century , above such <unk> as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali . Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes . In addition , the Associated Press voted him as the basketball player of the 20th century . Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times . In the September 1996 issue of Sport , which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue , Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years . 
 Jordan 's athletic leaping ability , highlighted in his back @-@ to @-@ back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988 , is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players . Several current NBA All @-@ Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up , including LeBron James and <unk> Wade . In addition , commentators have dubbed a number of next @-@ generation players " the next Michael Jordan " upon their entry to the NBA , including <unk> " Penny " <unk> , Grant Hill , Allen <unk> , Kobe Bryant , LeBron James , Vince Carter , and <unk> Wade . Although Jordan was a well @-@ rounded player , his " Air Jordan " image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills , defense , and <unk> of young players , a fact Jordan himself has lamented . 
 I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan ; the marketing of Michael Jordan . Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see , which was scoring and <unk> . That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all @-@ around game , but it was never really publicized . 
 Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game , some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting . Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league , and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship @-@ winning season . 
 In August 2009 , the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield , Massachusetts , opened a Michael Jordan exhibit containing items from his college and NBA careers , as well as from the 1992 " Dream Team " . The exhibit also has a batting <unk> to signify Jordan 's short career in baseball . After Jordan received word of his being accepted into the Hall of Fame , he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him . As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009 , growing up in North Carolina , he was not a fan of the Tar <unk> , and greatly admired Thompson , who played at rival North Carolina State . He was inducted into the Hall in September , with several former Bulls teammates in attendance , including Scottie Pippen , Dennis Rodman , Charles Oakley , Ron Harper , Steve Kerr , and <unk> <unk> . Former coaches of Jordan 's , Dean Smith and Doug Collins , were also among those present . His emotional reaction during his speech , when he began to cry , was captured by Associated Press photographer <unk> <unk> and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet <unk> . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 He married Juanita <unk> in September 1989 , and they have two sons , Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James , and a daughter , Jasmine . Jordan and <unk> filed for divorce on January 4 , 2002 , citing <unk> differences , but reconciled shortly thereafter . They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29 , 2006 , commenting that the decision was made " mutually and <unk> " . It is reported that Juanita received a $ 168 million settlement ( equivalent to $ 197 million in 2015 ) , making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement in history at the time on public record . 
 In 1991 , Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park , Illinois , to build a 56 @,@ 000 square foot mansion , which was completed four years later . Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy , a private Roman Catholic high school located in <unk> , Illinois . Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11 , 2007 , for the University of Illinois . After two seasons , Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009 . He later rejoined the team for a third season , then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida , where Marcus was attending . Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009 . He began attending <unk> in the fall of 2009 , and played three seasons of basketball for the school . 
 On July 21 , 2006 , a judge in Cook County , Illinois , determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover <unk> Knafel $ 5 million in a breach of contract claim . Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $ 250 @,@ 000 to keep their relationship a secret . Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $ 5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991 . A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child . 
 He proposed to his longtime girlfriend , Cuban @-@ American model <unk> <unk> , on Christmas Eve , 2011 , and they were married on April 27 , 2013 , at Bethesda @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea Episcopal Church . It was announced on November 30 , 2013 , that the two were expecting their first child together . Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012 . On February 11 , 2014 , <unk> gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel . 
 Jordan 's private jet features a stripe in Carolina blue , the " Air Jordan " logo on the tail , and references to his career in the identification number . 
 
 = = Media figure and business interests = = 
 
 Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history . He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike , Coca @-@ Cola , <unk> , <unk> , McDonald 's , Ball Park Franks , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and MCI . Jordan has had a long relationship with <unk> , appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991 , including the " Be Like Mike " commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan . 
 Nike created a signature shoe for him , called the Air Jordan . One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon . In the commercials Lee , as Blackmon , attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that " it 's gotta be the shoes " . The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a <unk> of " shoe @-@ <unk> " where people were robbed of their <unk> at <unk> . Subsequently , Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the " Jordan Brand " . The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as <unk> . The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina , <unk> , Georgetown , and Marquette . 
 Jordan also has been associated with the <unk> <unk> cartoon characters . A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl <unk> featured Jordan and <unk> Bunny playing basketball . The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam , which starred Jordan and <unk> in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball . They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI . Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's " Jam " ( 1992 ) . 
 Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars . In addition , when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point , the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games . Due to this , Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $ 30 million per season . An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market <unk> of his client firms of more than $ 1 billion . 
 Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals , including his first deal with Nike , were engineered by his agent , David <unk> . Jordan has described <unk> as " the best at what he does " and that " marketing @-@ wise , he 's great . He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan . ' " 
 In June 2010 , Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th @-@ most powerful celebrity in the world with $ 55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010 . According to the Forbes article , Jordan Brand generates $ 1 billion in sales for Nike . In June 2014 , Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire , after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89 @.@ 5 % . On January 20 , 2015 , Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014 . As of November 2015 , his current net worth is estimated at $ 1 @.@ 1 billion by Forbes . Jordan is the second @-@ richest African @-@ American in the world as of 2015 . 
 
 = = Awards and honors = = 
 
 
 
 = Polish culture during World War II = 
 
 Polish culture during World War II was suppressed by the occupying powers of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union , both of whom were hostile to Poland 's people and cultural heritage . <unk> aimed at cultural <unk> resulted in the deaths of thousands of scholars and artists , and the theft and destruction of <unk> cultural artifacts . The " <unk> of the Poles was one of many ways in which the Nazi and Soviet regimes had grown to resemble one another " , wrote British historian Niall Ferguson . 
 The <unk> looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while <unk> and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their <unk> altered significantly . 
 Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works . Despite severe <unk> by the Nazis and Soviets , Polish underground cultural activities , including publications , concerts , live theater , education , and academic research , continued throughout the war . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a contentious issue . Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers . 
 On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the <unk> @-@ <unk> Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war . By 1 October , Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland , although the Polish government never formally surrendered , and the Polish Underground State , subordinate to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was soon formed . On 8 October , Nazi Germany annexed the western areas of pre @-@ war Poland and , in the remainder of the occupied area , established the General Government . The Soviet Union had to temporarily give up the territorial gains it made in 1939 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union , but permanently re @-@ annexed much of this territory after winning it back in mid @-@ 1944 . Over the course of the war , Poland lost over 20 % of its pre @-@ war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic . 
 
 = = Destruction of Polish culture = = 
 
 
 = = = German occupation = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Policy = = = = 
 
 Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the Nazi German government implemented the first stages ( the " small plan " ) of <unk> Ost . The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the <unk> of the Former Polish Territories , from a Racial @-@ Political <unk> . Slavic people living east of the pre @-@ war German border were to be <unk> , enslaved or eradicated , depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government . 
 Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at <unk> on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted : no theaters , cinemas or <unk> ; no access to radio or press ; and no education . Frank suggested that the Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by <unk> . During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed , as were theaters and many other cultural institutions . The only Polish @-@ language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed , and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began . 
 In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( <unk> für <unk> und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( <unk> Propaganda ) . Further <unk> issued in the spring and early summer reflected policies that had been outlined by Frank and Goebbels during the previous autumn . One of the Department 's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most " primitive " of cultural activities without the Department 's prior approval . <unk> of " low quality " , including those of an erotic or pornographic nature , were however an exception — those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the " real " Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves . German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized " Polish " performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic , and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities . Polish @-@ German cooperation in cultural matters , such as joint public performances , was strictly prohibited . Meanwhile , a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940 . Then , in October , the printing of new Polish @-@ language books was prohibited ; existing titles were censored , and often confiscated and withdrawn . 
 In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " <unk> " ( <unk> ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists . The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation ( 1943 – 44 ) , in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance . Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination , such as the newly created Chopin museum , which emphasized the composer 's invented German roots . <unk> on education , theater and music performances were eased . 
 Given that the Second Polish Republic was a <unk> state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , <unk> tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and <unk> . In <unk> , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero , Tadeusz <unk> , and filmed them committing the act . Soon afterward , the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish <unk> , portraying them in propaganda releases as a " vengeful mob . " This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans ' decision to destroy Polish education , while at the same time , showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system . As the high @-@ ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained , " We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian , he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and <unk> , the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole . " 
 
 = = = = <unk> = = = = 
 
 In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . <unk> art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @-@ <unk> , <unk> units , who were responsible for art , and by experts of <unk> Ost , who were responsible for more mundane objects . Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of <unk> <unk> and paintings by Raphael , <unk> , Leonardo da Vinci , <unk> and <unk> . Most of the important art pieces had been " secured " by the Nazis within six months of September 1939 ; by the end of 1942 , German officials estimated that " over 90 % " of the art previously in Poland was in their possession . Some art was shipped to German museums , such as the planned <unk> in <unk> , while other art became the private property of Nazi officials . Over 516 @,@ 000 individual art pieces were taken , including 2 @,@ 800 paintings by European painters ; 11 @,@ 000 works by Polish painters ; 1 @,@ 400 sculptures , 75 @,@ 000 manuscripts , 25 @,@ 000 maps , and 90 @,@ 000 books ( including over 20 @,@ 000 printed before 1800 ) ; as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value . Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos . 
 
 = = = = Destruction = = = = 
 
 Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's end 43 % of the infrastructure of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 % of its museums had been destroyed . According to another , only 105 of pre @-@ war Poland 's 175 museums survived the war , and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen . Of pre @-@ war Poland 's 603 scientific institutions , about half were totally destroyed , and only a few survived the war relatively intact . 
 Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as <unk> @-@ <unk> . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous <unk> <unk> and the massacre of Lwów professors . During World War II Poland lost 39 % to 45 % of its <unk> and dentists , 26 % to 57 % of its lawyers , 15 % to 30 % of its teachers , 30 % to 40 % of its scientists and university professors , and 18 % to 28 % of its clergy . The Jewish intelligentsia was <unk> altogether . The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi <unk> : " In my district , [ any Pole who ] shows signs of intelligence will be shot . " 
 As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , church property was confiscated , prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services , organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished , and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs — or to read passages of the Bible — in public . The worst conditions were found in the <unk> <unk> , which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti @-@ religious policies . Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for <unk> . 
 To <unk> the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials <unk> that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . <unk> @-@ SS Heinrich <unk> wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic , nothing above the number 500 ; how to write one 's name ; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable . " Hans Frank echoed him : " The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools ; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert . " The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories beyond the General Government , which had been annexed to the Third Reich . The specific policy varied from territory to territory , but in general , there was no Polish @-@ language education at all . German policy constituted a crash @-@ Germanization of the populace . Polish teachers were dismissed , and some were invited to attend " orientation " meetings with the new administration , where they were either summarily arrested or executed on the spot . Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools , while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers , usually on German @-@ run farms ; speaking Polish brought severe punishment . It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15 . In the eastern territories not included in the General Government ( <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> Ukraine ) many primary schools were closed , and most education was conducted in non @-@ Polish languages such as Ukrainian , <unk> , and Lithuanian . In the <unk> <unk> region , for example , 86 % of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation , and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93 % . 
 The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows : 
 Pupils sit <unk> together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty <unk> school buildings which Kraków had before 1939 , today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day , pupils have to study in several shifts . Under such circumstances , the school day , which normally lasts five hours , is reduced to one hour . 
 In the General Government , the remaining schools were <unk> to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 , no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation , and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy . Primary schooling was to last for seven years , but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week . There was no money for heating of the schools in winter . Classes and schools were to be merged , Polish teachers dismissed , and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops . No new Polish teachers were to be trained . The educational curriculum was censored ; subjects such as literature , history and geography were removed . Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed . The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was <unk> , and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans . This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools , police inspections of student belongings , mass arrests of students and teachers , and the use of students as forced laborers , often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers . 
 The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden <unk> there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland . 
 Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943 ; even Polish prayer books were confiscated . Soon after the occupation began , most libraries were closed ; in Kraków , about 80 % of the libraries were closed immediately , while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors . The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections , including the Sejm and Senate Library , the <unk> Estate Library , the <unk> Estate Library , the Central Military Library , and the <unk> Collection . In 1941 , the last remaining Polish public library in the German @-@ occupied territories was closed in Warsaw . During the war , Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes , or 30 % of their collections . More than 80 % of these losses were the direct result of <unk> rather than wartime conflict . Overall , it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state @-@ owned libraries and institutions perished during the war . 
 Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed . Many treasures of Polish culture – including memorials , plaques and monuments to national heroes ( e.g. , Kraków 's Adam Mickiewicz monument ) – were destroyed . In <unk> , all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down . Dozens of monuments were destroyed throughout Poland . The Nazis planned to level entire cities . 
 
 = = = = <unk> and propaganda = = = = 
 
 The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and <unk> novels . 
 <unk> at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . <unk> literature included maps , <unk> and <unk> and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public <unk> of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz <unk> , Stanisław <unk> , Bolesław <unk> , Stefan <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , Władysław <unk> , Stanisław <unk> , Julian <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Leopold Staff , Eliza <unk> and Maria <unk> . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . <unk> @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and <unk> — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed . 
 Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . <unk> , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda <unk> . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " <unk> <unk> <unk> w <unk> " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " <unk> . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract <unk> inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate . 
 Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in <unk> and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . Visual artists , including painters and <unk> , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally <unk> by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . <unk> museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes . 
 The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at <unk> anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes . 
 
 = = = Soviet occupation = = = 
 
 After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " <unk> " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @.@ <unk> million . Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of <unk> Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " . 
 The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to <unk> concentration camps , for years or decades . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the <unk> massacres . 
 The Soviets quickly <unk> the annexed lands , introducing compulsory <unk> . They proceeded to confiscate , <unk> and <unk> private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . On 10 February 1940 , the <unk> unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , <unk> , <unk> , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , <unk> , <unk> , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society . 
 The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . Classes were held in <unk> , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr <unk> noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland . 
 All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . Polish cultural activities in <unk> and <unk> were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government . 
 The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of <unk> . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the <unk> policies . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland . 
 Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy <unk> , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jan <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Leon <unk> , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Stefan <unk> , Stanisław Jerzy <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , Juliusz <unk> , Jan <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Karol <unk> , Leopold <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Leon <unk> , Julian <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz <unk> , Włodzimierz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Stern , Julian <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Leopold <unk> , Wanda <unk> , Stanisław <unk> , Adam <unk> , Aleksander <unk> and Bruno <unk> . 
 Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet <unk> and instead published underground : <unk> <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Juliusz <unk> . Some writers , such as Władysław <unk> , after <unk> with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet <unk> secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan . 
 
 = = Underground culture = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław <unk> ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social <unk> ( under Jan Stanisław <unk> and , later , Stefan <unk> ) and a Department for <unk> of the Effects of War ( under Antoni <unk> and <unk> <unk> ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . These <unk> oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan <unk> that were concealed throughout the war ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( <unk> ) of works by Winston Churchill and <unk> <unk> and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school <unk> and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts . 
 Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish <unk> , who likewise supported artists and <unk> Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan <unk> and a former politician , <unk> <unk> ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan <unk> , Zbigniew <unk> and the <unk> publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war . 
 
 = = = Education = = = 
 
 In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( <unk> <unk> <unk> , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by <unk> <unk> , creator of the TON . Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , <unk> and <unk> ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance . 
 In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw <unk> under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 <unk> . <unk> University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław <unk> , a leading Polish philosopher , and <unk> <unk> , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research . 
 The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably <unk> resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp . 
 
 = = = Print = = = 
 
 There were over 1 @,@ 000 underground newspapers ; among the most important were the <unk> <unk> of Armia Krajowa and <unk> of the Government Delegation for Poland . In addition to publication of news ( from intercepted Western radio transmissions ) , there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics , economics , education , and literature ( for example , <unk> i <unk> ) . The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of <unk> <unk> printed in 43 @,@ 000 copies ; average volume of larger publication was 1 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 copies . The Polish underground also published <unk> and leaflets from imaginary anti @-@ Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading <unk> and lowering morale among the Germans . Books were also sometimes printed . Other items were also printed , such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters , ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats . 
 The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland . <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( Secret Military Publishing House ) of Jerzy <unk> ( subordinated to the Armia Krajowa ) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world . In addition to Polish titles , Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces ( as part of Action N ) . The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw ; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses ( whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps ) . The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków . There , writers and editors faced similar dangers : for example , almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na <unk> was arrested , and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944 . ( Na <unk> was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire ; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943 . ) The underground press was supported by a large number of activists ; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses , scores of underground <unk> distributed the publications . According to some statistics , these <unk> were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans . 
 Under German occupation , the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated , as they had little opportunity to publish their work . The Underground State 's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals , enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication . Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses ; over 1 @,@ 000 works were published underground over the course of the war . Literary discussions were held , and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included , among others , <unk> Kamil <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Maria <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , Zuzanna Ginczanka , <unk> <unk> , future Nobel Prize winner <unk> <unk> , Zofia <unk> , Jan <unk> , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz <unk> , and Jerzy <unk> . Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps ( Konstanty <unk> <unk> , Stefan <unk> , Leon <unk> , Andrzej <unk> and Marian <unk> ) , the ghettos , and even from inside the concentration camps ( Jan Maria <unk> , Halina <unk> , Zofia <unk> ( <unk> ) , Tadeusz <unk> , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian <unk> ) . Many writers did not survive the war , among them <unk> Kamil <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz <unk> , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Juliusz <unk> @-@ <unk> , Stefan <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Halina <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Antoni <unk> , Włodzimierz <unk> , Leon <unk> , Kazimierz <unk> @-@ <unk> and Bruno Schulz . 
 
 = = = Visual arts and music = = = 
 
 With the censorship of Polish theater ( and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in Warsaw and Kraków , with shows presented in various underground venues . Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret <unk> Council . Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the <unk> 's <unk> prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . Underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included Karol <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Henryk Borowski , <unk> <unk> , Władysław <unk> , Stefan <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jan <unk> , Adam <unk> , Andrzej <unk> , Leon <unk> , Arnold <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Edmund <unk> , Maria <unk> , Karol <unk> ( who later became Pope John Paul II ) , Marian <unk> , Jerzy <unk> and others . Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish war prisoners . 
 Polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . Top Polish musicians and directors ( Adam <unk> , Zbigniew <unk> , Jan <unk> , Barbara <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Andrzej <unk> , Piotr <unk> , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Kazimierz <unk> , Maria <unk> , Bolesław <unk> , Mira <unk> ) performed in restaurants , <unk> , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while <unk> German patrols . Patriotic songs were written , such as <unk> , <unk> , the most popular song of occupied Warsaw . Patriotic puppet shows were staged . Jewish musicians ( e.g. Władysław <unk> ) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps . Although many of them died , some survived abroad , like Alexandre <unk> in the United States , and Eddie <unk> and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union . 
 Visual arts were practiced underground as well . <unk> , restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . Polish underground artists included <unk> <unk> , Stanisław <unk> @-@ <unk> , Stanisław <unk> @-@ <unk> , and Konstanty Maria <unk> . Some artists worked directly for the Underground State , forging money and documents , and creating anti @-@ Nazi art ( satirical posters and caricatures ) or Polish patriotic symbols ( for example <unk> ) . These works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda . In 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , caricatures of Hitler and <unk> <unk> , were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw . Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland ; despite German <unk> on Poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems . Underground <unk> stamps were designed and issued . Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw , Kraków and <unk> , although these were usually dispersed by the Germans . All of these activities were supported by the Underground State 's Department of Culture . 
 
 = = = Warsaw Uprising = = = 
 
 During the Warsaw Uprising ( August – October 1944 ) , people in Polish @-@ controlled territory <unk> to recreate the former day @-@ to @-@ day life of their free country . Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas , post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . <unk> by Antoni <unk> , the Home Army 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three <unk> and over 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle . 
 <unk> <unk> took some 1 @,@ 000 photographs before he died ; <unk> Braun some 3 @,@ 000 , of which 1 @,@ 500 survive ; Jerzy <unk> some 1 @,@ 000 , of which 600 survived . 
 
 = = Culture in exile = = 
 
 Polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied Europe . <unk> <unk> , based in Britain with the Polish Armed Forces in the West wrote about the <unk> Polish Fighter Squadron . Melchior <unk> wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy . Other writers working abroad included Jan <unk> , Antoni <unk> , Kazimierz <unk> and Julian <unk> . There were artists who performed for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East . Among musicians who performed for the Polish II Corps in a <unk> <unk> cabaret were Henryk Wars and <unk> Anders . The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the <unk> <unk> na Monte Cassino ( The Red <unk> on Monte Cassino ) , composed by <unk> <unk> and Alfred Schultz in 1944 . There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West . Several Polish painters , mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps , kept working throughout the war , including Tadeusz Piotr <unk> , Adam <unk> , Marian <unk> , Bolesław <unk> and Stefan Knapp . 
 
 = = Influence on postwar culture = = 
 
 The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead . Norman Davies wrote in God 's <unk> : " In 1945 , as a prize for <unk> sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " Similarly , close @-@ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . The resulting culture was , however , different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons . The destruction of Poland 's Jewish community , Poland 's postwar territorial changes , and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities . The <unk> nation was no more . 
 The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the " Generation of <unk> " . The term denotes an entire generation of Poles , born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by World War II . In their art , they " discovered a new Poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland . 
 Over the years , nearly three @-@ quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity . Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Hanna <unk> and others ; films , including those by Andrzej <unk> ( A Generation , <unk> , Ashes and Diamonds , <unk> , A Love in Germany , <unk> , <unk> ) ; TV series ( Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life ) ; music ( <unk> <unk> ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . Polish historian <unk> <unk> wrote in 1996 : 
 Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation . Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV , on radio and in the print media . The theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it . Probably no other country marks <unk> related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly . 
 
 
 = Arihant @-@ class submarine = 
 
 The Arihant class ( Sanskrit , for Killer of <unk> ) is a class of nuclear @-@ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the Indian Navy . They were developed under the US $ 2 @.@ 9 billion Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project to design and build nuclear @-@ powered submarines . 
 The lead vessel of the class , INS Arihant was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23 February 2016 . Arihant is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 In December 1971 , during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74 , led by the nuclear @-@ powered USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to <unk> India . In response , the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from <unk> to trail the US task force . The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . Following the 1974 <unk> Buddha nuclear test , the Director of Marine Engineering ( <unk> ) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( Project <unk> ) . 
 The Indian Navy 's Advanced Technology Vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . Then Defence Minister George <unk> confirmed the project in 1998 . The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @-@ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at <unk> Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @-@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India 's nuclear triad . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 The Arihant @-@ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project . They will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by India . The submarines are 112 m ( 367 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . The boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 MW ( 111 @,@ 000 hp ) <unk> water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged . 
 The submarines have four launch tubes in their <unk> and can carry up to 12 K @-@ 15 <unk> missiles with one warhead each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 K @-@ 4 missiles ( with a range of 3 @,@ 500 km or 2 @,@ 200 mi ) . The submarines are similar to the <unk> @-@ class submarine of Russia . The Indian Navy will train on INS <unk> , an <unk> @-@ class submarine leased from Russia in 2012 . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 The submarines are powered by a <unk> water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . The <unk> version of the reactor was designed and built by the <unk> Atomic Research Centre ( <unk> ) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research ( <unk> ) in <unk> . It included a 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine 's pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . The prototype reactor became critical on 11 November 2003 and was declared operational on 22 September 2006 . Successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for Arihant . The reactor <unk> were tested at the Machinery Test Center in <unk> . Facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berthed submarines were also established . 
 The detailed engineering of the design was implemented at Larsen & <unk> 's submarine design center at their <unk> shipbuilding facility . Tata Power <unk> built the control systems for the submarine . The steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by <unk> Industries . The lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in July 2009 . The propulsion and power systems were tested with high @-@ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @-@ acceptance trials that included <unk> tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dives to limited depths . INS Arihant 's reactor went critical for the first time on 10 August 2013 . On 13 December 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials . 
 
 = = Ships in class = = 
 
 <unk> number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . The first boat of the class , INS Arihant is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . The first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by <unk> . In December 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , INS <unk> is being prepared for sea trials . The next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes to carry up to 8 <unk> and a more powerful pressurized water reactor than INS Arihant . A larger follow on class to the <unk> class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles . 
 
 = = Timeline = = 
 
 
 
 = SMS Markgraf = 
 
 SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in Europe . Markgraf was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Markgraf was named in honor of the royal family of Baden . The name Markgraf is a rank of German nobility and is equivalent to the English <unk> , or Marquess . 
 Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst , and Kronprinz , Markgraf took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . At Jutland , Markgraf was the third ship in the German line and heavily engaged by the opposing British Grand Fleet ; she sustained five large @-@ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . Markgraf also participated in Operation Albion , the conquest of the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . The ship was damaged by a mine while en route to Germany following the successful conclusion of the operation . 
 After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Markgraf and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the scuttled ships , Markgraf was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay . 
 
 = = Construction and design = = 
 
 Markgraf was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz <unk> and built at the AG <unk> shipyard in <unk> under construction number 186 . Her keel was laid in November 1911 and she was launched on 4 June 1913 . At her launching ceremony , the ship was christened by Frederick II , Grand Duke of Baden , the head of the royal family of Baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . <unk> @-@ out work was completed by 1 October 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million <unk> . 
 Markgraf displaced 25 @,@ <unk> t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Bergmann steam turbines , three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 40 @,@ 830 shp ( 30 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ <unk> enlisted sailors . 
 She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Markgraf 's 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 Following her commissioning on 1 October 1914 , Markgraf conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 December . By 10 January 1915 , the ship had joined III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet with her three sister ships . On 22 January 1915 , III Squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank . 
 In the aftermath of the loss of SMS <unk> at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von <unk> from his post as fleet commander on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von Pohl carried out a series of sorties with the High Seas Fleet throughout 1915 . The first such operation — Markgraf 's first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to <unk> on 29 – 30 March ; the German fleet failed to engage any British warships during the sortie . Another uneventful operation followed on 17 – 18 April , and another three days later on 21 – 22 April . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 May , when the fleet conducted another two @-@ day advance into the North Sea . On 11 – 12 September , Markgraf and the rest of III Squadron supported a <unk> operation off <unk> . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October . 
 Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill from liver cancer to continue in that post . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the <unk> . Another sortie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 April . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of <unk> unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters . 
 
 = = = Battle of Jutland = = = 
 
 Markgraf was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Markgraf was the third ship in the German line , behind her sisters König and Grosser Kurfürst and followed by Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly <unk> were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the <unk> and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent <unk> @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron . 
 Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of <unk> , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given . 
 Markgraf opened fire on the battlecruiser Tiger at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Markgraf and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . Markgraf continued to engage Tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battlecruisers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . During this period , the battleships Warspite and Valiant of the 5th Battle Squadron fired on the leading German battleships . At 18 : 10 , one of the British ships scored a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell hit on Markgraf . Shortly thereafter , the destroyer Moresby fired a single torpedo at Markgraf and missed from a range of about 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Malaya fired a torpedo at Markgraf at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . Around the same time , Markgraf engaged a cruiser from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th Battle Squadron for ten minutes . During this period , two more 15 @-@ inch shells hit Markgraf , though the timing is unknown . The hit at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and holed the armor . The main deck was <unk> and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . The other two shells failed to explode and caused negligible damage . 
 Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul <unk> in König attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The obsolescent armored cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron also joined in the melee . Markgraf and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . Markgraf fired both her 30 @.@ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser Defence . Under a hail of fire from the German battleships , Defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battlecruiser Lützow , though Markgraf 's gunners also claimed credit for the sinking . 
 Markgraf then fired on the battlecruiser Princess Royal and scored two hits . The first hit struck the 9 @-@ inch armor covering " X " barbette , was <unk> downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . The second shell penetrated Princess Royal 's 6 @-@ inch belt armor , <unk> upward off the coal bunker , and exploded under the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . At the same time , Markgraf 's secondary guns fired on the cruiser Warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . Warrior <unk> on the trip back to port the following morning . 
 Around 19 : 30 , Admiral John Jellicoe 's main force of battleships entered the battle ; Orion began firing at Markgraf at 19 : 32 ; she fired four salvos of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Armor @-@ <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) shells and scored a hit with the last salvo . The shell exploded upon impacting the armor protecting the No. 6 15 cm gun casemate . The shell failed to penetrate but holed the armor and disabled the gun . The explosion seriously injured two and killed the rest of the gun crew . A heavy shell nearly struck the ship at the same time , and at 19 : 44 , a bent propeller shaft forced Markgraf 's crew to turn off the port engine ; naval historian John Campbell speculated that this shell was the one that damaged the shaft . Her speed dropped to 17 or 18 kn ( 31 or 33 km / h ; 20 or 21 mph ) , though she remained in her position in the line . 
 Shortly after 20 : 00 , the German battleships engaged the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Markgraf fired primarily 15 cm shells . In this period , Markgraf was engaged by <unk> 's 12 @-@ inch guns , which scored a single hit at 20 : 14 . The shell failed to explode and shattered on impact on the 8 @-@ inch side armor , causing minimal damage . Two of the adjoining 14 @-@ inch plates directly below the 8 @-@ inch armor were slightly forced inward and some minor flooding occurred . The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away . Due to her reduced speed , Markgraf turned early in an attempt to maintain her place in the battle line ; this , however , forced Grosser Kurfürst to fall out of formation . Markgraf fell in behind Kronprinz while Grosser Kurfürst steamed ahead to return to her position behind König . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der <unk> and <unk> , the lead ship , caused delays . Several British light cruisers and destroyers stumbled into the German line around 21 : 20 . In the ensuing short engagement Markgraf hit the cruiser <unk> five times with her secondary guns . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 13th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships . 
 Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line . Markgraf initially held her fire as the identities of the destroyers were unknown . But gunners aboard Grosser Kurfürst correctly identified the vessels as hostile and opened fire while turning away to avoid torpedoes , which prompted Markgraf to follow suit . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . At 05 : 06 , Markgraf and several other battleships fired at what they thought was a submarine . 
 The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Markgraf went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer <unk> . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . Repair work was completed by 20 July . In the course of the battle , Markgraf had fired a total of 254 shells from her main battery and <unk> rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by five large @-@ caliber shells , which killed 11 men and wounded 13 . 
 
 = = = Subsequent operations = = = 
 
 Following repairs in July 1916 , Markgraf went into the Baltic for trials . The ship was then temporarily assigned to the I Scouting Group for the fleet operation on 18 – 19 August . Due to the serious damage incurred by Seydlitz and Derfflinger at Jutland , the only battlecruisers available for the operation were Von der <unk> and Moltke , which were joined by Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and the new battleship Bayern . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the <unk> close engagement at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . 
 Markgraf was present for the uneventful advance in the direction of Sunderland on 18 – 20 October . Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . During the operation , the British submarine <unk> torpedoed both Grosser Kurfürst and Kronprinz and caused moderate damage . For most of 1917 , Markgraf was occupied with guard duties in the North Sea , interrupted only by a refit period in January and periodic unit training in the Baltic . 
 
 = = = Operation Albion = = = 
 
 In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The <unk> ( Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the <unk> Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The II Squadron consisted of the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The IV Squadron consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six <unk> . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . 
 <unk> the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts <unk> and <unk> , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral <unk> , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . Three British C @-@ class submarines where also stationed in the Gulf . The <unk> Strait , the main southern entrance to the Gulf of Riga , was heavily mined and defended by a number of coastal artillery batteries . The garrison on Ösel numbered nearly 14 @,@ 000 men , though by 1917 it had been reduced to 60 to 70 percent strength . 
 The operation began on 12 October , when Moltke and the four König @-@ class ships covered the landing of ground troops by suppressing the shore batteries covering <unk> Bay . Markgraf fired on the battery located on Cape <unk> . After the successful amphibious assault , III Squadron steamed to <unk> <unk> , although Markgraf remained behind for several days . On the 17th , Markgraf left <unk> Bay to rejoin her squadron in the Gulf of Riga , but early on the following morning she ran aground at the entrance to <unk> . The ship was quickly freed , and she reached the III Squadron anchorage north of <unk> Bank on the 19th . The next day , Markgraf steamed to Moon Sound , and on the 25th participated in the bombardment of Russian positions on the island of <unk> . The ship returned to <unk> on 27 October , and two days later was detached from Operation Albion to return to the North Sea . 
 Markgraf struck a pair of mines in quick succession while in the <unk> Strait and took in 260 metric tons ( 260 long tons ; 290 short tons ) of water . The ship continued on to Kiel via <unk> in Danzig ; she then went on to Wilhelmshaven , where the mine damage was repaired . The work was completed at the Imperial Dockyard from 6 to 23 November . After repairs were completed , Markgraf returned to guard duty in the North Sea . She missed an attempted raid on a British convoy on 23 – 25 April 1918 , as she was in dock in Kiel from 15 March to 5 May for the installation of a new foremast . 
 
 = = = Fate = = = 
 
 Markgraf and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( <unk> ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy in order to obtain a better <unk> position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on <unk> and then on several other battleships , including Markgraf , mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . <unk> of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . " 
 Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von <unk> made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men . 
 The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . <unk> that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Markgraf sank at 16 : 45 . The British soldiers in the guard detail <unk> in their attempt to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; they shot and killed Markgraf 's captain , Walter Schumann , who was in a lifeboat , and an enlisted man . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned . 
 Markgraf was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Markgraf and her two sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made any salvage attempt more difficult . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . The rights to future salvage operations on the wrecks were sold to Britain in 1962 . Owing to the fact that the steel that composed their hulls was produced before the advent of nuclear weapons , Markgraf and her sisters are among the few accessible sources of low @-@ background steel , which has occasionally been removed for use in scientific devices . Markgraf and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks . 
 
 
 = Coldrum Long Barrow = 
 
 The Coldrum Long Barrow , also known as the Coldrum Stones and the <unk> Stones , is a chambered long barrow located near to the village of Trottiscliffe in the south @-@ eastern English county of Kent . <unk> circa 4000 BCE , during Britain 's Early Neolithic period , today it survives only in a ruined state . 
 Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by <unk> communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe . Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe , the Coldrum Stones belong to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the River Medway , now known as the Medway Megaliths . Of these , it is in the best surviving condition , and lies near to both Addington Long Barrow and Chestnuts Long Barrow on the western side of the river . Three further surviving long barrows , Kit 's Coty House , the Little Kit 's Coty House , and the Coffin Stone , are located on the Medway 's eastern side . 
 Built out of earth and around fifty local sarsen megaliths , the long barrow consisted of a sub @-@ rectangular earthen tumulus enclosed by kerb @-@ stones . Within the eastern end of the tumulus was a stone chamber , into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the Early Neolithic . <unk> analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals , a mixture of men , women , children and adults . At least one of the bodies had been <unk> prior to burial , potentially reflecting a funerary tradition of <unk> and secondary burial . As with other barrows , Coldrum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead , perhaps as part of a belief system involving ancestor veneration , although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious , ritual , and cultural connotations and uses . 
 After the Early Neolithic , the long barrow fell into a state of ruined <unk> , perhaps experiencing deliberate deposition in the late medieval period , either by Christian <unk> or treasure hunters . Local folklore grew up around the site , associating it with the burial of a prince and the countless stones motif . The ruin attracted the interest of <unk> in the 19th century , while archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th . After limited reconstruction , in 1926 ownership was transferred to heritage charity The National Trust . It is open without charge to visitors all year around . 
 
 = = Name and location = = 
 
 The Coldrum Stones are named after a nearby farm , Coldrum Lodge , which has since been demolished . The monument lies in a " rather isolated site " north @-@ east of the nearby village of Trottiscliffe , about 500 metres from a prehistoric track known as the Pilgrim 's Way . The tomb can be reached along a pathway known as Coldrum Lane , which is only accessible on foot . The nearest car park to Coldrum Lane can be found off of <unk> Lane in Trottiscliffe . Another nearby village is Addington , which is located one and a quarter miles away . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 
 = = = Early Neolithic Britain = = = 
 
 The Early Neolithic was a revolutionary period of British history . Beginning in the fifth millennium BCE , it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the British Isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence , abandoning the hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle that had characterised the preceding Mesolithic period . Archaeologists have been unable to prove whether this adoption of farming was because of a new influx of migrants coming in from continental Europe or because the indigenous Mesolithic Britons came to adopt the agricultural practices of continental societies . Either way , it certainly emerged through contact with continental Europe , probably as a result of centuries of interaction between Mesolithic people living in south @-@ east Britain and Linear <unk> culture ( <unk> ) communities in north @-@ eastern France . The region of modern Kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental European settlers and visitors , because of its position on the estuary of the River Thames and its proximity to the continent . 
 Between <unk> and <unk> BCE , all of the British Isles came to abandon its former Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle , to be replaced by the new agricultural subsistence of the Neolithic Age . Although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the British Isles in this period , there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement , architectural styles , and the use of natural resources . Throughout most of Britain , there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period , leading archaeologists to believe that the Early Neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral , relying on herding cattle , with people living a nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic way of life . Although witnessing some land clearance , Britain was largely forested in this period , and it is unclear what level of <unk> the area of Kent had experienced in the Early Neolithic ; widespread forest clearance only took place on the <unk> of south @-@ east Britain in the Late Bronze Age . Environmental data from the area around the White Horse Stone supports the idea that the area was still largely forested in the Early Neolithic , covered by a woodland of oak , ash , <unk> / alder and <unk> . 
 
 = = = The tomb building tradition = = = 
 
 Across Western Europe , the Early Neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape . These were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead , and though sometimes constructed out of timber , many were built using large stones , now known as " megaliths " . Individuals were rarely buried alone in the Early Neolithic , instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community . The construction of these collective burial monumental tombs , both wooden and megalithic , began in continental Europe before being adopted in Britain in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE . 
 The Early Neolithic people of Britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritualised burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears had done . Many archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic people adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead , believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants . Archaeologist Robin <unk> stressed that rather than simply being tombs , the Medway Megaliths were " communal <unk> fulfilling a social function for the communities who built and used them . " Thus , it has furthermore been suggested that Early Neolithic people entered into the tombs – which doubled as temples or shrines – to perform rituals that would honour the dead and ask for their assistance . For this reason , historian Ronald Hutton termed these monuments " tomb @-@ shrines " to reflect their dual purpose . 
 In Britain , these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape , perhaps at the junction between different territories . Archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on " territory , political allegiance , ownership , and ancestors . " Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb @-@ shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups , although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society . Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways . Many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land , thus representing a change in mindset brought about by <unk> . Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers . 
 Archaeologists have differentiated these Early Neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles , each typically associated with a different region within the British Isles . Passage graves , characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone , were predominantly located in northern Britain and southern and central Ireland . <unk> , across northern Ireland and central Britain long chambered mounds predominated , while in the east and south @-@ east of Britain , earthen long barrows represented the dominant architectural trend . These earthen long barrows were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern Britain ; archaeologist Aubrey <unk> argued that these timber tombs might have been " even more eye @-@ catching " than their stone counterparts , perhaps consisting of " towering carved poles , <unk> painted " , but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived . The Medway Megaliths represent just one of these regional groups within the wider West European tradition of tomb building in this period . 
 
 = = = The Medway Megaliths = = = 
 
 Although now all in a ruinous state and not retaining their original appearance , at the time of construction the Medway Megaliths would have been some of the largest and most visually imposing Early Neolithic funerary monuments in Britain . <unk> along the River Medway as it cuts through the North Downs , they constitute the most south @-@ easterly group of megalithic monuments in the British Isles , and the only megalithic group in eastern England . Archaeologists Brian <unk> and Mike <unk> deemed the Medway Megaliths to be " some of the most interesting and well known " archaeological sites in Kent , while archaeologist Paul Ashbee described them as " the most grandiose and impressive structures of their kind in southern England " . 
 They can be divided into two separate clusters : one to the west of the River Medway and the other on Blue Bell Hill to the east , with the distance between the two clusters measuring at between 8 and 10 km . The western group includes Coldrum Long Barrow , Addington Long Barrow , and the Chestnuts Long Barrow . The eastern group consists of Kit 's Coty House , Little Kit 's Coty House , the Coffin Stone , and several other stones which might have once been parts of chambered tombs . It is not known if they were all built at the same time , or whether they were constructed in succession , while similarly it is not known if they each served the same function or whether there was a hierarchy in their usage . 
 The Medway long barrows all <unk> to the same general design plan , and are all aligned on an east to west axis . Each had a stone chamber at the eastern end of the mound , and they each probably had a stone facade flanking the entrance . The chambers were constructed from sarsen , a dense , hard , and durable stone that occurs naturally throughout Kent , having formed out of <unk> sand from the <unk> . Early Neolithic builders would have selected blocks from the local area , and then transported them to the site of the monument to be erected . 
 Such common architectural features among these tomb @-@ shrines indicate a strong regional cohesion with no direct parallels elsewhere in the British Isles . For instance , they would have been taller than most other tomb @-@ shrines in Britain , with internal heights of up to 10 ft . Nevertheless , as with other regional groupings of Early Neolithic tomb @-@ shrines ( such as the Cotswold @-@ Severn group ) , there are also various idiosyncrasies in the different monuments , such as Coldrum 's rectilinear shape , the <unk> long barrow 's facade , and the long , thin mounds at Addington and Kit 's Coty . This variation might have been caused by the tomb @-@ shrines being altered and adapted over the course of their use ; in this scenario , the monuments would represent composite structures . 
 It seems apparent that the people who built these monuments were influenced by pre @-@ existing tomb @-@ shrines that they were already aware of . Whether those people had grown up locally , or moved into the Medway area from elsewhere is not known . Based on a stylistic analysis of their architectural designs , Stuart Piggott thought that they had originated in the area around the Low Countries , while Glyn Daniel instead believed that the same evidence showed an influence from Scandinavia . John H. Evans instead suggested an origin in Germany , and Ronald F. <unk> thought that their origins could be seen in the Cotswold @-@ Severn megalithic group . Ashbee noted that their close <unk> in the same area was reminiscent of the megalithic tomb @-@ shrine traditions of continental Northern Europe , and emphasised that the Medway Megaliths were a regional manifestation of a tradition widespread across Early Neolithic Europe . He nevertheless stressed that a precise place of origin was " impossible to indicate " with the available evidence . 
 
 = = Design and construction = = 
 
 The monument originally consisted of a sarsen stone chamber , covered by a low earthen mound , which was bounded by prostrate slabs . As such , the archaeologist Paul Ashbee asserted that the monument could be divided into three particular features : the chamber , the barrow , and the sarsen stone surround . It is located on the edge of a large <unk> <unk> , although it is difficult to <unk> what views would have been possible from the monument at the time of construction , due to a lack of information on how densely forested the vicinity was . However , if the area was not highly wooded , then 360 ° views of the surrounding landscape would have been possible . The monument 's axis points toward both the North Downs and the Medway Valley , which is similar to the other Medway Megaliths . Archaeologist <unk> <unk> suggested that the Coldrum Long Barrow might have been built within view of a nearby settlement , and that this " may have been a key factor in the experience of ceremonies and rituals taking place at the tombs and may also have defined a link between the tomb builders and the landscape . " 
 It had been built using about 50 stones . The barrow is sub @-@ rectangular in plan , and about 20 meters ( 64 feet ) in length . At its broader , eastern end , where the chamber is located , the monument measures 15 metres ( 50 feet ) , while at the narrower , western end , it is 12 metres ( 40 feet ) in breadth . As such , the barrow is a " truncated wedge @-@ shape " . The megalithic builders responsible for the Coldrum Stones positioned it on the top of a small ridge adjacent to the North Downs , and constructed it facing eastward , towards the River Medway . 
 The chamber of the monument measures 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 13 feet ) in length , and 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 feet 6 inches ) in width , although it was potentially much larger when originally constructed . The chamber 's internal height would have been at least 2 metres ( 6 feet 6 inches ) . In its current state , the northern side of the chamber is made up of two slabs , one being 8 feet long , 7 feet , 6 inches deep , and 1 foot , 9 inches thick , and the other 5 feet long , 6 feet deep , and 2 feet thick . Conversely , the chamber 's southern side consists of a single slab , measuring 11 feet , 4 inches in length , 7 feet , 3 inches in depth , and 1 foot , 9 inches in depth at its thicker , eastern end . The western end of the chamber is closed off with a slab measuring about 14 feet , 6 inches wide , with a thickness of 1 foot and a depth of around 8 feet . A collapsed , broken slab lies at the opening eastern end of the chamber . It is also possible that a largely rectangular slab at the bottom of the slope had once been part of the eastern end of the chamber . Excavation has revealed that flint masonry was used to pack around the chamber and support its sarsens ; twentieth @-@ century renovation has seen this largely replaced with cement , allowing the stones to continue standing upright . 
 It is possible that there was a facade in front of the chamber , as is evident at other chambered tombs in Britain , such as West Kennet Long Barrow and <unk> 's Smithy . It is also possible that there was a portal stone atop the chamber , as was apparent at Kit 's Coty House and Lower Kit 's Coty House . Many of the larger slabs of stone that have fallen down the slope on the eastern end of the monument may have been parts of this facade or portal . 
 The earthen mound that once covered the tomb is now visible only as an <unk> approximately 1 foot , 6 inches in height . In the nineteenth @-@ century , the mound was higher on the western end of the tomb , although this was removed by excavation to reveal the sarsens beneath during the 1920s . It is likely that in the Early Neolithic , the mound had a quarry ditch surrounding it , and it is inside this ditch that the kerb @-@ stones now sit . 
 The kerb @-@ stones around the tomb display some <unk> ; those on the northern side are mostly rectilinear , while those on the southern side are smaller and largely irregular in shape . It is probable that there was an ancillary dry @-@ stone wall constructed using blocks of <unk> from the geological <unk> beds , as is evident at Chestnuts Long Barrow . Given that such blocks of stone rarely occur naturally , it may have been <unk> . 
 A <unk> line of <unk> and <unk> can be found on both one of the central kerb @-@ stones on the western end of the monument and a kerb @-@ stone on the south @-@ east of the monument . These have been attributed to the <unk> of flint and other stone axe @-@ <unk> on these sarsens . It is possible that these tools were sharpened for use in cutting and carving the timber <unk> and struts which would have been used in <unk> the stones and constructing the tomb . Similar evidence for the <unk> of tools has been found at West Kennet Long Barrow , as well as later prehistoric monuments such as Stonehenge . 
 Coldrum Long Barrow is comparatively isolated from the other Medway Megaliths ; in this it is unique , given that the other surviving examples are clustered into two groups . However , it is possible that another chambered tomb was located nearby ; a razed , elongated earthen mound with an east @-@ west orientation is located in a hollow at the foot of the downs just under a quarter of a mile to the north of the Coldrum Stones . It may be that this represents the remnants of another such monument which has had its stones removed or buried . Several large sarsens to the south of the <unk> might represent the remnants of a further such tomb , since destroyed . 
 
 = = Human remains = = 
 
 
 = = = Demographics = = = 
 
 Ashbee suggested that given its size and comparisons with other long barrows , such as <unk> 's Lodge , the Coldrum tomb could have housed the remains of over a hundred individuals . Excavations conducted in the early 20th century have led to the methodical discovery and removal of what was believed to be the remains of twenty @-@ two human individuals . These remains were examined by Sir Arthur Keith , the <unk> of the museum at the Royal College of Surgeons . He published his results in 1913 , in a paper largely concerned with discerning racial characteristics of the bodies . 
 A subsequent re @-@ analysis of the bones was conducted in the early 21st century , and published in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society in 2013 : the project presented " <unk> analysis , Bayesian modelling of <unk> dates , and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis to inform on the <unk> , burial practices , diet and subsistence , and chronology of the Coldrum population " . <unk> earlier conclusions , it stated that the minimum number of individuals was seventeen . These were then further identified as probably belonging to nine adults ( probably five males and four females ) , two sub @-@ adults , four older children , and two younger children ( one around five years old , the other between 24 and 30 months old ) . 
 Keith had suggested that the <unk> he examined displayed similar features , which he attributed to the different individuals belonging to " one family - or several families united by common descent . " Similar observations had been made regarding the <unk> from other long barrows in Britain , although <unk> Martin Smith and Megan <unk> noted that this was not necessarily representative of a family group . Instead , they stated that it would also be consistent with " a population that was still relatively small and scattered " , in which most individuals were interrelated . 
 <unk> 's team noted that in all but one case , the fracture morphologies are consistent with dry @-@ bone breakage . Three of the skulls exhibited evidence that they had experienced violence ; a probable adult female had an <unk> injury on the left frontal , while an adult of indeterminate sex had an <unk> fracture on the left frontal , and a second adult female had a <unk> depressed fracture on the right frontal . 
 <unk> analysis of the remains revealed <unk> values that were typical of those found at many other Southern British Neolithic sites , albeit with significantly higher values of <unk> , which grew over time . Although this data is difficult to interpret , it was identified as probably reflecting a terrestrial diet high in animal protein that over time was increasingly supplemented with freshwater river or estuarine foods . In the case of the older individuals whose remains were interned in the tomb , the tooth enamel was worn away and the <unk> had become exposed on the chewing area of the crowns . 
 <unk> dating of the remains suggested Early Neolithic activity began at the site during <unk> – <unk> <unk> BCE ( 95 % probability ) or <unk> – <unk> cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) , when the first human remains were buried at the site . It then suggested that after an interval of either 60 – 350 years ( 95 % probability ) or 140 – 290 years ( 68 % probability ) , further <unk> of human remains were made inside the tomb . This second phase probably began in <unk> – <unk> cal BCE ( 95 % probability ) or <unk> – <unk> cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) . The <unk> dating of the human remains does not provide a date for the construction of Coldrum Long Barrow itself ; it is possible that the individuals died either some time before or after the monument 's construction . 
 
 = = = Post @-@ mortem deposition = = = 
 
 Cut @-@ marks were identified on a number of the bones ( two femora , two <unk> , and one <unk> ) , with <unk> specialists suggesting that these had been created post @-@ mortem as the bodies were <unk> and the bones removed from their attached ligaments . However , they further suggested that the lack of such cut @-@ marks on certain bones was <unk> that the body had already undergone partial decomposition or the removal of soft tissues prior to the process of dismemberment . The precision of the cut @-@ marks suggests that this dismemberment was done carefully ; " they do not suggest frenzied hacking or mutilation . " None of the criteria that <unk> deem diagnostic of cannibalism were found on the bones . 
 This cut @-@ marked human bone assemblage represented the largest yet identified from within a Neolithic long barrow in Southern Britain , although similar evidence for dismemberment has been found from a number of other Neolithic British sites , such as West <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . There are two possibilities for how this material developed . The first is that the bodies of the dead were <unk> or exposed to the elements , followed by a secondary burial within the tomb . The second is that they were placed in the tomb , where the flesh <unk> , before the bodies were then <unk> within the tomb itself . These practices may have been accompanied by <unk> , <unk> , or magical practices , direct evidence for which does not survive . 
 The inclusion of occupational debris over the bones was not unique to the site but common in chambered tombs from southern England . On the basis of an example discovered at Kit 's Coty House , Ashbee thought it apparent that the contents of the Coldrum 's chamber would have been <unk> by <unk> slabs , which served the same purpose as the side chambers of West Kennet and <unk> 's Smithy . 
 
 = = Damage and <unk> = = 
 
 All of the surviving megalithic tombs from the Early Neolithic period have suffered from neglect and the <unk> of agriculture . Although archaeologist Paul Ashbee noted that the Coldrum Stones represent " Kent 's least damaged megalithic long barrow " , it too has suffered considerable damage , having become dilapidated and fallen apart over the six millennia since its original construction . Most prominently , the eastern side has largely collapsed , with the stones that once helped to hold up the side of the barrow having fallen to the bottom of the slope . Conversely , it is possible that the sarsens at the bottom of the slope were not part of the original monument , but were stones found in nearby fields which were deposited there by farmers . 
 Excavation of Chestnuts Long Barrow revealed that it had been systematically destroyed in one event , and Ashbee suggested that the same may have happened to the Coldrum Stones . He believed that the kerb @-@ stones around the barrow were toppled , laid prostrate in the surrounding ditch , and then buried during the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century , by Christians seeking to <unk> non @-@ Christian monuments . Conversely , the archaeologist John Alexander — who excavated Chestnuts — suggested that the Medway tombs were destroyed by robbers seeking to locate treasure within them . As evidence , he pointed to the Close Roll of 1237 , which ordered the opening of barrows on the Isle of Wight in search for treasure , a practice which may have spread to Kent around the same time . Alexander believed that the destruction n Kent may have been brought about by a special commissioner , highlighting that the " <unk> and <unk> of the robbery " at Chestnuts would have necessitated resources beyond that which a local community could likely produce . Ashbee further suggested that in subsequent centuries , locals raided the damaged Coldrum tomb for <unk> chalk and stone , which was then re @-@ used as building material . 
 
 = = Folklore and folk tradition = = 
 
 In a 1946 paper published in the Folklore journal , John H. Evans recorded the existence of a local folk belief that a battle was fought at the site of the Coldrum Stones , and that a " Black Prince " was buried within its chamber . He suggested that the tales of battles taking place at this site and at other Medway Megaliths had not developed independently among the local population but had " <unk> down from the theories of <unk> " who believed that the Early Medieval Battle of <unk> , which was recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , took place in the area . 
 Evans also recorded that there was a folk belief in the area that applied to all of the Medway megaliths and which had been widespread " up to the last generation " ; this was that it was impossible for any human being to successfully count the number of stones in the monuments . This " countless stones " motif is not unique to this particular site , and can be found at various other megalithic monuments in Britain . The earliest textual evidence for it is found in an early sixteenth @-@ century document , where it applies to the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although in an early seventeenth @-@ century document it was being applied to The <unk> , a set of three stone circles in Cornwall . Later records reveal that it had gained widespread distribution in England , as well as a single occurrence each in Wales and Ireland . The <unk> S. P. <unk> suggested that it could be attributed to an <unk> understanding that these megaliths had lives of their own . 
 In the early twenty @-@ first century , a tradition developed in which the Hartley Morris Men , a <unk> dancing side , travel to the site at dawn every May Day in order to " sing up the sun " . This consists of a number of dances performed within the stones on top of the barrow , followed by a song performed at the base of the monument . 
 
 = = <unk> and archaeological investigation = = 
 
 
 = = = Early antiquarian descriptions = = = 
 
 The earliest antiquarian accounts of Coldrum Long Barrow were never published . There are claims that at the start of the nineteenth century , the Reverend Mark Noble , Rector of <unk> , prepared a plan of the site for Gentleman 's Magazine , although no copies have been produced to verify this . Between 1842 and 1844 , the Reverend <unk> Post authored <unk> Remains at Coldrum , in which he described the monument , although it remained unpublished at the time . <unk> the site with the <unk> of Britain 's Iron Age , Post 's suggestion was that the name " Coldrum " derived from the linguistically Celtic " <unk> @-@ Dun " , and that the chiefs of some of the <unk> Gauls were interned there . He further reported that in both 1804 and 1825 , skulls had been found at the site . In 1844 , an antiquarian named Thomas Wright published a note on the Coldrum Stones and other Medway Megaliths in The Archaeological Journal . Wright had been alerted to their existence by a local vicar , the Reverend Lambert B. <unk> , and proceeded to visit them with him . Describing the <unk> , Wright mentioned " a smaller circle of stones " to the others in the area , with " a subterranean <unk> in the middle " . He further added that " it is a tradition of the <unk> that a continuous line of stones ran from Coldrum direct to the well @-@ known monument called Kit 's <unk> [ sic ] House " , attributing this belief to the variety of megaliths which were scattered throughout the landscape . 
 In 1857 , the antiquarian J. M. <unk> excavated at the site with the help of the Reverend <unk> , providing a report of their findings to the Central Committee of the British Archaeological Association . Describing the monument as a stone circle , they asserted that they discovered Anglo @-@ Saxon pottery at the site , and noted that as well as being called the Coldrum Stones , the monument also had the name of the <unk> Stones , which <unk> believed originated with the Old English word for funeral pile , ad . In August 1863 , the Archaeological Institute , who were then holding their week @-@ long meeting in Rochester , took a tour to visit the site , guided by the <unk> Charles <unk> Smith . That year , the monument was described in a copy of Gentleman 's Magazine by Yorkshire <unk> Charles Moore <unk> , who believed it to be a " Celtic " stone circle . 
 In 1869 , the antiquarian A. L. Lewis first visited the site , and was informed by locals that several years previously a skull had been uncovered from inside or near to the chamber , but that they believed it to be that of a <unk> . A later account elaborated on this , stating that two individuals excavated in the centre of the dolmen without permission , discovering a human skeleton , the skull of which was then re @-@ buried in the churchyard at <unk> . In an 1878 note published in The Journal of the <unk> Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , Lewis noted that while many tourists visited Kit 's Coty House , " very few goes to or ever hears of a yet more curious collection of stones at <unk> or Coldrum Lodge " . He believed that the monument consisted of both a " chamber " and an " oval " of stones , suggesting that they were " two distinct <unk> " . In 1880 , the archaeologist Flinders Petrie included the existence of the stones at " <unk> " in his list of <unk> earthworks ; although noting that a previous commentator had described the stones as being in the shape of an oval , he instead described them as forming " a rectilinear enclosure " around the chamber . He then included a small , basic plan of the monument . 
 In August 1889 , two amateur archaeologists , George Payne and A. A. Arnold , came across the monument , which they noted was known among locals as the " Coldrum Stones " and " <unk> Temple " ; according to Payne , " the huge stones were so overgrown with <unk> and <unk> that they could not be discerned " . He returned the next year , noting that at this point , the <unk> had been cut away to reveal the megaliths . In his 1893 book <unk> <unk> , Payne noted that although it had first been described in print in 1844 , " since that time no one seems to have taken the trouble to properly record them or make a plan " , an unusual claim given that a copy of Petrie 's published plan existed in his library . For this reason , after gaining permission from the landowner , he convinced Major A. O. Green , <unk> in Survey at <unk> , to conduct a survey of the monument in August 1892 . He also wrote to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , encouraging him to schedule the Coldrum Stones as a legally protected site under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . Payne described the Coldrum Stones as " the finest monument of its class in the county , and one worthy of every care and attention . " Comparing it to other monuments of its type in Britain , he asserted that it was undoubtedly " of sepulchral origin , belonging to a period anterior to the Roman domination of Britain . " Payne also noted a folk tradition that there were stone avenues connecting Coldrum to the Addington Long Barrow , although added that he was unable to discover any evidence for the existence of this feature . 
 In 1904 , George Clinch published a note on the Medway Megaliths in the Royal <unk> Institute 's journal , Man , in which he referred to the Coldrum Stones as " at once the most remarkable and the least known of the whole series . " Suggesting that its design indicates that it was built during " a late date in the <unk> age " , he compared the workmanship in producing the megaliths to that at the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although noted that they differed in that the Coldrum Stones clearly represented " a sepulchral pile " . Ultimately , he ended his note by urging for the site to be protected under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 . In that same issue , Lewis included an added note in which he rejected the idea that the monument had once been covered by an earthen tumulus because he could see " no evidence that anything of that kind ever existed " , and instead he interpreted the site as a stone circle , comparing it to the examples at <unk> , <unk> , and Stanton Drew , suggesting that the central chamber was a shrine . 
 
 = = = Archaeological excavation = = = 
 
 The Coldrum Stones have been excavated on multiple occasions . On 16 April 1910 , the amateur archaeologist F. J. Bennett began excavation at the site , after previously having uncovered some Neolithic <unk> from Addington Long Barrow . He soon discovered human bones " under only a few inches of <unk> soil " . He returned to the site for further excavation in August 1910 , this time with his niece and her husband , both of whom were dentists with an interest in <unk> ; on that day they discovered pieces of a human skull , which they were able to largely reconstruct . A few days later he returned to excavate on the north @-@ west corner of the dolmen with the architect E. W. Filkins ; that day , they found a second skull , further bones , a flint tool , and pieces of pottery . 
 Later that month , George Payne and F. W. Reader met with Bennett to discuss his finds . With the aid of two other interested amateur archaeologists , Mr Boyd and Miss <unk> , both from <unk> , excavation resumed in early September . In 2009 , the archaeologists Martin Smith and Megan <unk> asserted that Bennett 's excavations had taken heed of the advice of Pitt @-@ Rivers that excavations should be recorded in full . They noted that Bennett had provided " clear plan and section drawings , photographs of the monument and careful attempts to consider site formation processes . " Suggesting that the monument was constructed on agricultural land , in his published report Bennett cited the ideas of anthropologist James <unk> in The Golden <unk> to suggest that the Coldrum Stones " monument may at one time have been dedicated , though not necessarily initially so , to the worship of the corn god and of agriculture . " He proceeded to <unk> that the human remains found at the site were the victims of human sacrifice killed in fertility rites . However , Evans later stated that " we have no means of knowing " whether human sacrifice had taken place at the site . 
 In September 1922 , Filkins once again began excavating at the site , this time with the aid of a resident of <unk> , Charles Gilbert . Their project was financed through grants provided by the British Association and the Society of Antiquaries , with Filkins noting that at the time of its commencement , " a miniature jungle " had grown up around the site which had to be cleared . Excavation continued sporadically until at least 1926 . Human remains were discovered , and placed into the possession of Sir Arthur Keith of the Royal College of Surgeons . This excavation revealed all the existing sarsens surrounding the monument , a number of which had previously been buried beneath earth . The stones of the dolmen were <unk> up with concrete foundations where Filkins deemed it necessary . Although Filkins ' excavation was comprehensive , it did ignore stone holes , packing stones , and their relationship to the mound . In 1998 , Ashbee noted that while from " a present @-@ day perspective , it is possible to see shortcomings [ ... ] in terms of the general standards of the early part of this century , there is much to <unk> . " 
 
 = = = Management by The National Trust = = = 
 
 In his 1924 publication dealing with Kent , the archaeologist O. G. S. Crawford , then working as the archaeological officer for the Ordnance Survey , listed the Coldrum Stones alongside the other Medway Megaliths . In 1926 , the Coldrum Stones were given to The National Trust , who dedicated it as a memorial to the <unk> historian Benjamin Harrison . A plaque was erected to mark this , which erroneously termed the monument a stone circle ; in 1953 , the archaeologist Leslie <unk> expressed the view that " it is hoped that this error may be rectified in the near future " . Still owned by the Trust , the site is open to visitors all year round , free of charge . On their website , the Trust advises visitors to look for " stunning views from the top of the barrow " . John H. Evans characterised the site as " the most impressive " of the Medway Megaliths , while <unk> described it as " the finest and most complete " of the group . 
 
 
 = Soviet cruiser Krasnyi Kavkaz = 
 
 Krasnyi Kavkaz ( from Russian : " <unk> <unk> " - " Red <unk> " ) was a cruiser of the Soviet Navy that began construction during World War I , but was still incomplete during the Russian Revolution . Her design was heavily modified by the Soviets and she was completed in 1932 . During World War II she supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April 1942 . She was reclassified as a training ship in May 1947 before being used as a target in 1952 . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 <unk> down on 18 October 1913 at the <unk> Dockyard as Admiral <unk> for the Imperial Russian Navy as a cruiser of the <unk> class , she was launched on 8 June 1916 . Construction was abandoned in 1917 during the October Revolution when the ship was 63 % complete . In the second half of 1918 , the Marine Department of Hetman <unk> <unk> was engaged in completion of ship . On 25 January 1919 , the ship was formally renamed in " Hetman <unk> <unk> " , but <unk> was captured shortly afterward by the <unk> . The hull was relatively undamaged and the Soviets decided to finish the ship to a modified design . She was renamed Krasnyi Kavkaz on 14 December 1926 , and completed to a modernized design , being commissioned on 25 January 1932 . 
 Krasnyi Kavkaz was initially intended to accommodate eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns in four twin turrets , but this was impossible given her small and lightly constructed hull . Three twin turrets mounting the new 57 @-@ caliber 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) B @-@ 1 @-@ K gun under development also proved <unk> and the Soviets had to settle for four MK @-@ 1 @-@ 180 single 180 mm gun turrets , two at each end . Her superstructure was massively revised to fit these turrets and all of the original casemated 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 <unk> Pattern 1913 guns were removed . As completed her secondary armament was only four 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 mm <unk> AA guns mounted between her funnels . Her original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by four triple 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mounts mounted on each side of the main deck <unk> the forecastle break . She was given an aircraft @-@ handling crane , but a catapult wasn 't installed aft of her rear funnel until 1935 when a Heinkel catapult was imported from Germany . She was also fitted for mine rails with a capacity of up to 120 mines . 
 The light cruiser <unk> collided with her in May 1932 , shortly after her commissioning , and badly damaged her bow . It was extensively rebuilt and increased her overall length by over 11 metres ( 36 ft ) . In 1933 she made port visits in Turkey , Greece and Italy . 
 She was refitted before Operation Barbarossa , probably about 1940 , her catapult was removed , and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly increased . Her four 76 @.@ 2 mm <unk> AA guns were exchanged for four Italian <unk> twin gun 50 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) AA mounts and she received four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 76 @.@ 2 mm 34 @-@ K were fitted as well as six 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) AA machine guns . Two single mounts for 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K guns were also fitted , one on each side of the quarterdeck just aft of the rearmost main gun turret . Some of these guns may have been received earlier , the sources are unclear . While under repair at Poti in late 1942 she landed her aft pair of torpedo tubes and received two more <unk> mounts salvaged from the sunken cruiser <unk> Ukraina . Ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm AA gun was also fitted . By 1944 she was also carrying one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mount on top of each of her superfiring main gun turrets and she may have been using Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . 
 
 = = = World War II = = = 
 
 Krasnyi Kavkaz , in company with the cruisers <unk> Ukraina , <unk> and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June . She provided gunfire support to Soviet forces defending Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during the month of September 1941 . She also transported one battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near <unk> and <unk> . She escorted convoys from 3 — 6 October that evacuated the 157th Rifle Division from Odessa to Sevastopol and escorted the final evacuation convoy during the night of 15 – 16 October . During the Siege of Sevastopol she provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the <unk> into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . She helped to transport the <unk> Rifle Division from Novorossiysk and <unk> to Sevastopol between 7 and 13 December and the <unk> Rifle Division between 21 and 22 December , bombarding German positions in the interim . 
 During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation Krasnyi Kavkaz sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 and disembarked reinforcements and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . She was hit seventeen times by Axis artillery and mortar fire in retaliation . On 1 and 3 January she ferried supplies and reinforcements for the Soviet bridgehead on the Kerch Peninsula . On the return voyage she was severely damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 <unk> dive @-@ bombers from II . / <unk> 77 . Four near @-@ misses close to her stern damaged her steering , her left propeller shaft , blew off one propeller and put enough holes in her stern that flooding caused her draft to increase by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . She made it to Novorossiysk , escorted by the destroyer <unk> , where she was patched up enough to make to Poti where more permanent repairs could be made . These took until October 1942 and the opportunity was taken to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament . 
 She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April in recognition of her performance . Between 20 and 23 October , Krasnyi Kavkaz , her half @-@ sister Krasnyi <unk> , and three destroyers ferried 12 @,@ 600 men of the 8th , 9th and 10th Guards Rifle Brigades from Poti to <unk> to reinforce the defenses there . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossiysk , behind German lines . Krasnyi <unk> , Krasnyi Kavkaz , and three destroyers provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February , although one secondary landing was successful . The loss of three destroyers attempting to <unk> the German evacuation of the <unk> <unk> on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of Krasnyi Kavkaz 's active participation in the war . 
 
 = = = Post @-@ war history = = = 
 
 Little is known about her activities after the end of the war other than she was redesignated as a training ship on 12 May 1947 . She was sunk as a target ship by SS @-@ N @-@ 1 missiles on 21 November 1952 . 
 
 
 = Rhode Island Route 4 = 
 
 Route 4 , also known as the Colonel Rodman Highway , is a 10 @.@ 37 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 69 km ) long numbered state highway located in Washington County and southern Kent County , Rhode Island , United States . The route is a major north – south freeway in the southern Providence metropolitan area , directly linking Providence with eastern Washington County , the beaches of Narragansett and South Kingstown , and the city of Newport . Route 4 begins as a two @-@ lane divided highway at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in the town of North Kingstown , becoming a limited @-@ access freeway after 1 @.@ 89 miles ( 3 @.@ 04 km ) . The route has four numbered interchanges before terminating in the city of Warwick , where the northbound lanes merge into Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) . 
 The origins of Route 4 date back to 1952 , when construction began on a short , unnumbered arterial from US 1 to the modern location of exit 5 at Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford . In 1965 , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works began work on a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) freeway from modern exit 6 north to the merge with I @-@ 95 . The freeway , designated as Route 4 , was completed in 1972 . At that time , the Route 4 designation was also applied to the Wickford arterial . In 1988 , the missing link in Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 was completed and opened . The Rhode Island Department of Transportation has long @-@ term plans to upgrade the southernmost portion of Route 4 to freeway status by constructing overpasses at Oak Hill Road and West Allenton Road and a grade separation with US 1 . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 Route 4 begins at a fork in the alignment of U.S. Route 1 in the community of North Kingstown ; the two left lanes of US 1 default onto Route 4 north , with the right @-@ hand lane carrying Tower Hill Road and US 1 north into the village of Wickford . Route 4 heads in a northwestern direction as a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing West Allenton Road at an at @-@ grade intersection with a traffic signal after approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . The highway continues on a northwesterly projection , passing to the northeast of <unk> Hole Pond and to the southwest of Secret Lake in a heavily forested region . After Secret Lake , the highway curves to the north , crossing Oak Hill Road at another at @-@ grade intersection . 
 Shortly after the intersection with Oak Hill Road , Route 4 transitions from a divided arterial highway into a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access freeway . The freeway passes to the west of Belleville Pond and begins to parallel the alignment of Route 102 ( Ten Rod Road ) near the community of Lafayette . Route 4 passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad before entering the business district of Wickford Junction . The freeway interchanges with Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 , a partial cloverleaf interchange . After the interchange , Route 4 <unk> to the northeast , beginning a parallel alignment with Route 2 that continues to its northern terminus . Route 4 crosses into the town of East Greenwich , passing under South Road before <unk> with Route 2 at exit 6 , a partial cloverleaf interchange . 
 After exit 6 , Route 4 passes the Rhode Island Army National Guard base to the east and to the Hunt River to the west . Route 4 northbound interchanges with Route 403 at exit 7 ; Route 403 , or the Quonset Freeway , is a four @-@ lane , limited access freeway and spur route of Route 4 that serves the Quonset Business Park and the village of <unk> . Heading southbound , exit 7 is split into exit <unk> , which serves the Quonset Freeway , and exit <unk> , which serves Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , another spur route connecting the highway to US 1 and Route 2 . After exit 7 , Route 4 continues northward as a six @-@ lane expressway , passing <unk> to the west and entering a suburban region of East Greenwich . The highway crosses under an overpass at Middle Road before <unk> with Route <unk> , the freeway 's final spur , at another partial cloverleaf interchange . Exit 8 is also used to access Route 2 and I @-@ 95 south , which has no direct freeway connection with Route 4 north . Shortly after exit 8 , the Route 4 designation ends and the mainline of the highway <unk> onto I @-@ 95 north . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 In 1950 , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 118 million in 2016 ) bond issue to fund the construction of a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , four @-@ lane divided arterial bypass of U.S. Route 1 in Wickford . Construction on the highway began in 1952 and was completed in 1954 , at which time the roadway opened as an unnumbered state highway leading from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford . 
 During the late 1950s , a few years after the completion of the arterial , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works ( <unk> ) proposed a relocation of Route 2 , which , at the time , was the major thoroughfare in the area . No action was taken until 1964 , when the <unk> introduced a study for the " <unk> Route 2 " proposal . During the study , drivers who used the Colonel Rodman Highway arterial and were bound for the state capital of Providence were <unk> onto Route 2 , an accident @-@ prone , four @-@ lane undivided highway near the modern exit 5 . In 1965 , the planned Route 2 freeway was given the new number of Route 4 , leaving Route 2 on its existing alignment . A public hearing was held by the state of Rhode Island on the proposed freeway , which was to be four lanes and have a divided , grassy median . This proposal was later accepted , and construction began two years later . 
 Construction of a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) long section of Route 4 from what is now exit 6 in East Greenwich to I @-@ 95 in Warwick began in 1967 and was completed in 1972 . That year , the 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) arterial south of the modern exit 5 was also designated as part of Route 4 . The divided highway remains largely intact to this date as the stretch of Route 4 from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 ; the only piece of the arterial that has been significantly altered is the construction of a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor line . By the early 1970s , Route 4 was complete north of exit 6 and south of what would become exit 5 , but there was a still a missing piece in the highway between the two exits . In the 1970s , the state of Rhode Island faced several budget problems and environmental concerns , both of which delayed the construction of the missing link for nearly eleven years . Environmental studies on the missing link began in 1977 , and the state estimated that the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long section of freeway would cost $ 15 – 21 million ( equivalent to $ 59 – 82 million in 2016 ) to construct . 
 In 1983 , the Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) began construction of the new segment of Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 . The project , which ultimately went over budget at $ 24 million ( equivalent to $ 52 million in 2016 ) ) , was financed from a $ 63 million federal grant . In 1986 , during excavation for the new right @-@ of @-@ way , the Department of Transportation found archeological items from the Narragansett Indians dating from about 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 years prior . Although the findings were not centralized in the area , this caused delays for the extension of the freeway . On August 6 , 1988 , <unk> completed construction and performed a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony for the new highway . 
 In January 1990 , two police cruisers were severely damaged during a chase on Route 4 . A driver was <unk> in the southbound lanes of Route 4 near exit 7 ; when the driver exited at Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , two police officers got into serious accidents in their attempts to pursue the vehicle . After the crashes , the American Civil Liberties Union <unk> efforts to amend police chase policy and avoid further crash @-@ related injuries for officers in the line of duty . 
 In 2000 , construction began on the Quonset Freeway , a relocated Route 403 that serves the Quonset Business Park from Route 4 . The project included the reconstruction and reworking of exit 7 off Route 4 , which was a southbound @-@ only exit serving both Route 403 and Route 402 when constructed . The exit was converted into a trumpet interchange with new ramps between Route 4 , Route 403 and Route 402 and was completed in December 2008 , one year ahead of schedule . The project included the construction of a new northbound exit 7 serving Route 403 east . 
 
 = = Future = = 
 
 The Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) has laid out long @-@ term plans for improvements to both the southern and northern <unk> of Route 4 . During the 1980s and 1990s , RIDOT announced plans to eliminate the three traffic lights along the southern end of the highway . The department planned to replace the existing <unk> US 1 and Route 4 merge , converting it into a grade @-@ separated interchange with an extensive overpass . This would cut @-@ off access to three local roads that intersect US 1 near the signal . The plan also included the replacement of the two other signaled intersections at West Allenton Road and Oak Hill Road with overpasses ; the overpass for West Allenton Road is planned to be constructed as a new exit 4 . In the 1990s , the state purchased and demolished several houses in the region to allow for an expanded Route 4 right @-@ of @-@ way in the vicinity of West Allenton Road . 
 The upgrade proposal proved to be very unpopular with North Kingstown residents who lived on the affected local roads . Additionally , RIDOT laid the highway out so that Route 4 would cross through wetlands in the area . This sparked environmental concerns , as one of the large wetlands that would be affected , <unk> 's Marsh , was deemed to be of high value by Rhode Island environmentalists . Despite local and environmental concerns , RIDOT still considers the Route 4 upgrade to be the <unk> way to improve traffic flow in the region . While the Department of Transportation considered upgrading nearby Route 2 to freeway standards as a potential alternative , this plan was ultimately rejected because of its effects on wells in the area . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely . 
 RIDOT also has long @-@ range plans to construct direct freeway connections linking Route 4 north with I @-@ 95 south and I @-@ 95 north with Route 4 south . As of November 2010 , environmental studies are being prepared for a <unk> of the interchange . 
 
 = = Exit list = = 
 
 <unk> denote future exit numbers . 
 
 
 = West End Girls = 
 
 " West End Girls " is a song by British pop duo Pet Shop Boys . Written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe , the song was released twice as a single . The song is influenced by hip hop music , with lyrics concerned with class and the pressures of inner @-@ city life which were inspired partly by T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land . It was generally well received by contemporary music critics and has been frequently cited as a highlight in the duo 's career . 
 The first version of the song was produced by Bobby Orlando and was released on Columbia Records ' <unk> Records imprint in April 1984 , becoming a club hit in the United States and some European countries . After the duo signed with EMI , the song was re @-@ recorded with producer Stephen Hague for their first studio album , Please . In October 1985 , the new version was released , reaching number one in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1986 . 
 In 1987 , the song won Best Single at the <unk> Awards , and Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , 20 years after its release , the song was awarded Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 by the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters . In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's 12th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV . 
 The song was performed by Pet Shop Boys at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony and was included as part of the soundtrack of the 2013 game Grand Theft Auto V on the Non @-@ Stop @-@ Pop radio station . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 
 = = = Recording and production = = = 
 
 In 1983 , Neil Tennant met producer Bobby Orlando , while on an assignment in New York interviewing Sting for Smash Hits . After listening to some demos , Orlando offered to produce for the duo . 
 In 1983 – 84 , the duo recorded eleven songs with Orlando , at <unk> Studios in New York , " West End Girls " , " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " , " One More Chance " , " I Want A Lover " , " A Man Could Get Arrested " , " I Get <unk> " , " Two <unk> by Zero " , " <unk> " , " It 's A Sin " , " Pet Shop Boys " , and " Later <unk> " . Orlando played most of the instruments on " West End Girls " , including the jazz riff at the end . Lowe played one chord and the bassline . It included a drum part lifted from Michael Jackson 's " Billie Jean " , and an arrangement involving what Tennant called " Barry White chords " . Orlando was thrilled by the song 's production ; his idea was to make a rap record in a British accent . 
 In April 1984 , " West End Girls " was released , becoming a club hit in Los Angeles and San Francisco , and a minor dance hit in Belgium , and France , but was only available in the United Kingdom as a 12 " import . In March 1985 , after long negotiations , Pet Shop Boys cut their contractual ties with Orlando , and hired manager Tom Watkins , who signed them with EMI . They re @-@ recorded " West End Girls " with producer Stephen Hague , and re @-@ released the song in late 1985 , topping the charts in both the UK and the U.S. 
 In an interview on <unk> 's <unk> Britannia programme ( Video on YouTube at <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , Neil Tennant explains the role of the then new sampling technology on the track and how every single sound came from the newly introduced E @-@ <unk> <unk> keyboard . 
 
 = = = Music and lyrics = = = 
 
 " West End Girls " is a synthpop song influenced by hip hop music . The song 's socially conscious streak , as well as the propulsive bass line , derives from Grandmaster Flash 's protest rap song " The Message " . Lowe and Hague created a " <unk> , obsessive rhythm punch " for the music , replacing the song 's previously sparse beats and minimal keyboard lines . 
 Tennant started to write the song when he was staying at his cousin 's house in Nottingham while watching a gangster film . Just when he was going to sleep he came up with the lines : " Sometimes you 're better off dead , there 's a gun in your hand and it 's pointing at your head " . The lyrics were inspired by T.S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , particularly in the use of different narrative voices and <unk> references . The song 's lyrics are largely concerned with class , inner @-@ city pressure . Tennant later said that some listeners had assumed the song referred to prostitutes , but was actually , " about rough boys getting a bit of <unk> . " 
 The lyric " From Lake Geneva to the Finland Station " refers to the train route taken by Vladimir Lenin when he was smuggled by the Germans to Russia during World War I , a pivotal event in the Russian Revolution . Indeed , it is highly likely the lyric was inspired by the book To the Finland Station by Edmund Wilson , a very famous work on the history of revolutionary thought and Socialism that Tennant would have at least heard of , if not read , as a student . The Bobby Orlando @-@ produced version of the single included another line , " All your stopping , stalling and starting , / Who do you think you are , Joe Stalin ? " which was removed for the 1985 version . 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 " West End Girls " has been generally well received by music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic in a review of the album Please called the song " hypnotic " , adding that " it 's not only a classic dance single , it 's a classic pop single " . In a review for the group 's second studio album <unk> , Rob <unk> from Rolling Stone magazine commented that " West End Girls " was " as catchy as anything on the radio in 1986 " , praising " its <unk> bass line and foreboding synth riffs " , but felt that it was almost " <unk> by <unk> spoken <unk> and the cryptic posturing of the duo 's lyrics " . In a review of the live album Concrete , Michael Hubbard from musicOMH said that " West End Girls " was one of the songs that " round out a collection that never feels too long or superfluous " , adding that it " goes some way to installing Tennant and Lowe as national treasures " . 
 <unk> <unk> from Pitchfork Media , in a review of their compilation album <unk> : Pet Shop Boys - The Hits commented that in the song " we meet Tennant not as a singer , but as a speaker " , adding that " he <unk> the verses to us not like a star , but like a stranger in a <unk> , <unk> alongside you and pointing out the sights " . 
 In 1987 , " West End Girls " won for Best Single at The BRIT Awards , and for Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters gave to West End Girls the Ivor Novello Award for Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 . 
 
 = = Music video = = 
 
 The video was directed by Andy <unk> and Eric Watson , and consists of shots of the duo around London . At the beginning of the video , noises from the city can be heard , a camera passes Lowe on the street , and focus on two vintage dolls in a shop window . Then appears a sequence of quick cuts with shots of the city 's different sub @-@ cultures , the video freezes and cuts to Tennant and Lowe , who walk through an empty Wentworth Street in <unk> Lane Market . They stand in front of a red garage door , Tennant is in front dressed with a long coat , white shirt and dark <unk> , directly addressing the camera , with Lowe standing behind him with a blank expression . Lowe is filmed in double @-@ exposure and appears almost <unk> . In other shots , Tennant walks <unk> while Lowe follows behind , as if one were a master and the other an apprentice . 
 Then the video shows various shots at Waterloo station , as the chorus starts . In slow motion , the camera pans across the <unk> shop on the station <unk> as the duo walk past . It cuts to a brief shot of a No. 42 red double @-@ <unk> bus , showing the destination as <unk> , also advertising the stage @-@ show Evita , then black and white shots of the Tower Bridge , Westminster and the Westminster Palace <unk> Tower from the sky . The duo poses on the South Bank of the River Thames in a pastiche of a <unk> image , with the Houses of Parliament as a background . 
 The camera shows shots of young women , and passes through arcades and cinemas in Leicester Square . The camera now passes South Africa House showing protestors in the Non @-@ Stop <unk> , an anti @-@ apartheid vigil . The video cuts to a <unk> of Tennant singing the chorus , with a purple neon sign passing across his face . At the end the camera passes again through Leicester Square , where people queue to see Fletch and <unk> <unk> Susan . The video was nominated for Best New Artist in a Video at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to a @-@ ha 's Take On Me . 
 
 = = Chart performance = = 
 
 " West End Girls " was first released in April 1984 through writer and producer Bobby Orlando 's label . The song was a club hit in the United States , and in some European countries , such as Belgium , where it debuted at number 24 on the <unk> Top 30 chart on 28 July 1984 , peaking at 17 four weeks later . In Canada , " West End Girls " first entered the RPM singles chart in April 1985 , reaching a peak position of 81 in June 1985 . 
 Having signed with EMI , the group released their first major label single " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " in mid @-@ 1985 , but it failed to attract attention . The Pet Shop Boys then decided to re @-@ record " West End Girls " , and issue this new version as a single . Producer Stephen Hague helmed the new , re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " . 
 The re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " was released in the United Kingdom in October 1985 , debuting on the UK Singles Chart at number 80 , and within eight weeks of its release it had reached the top of the chart . It maintained the number one position for two weeks and received a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in January 1986 . Across Europe , " West End Girls " also topped the singles chart in Norway , as well as peaking in the top three in Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland . 
 In Canada , where the original recording of " West End Girls " had already been a minor hit in 1985 , the re @-@ recorded version was issued as a single in early 1986 . The re @-@ recorded song entered the chart in March 1986 , peaking at number one for one week on 17 May 1986 . In the United States , West End Girls debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 71 , reaching the number one position on 10 May 1986 , and remained on the chart for 20 weeks . The song also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart for two weeks . 
 
 = = Formats and track listings = = 
 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 Neil Tennant – vocals , lyrics 
 Chris Lowe – keyboards , artwork design 
 Helena Springs – additional vocals 
 Bobby Orlando – producer , ( 1984 release ) 
 Stephen Hague – producer ( 1985 release ) 
 Steve Jerome – engineer – 1984 release 
 David Jacob – engineer 
 Frank <unk> – remixing 
 Eric Watson – photography 
 
 = = Charts and certifications = = 
 
 
 = = = Chart positions = = = 
 
 
 = = = Year @-@ end charts = = = 
 
 
 = = = Certifications = = = 
 
 
 = = East 17 version = = 
 
 In 1993 East 17 covered " West End Girls " for their album <unk> , with limited chart success . 
 
 = = = Track listings = = = 
 
 7 " 
 . West End Girls ( Faces on <unk> Mix ) 
 . West End Girls ( Kicking in <unk> ) 
 
 = = = Charts = = = 
 
 
 
 = Wrapped in Red = 
 
 Wrapped in Red is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson , released on October 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records . The album is a follow @-@ up to her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One , and its companion extended play , The <unk> Sessions Vol . 2 . Produced by Greg Kurstin , it is her first Christmas album and her first record to be solely released by RCA . Wrapped in Red consists of sixteen tracks , featuring five co @-@ penned original songs and eleven cover versions of Christmas standards and <unk> , two of which are duets featuring recording artists Ronnie Dunn , <unk> McEntire and <unk> Yearwood . 
 Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , Clarkson had long @-@ desired to record a Christmas album as a means to defy genre limitations . She commissioned Kurstin , who had studied jazz music under the tutelage of <unk> <unk> , to produce the entire album . Drawing inspirations from the soundtracks to the features A Charlie Brown Christmas and White Christmas , as well as the Christmas albums by Mariah Carey , McEntire , and Phil Spector , they experimented on various styles and sounds using Spector 's famed Wall of Sound technique to a create a contemporary holiday theme to classics . The Christmas music of Wrapped in Red comprises a variety of the genres such pop , jazz , country , and soul , marking a departure from the pop rock sound established from her previous studio albums ; while its lyrics share a singular theme of the color red , which represents a <unk> of emotions during the holidays . 
 Wrapped in Red debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 and topped the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , Wrapped in Red stayed on the top ten of both charts and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and Music Canada . By the end of 2013 , it became the year 's best @-@ selling Christmas release in the United States and the second best @-@ selling Christmas release in Canada . Its lead single " Underneath the Tree " became an international top forty Christmas hit song and was radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 . In promoting Wrapped in Red , she appeared in red dresses on various televised appearances ; and filmed an accompanying television special , Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , at The Venetian Las Vegas , which premiered on NBC on December 11 , 2013 . In 2014 , Clarkson released the title track as the second single and hosted an annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena on December 20 , 2014 . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Clarkson had expressed interest in recording a Christmas album for years , having recorded various Christmas songs such as " Oh Holy Night " and " My <unk> Up Christmas List " on the American Idol : The Great Holiday Classics ( 2003 ) , " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " on iTunes Session ( 2011 ) , and being featured on Blake Shelton 's Christmas album Cheers , It 's Christmas ( 2012 ) . Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , she felt that recording a Christmas album would finally pave a way for her to explore other different genres . She remarked , " I always get asked what genre I 'm in : ' Is this country or pop or rock ? What are you ? ' And what 's cool about making the Christmas album was , ' Oh , there are no limitations ! We can do whatever we want ! ' " . She further added , " The thing about Christmas is that it almost doesn 't matter what mood you 're in or what kind of a year you 've had — it 's a fresh start . I 'm going to clear the air and take stock of the good that 's happened . " 
 <unk> about making her sixth studio album being a Christmas record began on December 2012 , a month after releasing her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One . Having found the opportunity to do so , Clarkson commissioned producer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Greg Kurstin , whom she had previously collaborated with on her albums Stronger and Chapter One , to solely produce the whole album . Despite having been raised in a Jewish faith and unfamiliar with Christmas songs , Kurstin still agreed to produce the project . As a result , the record marked the second time her studio album only had a single producer ( the first being David Kahne solely producing My December in 2007 ) . It also marked the fourth time Kurstin had solely produced an entire studio album apart from being a member of the musical groups The Bird and the Bee and <unk> <unk> ( the first three being Lily Allen 's It 's Not Me , It 's You in 2009 , <unk> 's We Are Born in 2010 , and The <unk> ' Port of Morrow in 2012 ) . 
 
 = = Recording = = 
 
 Recording sessions of the basic instrumental tracks for Wrapped in Red took place in Kurstin 's Echo Studio in Los Angeles while orchestral sessions were recorded at <unk> Studios in Hollywood and featured vocals recorded in The Barn studio in Nashville . In recording tracks for the album , Clarkson and Kurstin wanted to showcase as many different styles as they could by experimenting in various sounds and styles to create fresh , contemporary sound to classic @-@ sounding music . He recalled , " It was a lot of fun for us because we got to go back to our roots . When Kelly started singing , it was clear she had the chops and had been trained to do anything . " Further adding , " We really experimented . It was so much fun and liberating . And it pays off . " Kurstin , who studied with jazz musician <unk> <unk> at The New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music , recruited various jazz and soul musicians such as James <unk> , Kevin Dukes , Roy <unk> , and Bill <unk> to perform on the record to <unk> a Memphis soul sound . He also collaborated with Joseph <unk> to arrange and conduct a chamber orchestra . 
 In providing instrumentation for the record , Kurstin used all of his instruments such as a <unk> and a <unk> , taping them from a distance to stimulate the Wall of Sound , a recording technique originally developed by Phil Spector that was popular in the early 1960s . He enlisted Clarkson to provide all the background vocals herself . Clarkson , who grew up singing in a chorus , was pleased with the aspect ; saying , " <unk> is something I knew how to do from childhood . Sometimes I 'd have to do an alto instead of a soprano because they needed a bigger sound . But I 've never had to do anything like this before — doing all my backup vocals , essentially being my own choir . " Together , they began to record in May 2013 and continued through the summer of that year , beginning by recording " White Christmas " with Clarkson in the vocal booth and with Kurstin on a piano . She commented , " The production is all him . I would be just like ' Hey , can we make this more jazz ? Hey , can we make this more <unk> . And he just , like Harry Potter , made this happen . It 's so weird . " 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 
 = = = Theme and influences = = = 
 
 Clarkson has cited the color red as the album 's only theme . A color traditionally associated with Christmas , she affiliated the color to various emotions in the holidays . Wanting to stray away from her usual pop sound , she described Wrapped in Red 's music as a representation to explore different genres such as jazz , country and Memphis soul . She recalled , " What 's cool about Christmas albums is you can do jazz , rock and roll , you can do pop , you can do blues , like you can do all that stuff and it works — cause it 's all classic and it 's <unk> sounding . " She also noted that the album 's multitude of styles positively contributes to her artistic goal , saying , " My best friend from childhood heard it and said , ' This is what you sound like , before everything else . ' And I agree , It 's my core sound . Back in the day , when artists came out with things like " Fall to <unk> " and " Bridge over <unk> Water " , those songs <unk> genres . It wasn 't , ' Where is it going to fit ? ' You <unk> to whatever the song calls for . And that 's exactly what I did — without having to have an umbrella for everything . " 
 In gathering inspirations for Wrapped in Red , Clarkson started by listening to Bing Crosby 's and Rosemary <unk> 's soundtracks from the 1954 feature film White Christmas as well as Mariah Carey 's Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) and Merry Christmas to You ( 1997 ) by <unk> McEntire . While Kurstin , who used to play in a jazz band , took influences from A Charlie Brown Christmas by the Vince <unk> Trio and A Christmas Gift for You by Phil Spector as his inspirations , which resulted to the album 's Wall of Sound resonance . Clarkson also cited that her relationship with her then @-@ fiancé Brandon Blackstock had inspired some of the album 's lyrical content . 
 
 = = = Song analysis = = = 
 
 Clarkson shares writing credits on all five original songs on Wrapped in Red , some of which were written in December 2012 to avoid writing Christmas tunes during the 2013 summer season . She co @-@ wrote the opening and the title track , " Wrapped in Red " , with Ashley <unk> , <unk> Eubanks , and Shane <unk> . A Christmas ballad , the song was inspired by a scene in the holiday feature film Love <unk> ( 2003 ) , in which someone confesses <unk> love towards another . Critics singled out the track the one that <unk> the Wall of Sound the most . The second track , " Underneath the Tree " , was written by Clarkson and Kurstin , making it the first time they had co @-@ written a track together . Clarkson remarked , " Greg and I have worked a lot together , but usually I just come in and I just sing . We 've never have actually written a song together at this point . And he and I were like , ' Let 's just try to write something for the record . " RCA Records chief executive Peter Edge remarked that its release as a single was partly inspired by the success of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " by Carey . The following track is a rendition of the holiday standard " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , which Clarkson had selected for its saccharine content . 
 Clarkson favored " Run Run Rudolph " as her favorite classic , saying " Just because it got to be a little more rock and roll . " She also remarked that " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " , was the first song selected for inclusion after her mother 's recommendation and the song 's melancholic lyrics . Written by Clarkson and Eubanks , " Every Christmas " , was the first song to be written for the album . She revealed that the song narrates of her holiday life prior to meeting Blackstock , McEntire 's stepson , saying " Every Christmas , I was just like , ' This is going to be different , right ? I 'm going to actually find someone and not be <unk> alone for the rest of my life ? ' " . The seventh track is a cover of Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " . Its follow @-@ up , a rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , features Ronnie Dunn . Clarkson had approached Dunn thinking that his personality suited the song 's content well , saying " Like , it 's straight @-@ up his personality to say all of that to try and get you to stay , and have a drink . " " Winter Dreams ( Brandon 's Song ) " was written by Clarkson , <unk> , and Eubanks as a companion piece to " Every Christmas " . Dedicated to Blackstock , the song accounts her holiday after meeting him . She remarked , " Christmas changes , it morphs , it comes to life a little more … It ’ s just a <unk> time . " 
 The tenth track , " White Christmas " , was the first song to be recorded for Wrapped in Red . A cover of <unk> and <unk> 's " My Favorite Things " follows up as the eleventh track . Clarkson opted for the Broadway performance of the song to stray away from Julie Andrews 's version , citing " I think you shouldn 't go near anywhere of what she 's doing because she 's so good . " Clarkson and Kurstin co @-@ wrote " 4 <unk> " with <unk> Dennis and <unk> <unk> . Originally written a pop song , they converted it as a Christmas song to fit the album 's theme , describing it as a crossover between <unk> <unk> 's " Santa Baby " ( 1953 ) and Madonna 's " Material Girl " ( 1984 ) . A rendition of <unk> <unk> 's " Just for Now " was described by Clarkson as her highly dysfunctional environment , saying " Can we just stop for like five minutes and have like a normal Christmas setting ? " The song begins by sampling the melody of the Christmas tune " Carol of the Bells " . The closing track , a rendition of the traditional <unk> " Silent Night " , features McEntire and <unk> Yearwood and ends in an a <unk> setting between the trio . In addition , two tracks were also included in the deluxe edition of the album : the first , Clarkson 's cover of " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " from iTunes Session ; and the second , her rendition of the first stanza of the ecclesiastical hymn " Oh Come , Oh Come Emmanuel " . 
 
 = = Release = = 
 
 Wrapped in Red was first released internationally on October 25 , 2013 by RCA Records through Sony Music Entertainment . It then received a North American release on October 29 , 2013 by RCA as part of its holiday promotional campaign with the soundtracks to the feature films Black <unk> and The Best Man Holiday , with Wrapped in Red being promulgated as the one that will transcend formats and become a new holiday classic . In an interview with Billboard , RCA marketing executive Aaron <unk> remarked that the album was their main release of the holidays , quoting " The angle on this album is that , like all great Christmas records , it 's about amazing vocal performances . That 's what this is intended to be @-@ an album launched this year but <unk> and genre @-@ <unk> . " In preparation for its release in the United States , RCA shipped a half @-@ million units on Amazon.com and Target , which exclusively released a deluxe edition . A red LP pressing of Wrapped in Red by United Record <unk> followed the CD release on November 25 , 2013 , marking the first time an album by Clarkson was released on a vinyl record . A deluxe LP and CD edition was also released on the Sony Music store which included a scarf , a holiday ornament , and a snow globe , all of which were decorated in red as inspired from the album . A international promotion campaign was also planned for Clarkson , but was later halted due her pregnancy . On October 21 , 2014 , Wrapped in Red was reissued by RCA with a special edition CD + DVD release exclusive to <unk> stores in the United States . A green LP pressing of the album will also have a limited 500 @-@ copy release on December 9 , 2014 . 
 
 = = = Promotion = = = 
 
 On October 15 , 2013 , " White Christmas " was released as a promotional single from Wrapped in Red . Three days after , " Underneath the Tree " premiered on Clarkson 's <unk> channel . A television Christmas special , titled Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , was filmed by concert director <unk> Hamilton on October 30 , 2013 , the eve after its street date , at The Venetian Las Vegas . A pastiche of A Christmas Carol , the Christmas special featured live performances of selections from Wrapped in Red ( one of which features McEntire and Yearwood ) . Produced by <unk> and <unk> , Cautionary Christmas Music Tale premiered on NBC in the United States and Global in Canada on December 11 , 2013 , being <unk> by RCA as the album 's primary promotional medium . NBC 's premiere broadcast of the special was seen by 5 @.@ 31 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It also received a 1 @.@ 4 share among adults between the ages of 18 to 49 , generated NBC ’ s second biggest overall audience its time slot . NBC had also a <unk> broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale on Christmas Day , which was seen by an additional 3 @.@ 54 million viewers . 
 Clarkson had also promoted Wrapped in Red in various televised performances , all of which she was dressed in red attire . She first performed " Underneath the Tree " on the The Today Show on November 26 , 2013 . On December 4 , 2013 , she performed " Run Run Rudolph " and " Blue Christmas " on the Christmas at Rockefeller Center television special . Clarkson had then performed " Underneath the Tree " on more televised events : such as on the fifth season of the The Voice on December 3 , 2013 , The Ellen <unk> Show on December 5 , 2013 , and on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on December 12 , 2013 . On December 25 , 2013 , Clarkson returned to The Today Show on its Christmas Day broadcast , performing " Blue Christmas " . Selected tracks from the album were also used in advertisements , such as " Run Run Rudolph " , which was used in a <unk> holiday advertisement , and " Underneath the Tree " , which was featured in an Amazon.com and Amazon <unk> Fire <unk> advertisement with an appearance by Clarkson performing the song . On December 20 , 2014 , She will host a Christmas concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena . An annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , will feature live performances of various Christmas songs by McEntire , Yearwood , Garth Brooks , Ronnie Dunn , <unk> <unk> , Hayley Williams , Charles <unk> , and <unk> <unk> , some of whom will also join Clarkson in performing selections from Wrapped in Red . 
 Wrapped in Red 's lead single , " Underneath the Tree " , was released to radio airplay on November 5 , 2013 . <unk> in its initial release , music critics <unk> compared the song to " All I Want for Christmas is You " and <unk> it as a future Christmas standard . Reviewing for Slant Magazine , Sal Cinquemani wrote that track is likely to become Clarkson 's very own contemporary standard ; while The Independent 's Hugh Montgomery applauded it as " a winner on all fronts . " After debuting on the Billboard Holiday 100 chart at number 34 , it became holiday top ten hit by peaking at number eight on the chart . It also topped the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart for four consecutive weeks , becoming Clarkson 's third track and the fifteenth holiday song to top the chart . " Underneath the Tree " also charted on the main Billboard Hot 100 chart at number seventy @-@ eight and became a top forty hit internationally : including the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , the Dutch Top 40 chart , and the Official UK Singles Chart . USA Today reported that " Underneath the Tree " was American radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 , while Edison Media Research reported that the single was the first holiday song to receive a considerable support on mainstream contemporary hit radio in almost 20 years . Wrapped in Red 's second single , the title track , was serviced to radio airplay on November 25 , 2014 . On the week ending December 28 , 2014 , it debuted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart at number 11 on the week ending December 13 , 2014 . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Critical response = = = 
 
 At Metacritic , which assigns a <unk> rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 6 reviews , and scoring higher than any other album by Clarkson . AllMusic 's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave it a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars . He described its uptempo arrangements , as well as Clarkson 's vocal performance , as " bold and brassy " and its mid @-@ tempo arrangements as " even more <unk> " . He also noted the track selection " favors the bold , " but that " she <unk> well in this setting , always sounding like the strongest element in the mix " Towards the end of his review , he wrote that " Perhaps the concept and execution are conventional , but even in this utterly expected setting , Clarkson retains her fiery , individual spirit , and that 's what makes Wrapped in Red appealing : to the letter , it delivers what it promises . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also gave it a similar rating . He noted that the album " largely offers a respite from the pop @-@ rock template she 's been relentlessly pursuing since <unk> , with less shouting and more of the varied range and texture on full display that helped <unk> her the winner of the inaugural season of American Idol . For better or worse , a decade of recording and touring has <unk> up the edges of her voice , lending a lived @-@ in quality that <unk> lyrics about love and longing with an authenticity that might have otherwise been missing had she recorded these songs just a few years earlier . " 
 NPR 's Ken Tucker described the album as a " glossy but heartfelt work " and <unk> compared its contrasting philosophy to Nick Lowe 's Quality Street : A <unk> Selection for All the Family , both of which he described as " will put you in a holiday mood " . Matt <unk> of PopMatters gave the album a generally favorable review , claiming that " Clarkson plays it safe and spends too much time showing off her upper register , but Wrapped in Red is a warm and romantic addition to the Christmas pop <unk> , " adding " Wrapped in Red doesn ’ t need edge ; it ’ s just dynamic and varied enough to be satisfying , and it ’ s light @-@ years better than any of the whitewashed Christmas crap Simon Cowell has inflicted on the world " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe gave a favorable review , particularly lauding " Underneath the Tree " , and described Clarkson 's rendering the Christmas standards as " fairly straight " . She added , " She starts gently on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " before belting out the money notes . She <unk> <unk> through the soulful favorite " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " and hangs by the piano for a <unk> “ White Christmas . " Newsday 's music columnist Glenn Gamboa wrote that " Clarkson handles it all expertly — hitting remarkably high notes on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and swinging <unk> on " Baby It 's Cold Outside " with Dunn . The new songs make Wrapped in Red a real gift , as the title track and " Underneath the Tree " channel the Phil Spector Christmas albums ; and " 4 <unk> " somehow blends " Stronger " and " Santa Baby " . Reviewing for HitFix , Melinda Newman gave the album an " A " rating , praising Clarkson 's vocal performances and noting that she and Kurstin " have clearly studied legendary Christmas albums of <unk> — most notably Spector 's A Christmas Gift For You and Andy Williams ' Merry Christmas — to <unk> recreate Christmas standards , as well as craft new ones in the image of those sets . " Chris <unk> of Slate declared Wrapped in Red as the best of 2013 's new Christmas records , noting for its vintage sound . He also observed that its five original tracks , most notably " Wrapped in Red " and " Underneath the Tree " , have reasonable odds of remaining in the <unk> rotation five years from now . In his review for The New York Times , Jon Caramanica wrote that Clarkson is very likely the only singer working in pop with a real possibility of creating a modern holiday classic along the lines of Carey 's " All I Want for Christmas Is You . " and remarked that her takes on familiar songs , however accomplished , are " also faithful in the way that someone <unk> of pop history would be . " 
 
 = = = Commercial performance = = = 
 
 Wrapped in Red became a commercial success in the United States . Prior it its release , music commercial analysts predicted that the album would likely sell at least 60 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the region , and <unk> it to be the front @-@ runner as the bestselling holiday release of the season . On the week ending November 16 , 2013 , it debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in all retailers , a 93 @,@ 000 decrease from Stronger 's first week sales of 163 @,@ 000 copies in 2011 . Nielsen Music analyst Dave Bakula attributed its low performance to the falling market share of the holiday music in general , which saw 3 @.@ 8 percent decrease in 2012 . The album 's chart debut on the Billboard 200 earned Clarkson her sixth consecutive top three studio album as well as the highest debut for a Christmas record by a female artist since Susan Boyle 's first Christmas album The Gift debuted at the top of the chart in 2010 . Wrapped in Red also debuted three other different charts , most notably at the top of the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart . On the week ending November 30 , 2013 , by charting at number six on the Billboard 200 , the album became the lone Sony release inside the chart 's top ten , with the others being Universal Music Group releases . 
 Despite its modest debut week , Wrapped in Red began to gain <unk> at the beginning of the holiday season , selling up to 131 @,@ 000 copies during the <unk> week . It experienced its best sales week after <unk> from NBC 's premiere broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , selling up to 136 @,@ 000 copies on its seventh week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , it stayed in the top ten of the Billboard 200 , the most by any studio album by Clarkson . On December 5 , 2013 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , making it her fifth platinum studio album . Wrapped in Red subsequently became the bestselling Christmas release of 2013 by selling over 763 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen Soundscan , making her the first American female artist to have the number @-@ one Christmas album of the Soundscan era . Twelve of the album cuts from Wrapped in Red have also entered the Billboard Holiday Digital Songs chart during its first week of release — led by " Silent Night " , " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , and " Underneath the Tree " at numbers one , two , and four , respectively . Other songs have also appeared in various Billboard charts throughout the holiday season : songs such as " Blue Christmas " and " Please Come Home for Christmas " charted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at numbers 5 and 6 , respectively ; whereas " My Favorite Things " , " Run Run Rudolph " , " Please Come Home for Christmas " , " Silent Night " and " Wrapped in Red " peaked on the Billboard Canada AC chart at numbers eight , seven , 14 , 22 , and 49 , respectively . Tracks such as " My Favorite Things " have charted on the Billboard Mexico <unk> Airplay chart at number 49 ; while " Silent Night " attained a position in both the Billboard Holiday 100 and the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , peaking at numbers 86 and 51 , respectively . Amazon.com listed Wrapped in Red as their second bestselling album during the holiday season , and listed it as their sixth bestselling title of 2013 . The album has sold <unk> @,@ 300 copies in the US as of November 2014 . And in 2014 peaked at 7 on the holiday chart . 
 <unk> , Wrapped in Red had a relatively limited commercial performance . In Canada , the album debuted on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart at number 6 on the week ending November 16 , 2013 , making it her fifth top ten debut on the Nielsen @-@ tracked chart . It peaked on the chart at number 5 on the week ending December 28 , 2013 . Wrapped in Red became the second bestselling Christmas album of 2013 in Canada with 67 @,@ 000 copies sold in the region , behind A Christmas Gift to You by Johnny Reid . In Australia , the album debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number 82 on the week ending November 4 , 2013 , and peaked at number 29 on the week ending December 30 , 2013 . In Switzerland , it debuted on the <unk> <unk> at number 97 on the week ending November 10 , 2013 . In the United Kingdom , Wrapped in Red charted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number 65 on the week ending December 14 , 2013 . Despite its limited performance , Sony Corporation listed the album as their fifth bestselling release worldwide during the holiday season , which included albums , album cut tracks , and singles sales . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 All tracks were produced by Greg Kurstin , with vocal production on " Every Christmas " made by Jason <unk> . 
 Note 
 " Just for Now " contains a portion of the composition " Carol of the Bells " , written by Peter J. <unk> . 
 Tracks from the concert DVD were filmed from the television special Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale . 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 Credits lifted from the album 's liner notes . 
 <unk> 
 Production 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 = = Certifications = = 
 
 
 = = Release history = = 
 
 
 
 = Christmas 1994 nor 'easter = 
 
 The Christmas 1994 nor 'easter was an intense cyclone along the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada . It developed from an area of low pressure in the southeast Gulf of Mexico near the Florida Keys , and moved across the state of Florida . As it entered the warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean , it began to rapidly intensify , exhibiting traits of a tropical system , including the formation of an eye . It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24 , and after moving northward , it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve . Because of the uncertain nature of the storm , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone . 
 Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in South Carolina . Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds , coastal flooding , and beach erosion . New York State and New England bore the brunt of the storm ; damage was extensive on Long Island , and in Connecticut , 130 @,@ 000 households lost electric power during the storm . Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout Rhode Island and Massachusetts , where the storm generated 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves along the coast . Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm 's development , precipitation was limited to rain . Two people were killed , and damage amounted to at least $ 21 million . 
 
 = = Meteorological history = = 
 
 The storm originated in an upper @-@ level low pressure system that moved southeastward from the central Great Plains into the Deep South of the United States . After reaching the southeast Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance underwent cyclogenesis , and the resultant system moved through Florida on December 22 in response to an approaching trough . National Hurricane Center forecaster Jack <unk> noted that " as it moved out into the Bahamas , it appeared to take on the characteristics of a tropical storm . " The uncertain nature of the storm prevented the NHC from issuing advisories on it , and forecasters lacked sufficient data to fully assess the cyclone for potential tropical characteristics . The same trough that pushed the storm across Florida had moved to the north , allowing for high pressure to develop in the upper levels of the atmosphere . 
 <unk> a " hybrid storm " , the cyclone rapidly intensified in warm waters of up to 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) from the Gulf Stream combined with a cold air mass over the United States . The system continued to rapidly intensify while moving within the Gulf Stream ; it developed central convection , an unusual trait for an extratropical cyclone , and at one point exhibited an eye . Despite these indications of tropical characteristics , " There was no front associated with it and it had a warm core , but the radius of maximum winds was more than 150 nautical miles ( 170 mi ; 280 km ) , so under the standard NHC criteria it didn 't qualify as a tropical storm . " On December 23 and 24 , the nor 'easter intensified to attain a barometric pressure of 970 mb ( 29 inHg ) . An upper @-@ level low pressure system that developed behind the storm began to intensify and grew to be larger in size than the original disturbance . In an interaction known as the <unk> effect , the broad circulation of the secondary low swung the primary nor 'easter northwestward towards southern New York and New England . The original low passed along the south shore of Long Island , and made landfall near New York City on December 24 . Subsequently , it moved over southeastern New York State . On December 25 , the system began to rapidly weaken as it moved towards Nova Scotia , before the pair of low pressure systems moved out to sea in tandem in the early hours of December 26 . 
 
 = = Effects = = 
 
 
 = = = Southeast United States = = = 
 
 In South Carolina , flooding associated with the cyclone was considered to be the worst since 1943 . Over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while winds brought down trees and ripped <unk> . In addition , the coast suffered the effects of beach erosion . Thousands of electric customers in the state lost power . As a result of the heavy rainfall , several dams became overwhelmed by rising waters . Extensive flooding of roads and highways was reported , many of which were closed as a result . Up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water flooded some homes in the region . Approximately 300 people in Florence County were forced to evacuate because of the flooding , and at least 200 homes were damaged . Two deaths were reported in the state . One woman was killed when her vehicle <unk> and struck a tree , and another person drowned after her car was struck by another vehicle . Total damage in South Carolina amounted to at least $ 4 million . 
 Strong winds occurred along the North Carolina coast . Diamond Shoals reported sustained winds of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) , and offshore , winds gusted to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . On <unk> Beach , rough surf eroded an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ledge into the beach . On Carolina Beach , dunes were breached and some roads , including portions of North Carolina Highway 12 , were closed . 
 
 = = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = = 
 
 As the primary storm entered New England , the secondary low produced minor coastal flooding in the <unk> region of Virginia on December 23 . Winds of 35 to 45 miles per hour ( 56 to 72 km / h ) and tides to 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal were reported . In <unk> , Virginia Beach , Virginia , a beachfront home collapsed into the sea . Several roads throughout the region suffered minor flooding . Strong winds resulting from the tight pressure gradient between the nor 'easter and an area of high pressure located over the United States brought down a few utility poles , which sparked a brush fire on December 24 . The fire , quickly spread by the wind , burned a field . The winds brought down several trees . 
 Damage was light in Maryland . Some sand dunes and wooden structures were damaged , and above @-@ normal tides occurred . In New Jersey , high winds caused power outages and knocked down trees and power lines . Minor coastal flooding of streets and houses was reported . Otherwise , damage in the state was minor . 
 The storm brought heavy rainfall and high winds to New York State and New York City on December 23 and 24 . <unk> of 60 to 80 miles per hour ( 97 to 129 km / h ) downed hundreds of trees and many power lines on Long Island . Several homes , in addition to many cars , sustained damage . Roughly 112 @,@ 000 Long Island <unk> Company customers experienced power outages at some point during the storm . As the cyclone progressed northward into New York State , high winds occurred in the Hudson Valley region . Throughout Columbia , Ulster and <unk> Counties , trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed by the winds . At <unk> , a gust of 58 miles per hour ( 93 km / h ) was reported . Ulster County suffered substantial impacts , with large trees being uprooted and striking homes . Across eastern New York State , 25 @,@ 000 households lost power as a result of the nor 'easter . On the North Fork of Long Island , in <unk> , a seaside home partially collapsed into the water . 
 
 = = = New England = = = 
 
 In Connecticut , the storm was described as being more significant than anticipated . Gale @-@ force wind gusts , reaching 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) , blew across the state from the northeast and later from the east . Trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed , causing damage to property and vehicles . The high winds caused widespread power outages , affecting up to 130 @,@ 000 electric customers . As a result , electric companies sought help from as far as Pennsylvania and Maine to restore electricity . Bruno <unk> , a spokesman for Northeast Utilities , reported that " We 've had outages in virtually every community . " In New Haven , the nor 'easter ripped three barges from their <unk> . One of the barges traveled across the Long Island Sound and ran aground near Port Jefferson , New York . A man in Milford was killed indirectly when a tree that was partially downed by the storm fell on him during an attempt to remove it from a relative 's yard . Northeast Utilities , which reported the majority of the power outages , estimated storm damage in the state to be about $ 6 – $ 8 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 8 @.@ 8 – $ 11 @.@ 8 million 2008 USD ) . 
 Effects were less severe in New Hampshire and Vermont . In southern New Hampshire , a line of thunderstorms produced torrential rainfall , causing flooding on parts of New Hampshire Route 13 . Flash flooding of several tributaries feeding into the <unk> River was reported . In Maine , the storm brought high winds and heavy rain . Along the coast of southern Maine and New Hampshire , beach erosion was reported . Additionally , minor flooding was reported across the region , as a result of heavy surface runoff and small ice jams . In Rhode Island , the power outages were the worst since Hurricane Bob of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . Throughout the state , approximately 40 @,@ 000 customers were without electric power . As with Massachusetts , downed trees and property damage were widespread . There were many reports of roof shingles being blown off roofs and of damage to <unk> . In Warwick , several small boats were damaged after being knocked into other boats . The highest reported wind gust in the state was 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at <unk> , Rhode Island . <unk> damage totaled about $ 5 million . 
 Massachusetts , particularly Cape Cod and Nantucket , bore the brunt of the nor 'easter . Reportedly , wind gusts approached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) on Cape Cod and , offshore , waves reached 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . At Walpole , wind gusts peaked at 88 miles per hour ( 142 km / h ) , while on Nantucket gusts of 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) were reported . The winds left 30 @,@ 000 electric customers without power during the storm , primarily in the eastern part of the state . Power was out for some as long as 48 hours . Property damage was widespread and many trees , signs , and billboards were blown down . A large tent used by the New England <unk> was ripped and blown off its foundation . The winds also spread a deadly house fire in North <unk> . Although not directly related to the storm , it caused seven fatalities . Because tides were low , little coastal flooding occurred . Outside the Prudential Tower Center in Boston , the storm toppled a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) Christmas tree . Rainfall of 2 to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 to 89 mm ) was recorded throughout the eastern part of the state , contributing to heavy runoff that washed away a 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) section of a highway . Total damage in Massachusetts was estimated at about $ 5 million . 
 
 
 = Sholay = 
 
 Sholay ( pronunciation , meaning " <unk> " ) is a 1975 Indian Hindi @-@ language action @-@ adventure film directed by Ramesh Sippy and produced by his father G. P. Sippy . The film follows two criminals , Veeru and Jai ( played by Dharmendra and Amitabh Bachchan ) , hired by a retired police officer ( Sanjeev Kumar ) to capture the ruthless dacoit Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) . Hema Malini and Jaya Bhaduri also star , as Veeru and Jai 's love interests . Sholay is considered a classic and one of the best Indian films . It was ranked first in the British Film Institute 's 2002 poll of " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time . In 2005 , the judges of the 50th annual Filmfare Awards named it the Best Film of 50 Years . 
 The film was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , in the southern state of Karnataka , over a span of two and a half years . After the Central Board of Film <unk> mandated the removal of several violent scenes , Sholay was released with a length of 198 minutes . In 1990 , the original director 's cut of 204 minutes became available on home media . When first released , Sholay received negative critical reviews and a <unk> commercial response , but favourable word @-@ of @-@ mouth publicity helped it to become a box office success . It broke records for continuous showings in many theatres across India , and ran for more than five years at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre . By some accounts , Sholay is the highest grossing Indian film of all time , adjusted for inflation . 
 The film drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , and is a defining example of the masala film , which mixes several genres in one work . Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory . The combined sales of the original soundtrack , scored by R. D. Burman , and the dialogues ( released separately ) , set new sales records . The film 's dialogues and certain characters became extremely popular , contributing to numerous cultural <unk> and becoming part of India 's daily vernacular . In January 2014 , Sholay was re @-@ released to theatres in the 3D format . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 In the small village of Ramgarh , the retired policeman Thakur Baldev Singh ( Sanjeev Kumar ) summons a pair of small @-@ time thieves that he had once arrested . Thakur feels that the duo — Veeru ( Dharmendra ) and Jai ( Amitabh Bachchan ) — would be ideal to help him capture Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) , a dacoit wanted by the authorities for a ₹ 50 @,@ 000 reward . Thakur tells them to surrender Gabbar to him , alive , for an additional ₹ 20 @,@ 000 reward . 
 The two thieves thwart the dacoits sent by Gabbar to <unk> the villagers . Soon afterwards , Gabbar and his <unk> attack Ramgarh during the festival of <unk> . In a tough battle , Veeru and Jai are cornered . Thakur , although he has a gun within his reach , does not help them . Veeru and Jai fight back and the bandits flee . The two are , however , upset at Thakur 's inaction , and consider leaving the village . Thakur explains that Gabbar had killed nearly all of his family members , and cut off both his arms a few years earlier , which is why he could not use the gun . He had concealed the dismemberment by always wearing a <unk> . 
 Living in Ramgarh , the <unk> Veeru and cynical Jai find themselves growing fond of the villagers . Veeru is attracted to Basanti ( Hema Malini ) , a feisty , <unk> young woman who makes her living by driving a horse @-@ cart . Jai is drawn to Radha ( Jaya Bhaduri ) , Thakur 's reclusive , widowed daughter @-@ in @-@ law , who subtly returns his affections . 
 Skirmishes between Gabbar 's gang and Jai @-@ Veeru finally result in the capture of Veeru and Basanti by the dacoits . Jai attacks the gang , and the three are able to flee Gabbar 's hideout with dacoits in pursuit . Fighting from behind a rock , Jai and Veeru nearly run out of ammunition . Veeru , unaware that Jai was wounded in the gunfight , is forced to leave for more ammunition . Meanwhile , Jai , who is continuing the gunfight <unk> , decides to sacrifice himself by using his last bullet to ignite dynamite sticks on a bridge from close range . 
 Veeru returns , and Jai dies in his arms . Enraged , Veeru attacks Gabbar 's den and catches the dacoit . Veeru nearly beats Gabbar to death when Thakur appears and reminds Veeru of the promise to hand over Gabbar alive . Thakur uses his spike @-@ <unk> shoes to severely <unk> Gabbar and destroy his hands . The police then arrive and arrest Gabbar . After Jai 's funeral , Veeru leaves Ramgarh and finds Basanti waiting for him on the train . Radha is left alone again . 
 
 = = Cast = = 
 
 Dharmendra as Veeru 
 Sanjeev Kumar as Thakur Baldev Singh , usually addressed as " Thakur " 
 Hema Malini as Basanti 
 Amitabh Bachchan as Jai ( <unk> ) 
 Jaya Bhaduri as Radha , Thakur 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law 
 Amjad Khan as Gabbar Singh 
 <unk> <unk> as <unk> , Thakur 's servant 
 A. K. <unk> as <unk> <unk> , the imam in the village 
 <unk> as Ahmed , son of the imam 
 Jagdeep as Soorma Bhopali , a comical wood trader 
 <unk> Mishra as <unk> , Basanti 's maternal aunt 
 <unk> as the <unk> , a comical character modelled after Charlie <unk> in The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) 
 <unk> <unk> as <unk> , prison barber and <unk> 's side @-@ kick 
 Mac Mohan as Sambha , Gabbar Singh 's sidekick 
 <unk> <unk> as <unk> , another of Gabbar 's men whom he kills in a game of Russian <unk> 
 <unk> as Inspector <unk> , Radha 's Father 
 Helen in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " 
 <unk> <unk> in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 
 = = = Development = = = 
 
 The idea for Sholay began as a four @-@ line <unk> which screenwriter pair Salim @-@ Javed told G. P. Sippy and Ramesh Sippy ; two other producer / director teams had earlier rejected the idea . Ramesh Sippy liked the concept and hired them to develop it . The original idea of the film involved an army officer who decided to hire two ex @-@ soldiers to avenge the murder of his family . The army officer was later changed to a policeman because Sippy felt that it would be difficult to get permission to shoot scenes depicting army activities . Salim @-@ Javed completed the script in one month , incorporating names and personality traits of their friends and acquaintances . 
 The film was loosely styled after Akira <unk> 's 1954 film Seven <unk> , and drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , especially Sergio Leone 's <unk> Westerns such as Once Upon a Time in the West ( 1968 ) , and John <unk> ' film The Magnificent Seven ( 1960 ) . Sholay was also influenced by the <unk> of Sam Peckinpah , such as The Wild <unk> ( 1969 ) and Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid ( 1973 ) ; and by George Roy Hill 's Butch <unk> and the Sundance Kid ( 1969 ) . A scene depicting an attempted train robbery was inspired by a similar scene in North West Frontier ( 1959 ) , and a scene showing the massacre of Thakur 's family has been compared with the massacre of the <unk> family in Once Upon a Time in the West . Some plot elements were borrowed from the Indian films Mera <unk> Mera <unk> ( 1971 ) and <unk> <unk> ( 1973 ) . 
 The character Gabbar Singh was modelled on a real @-@ life dacoit of the same name who had <unk> the villages around <unk> in the 1950s . Any policeman captured by the real Gabbar Singh had his ears and nose cut off , and was released as a warning to other policemen . The character was also influenced by the villain " El <unk> " ( played by Gian Maria <unk> ) of Sergio Leone 's For a Few <unk> More ( 1965 ) . Soorma Bhopali , a minor comic relief character , was based on an acquaintance of actor Jagdeep , a forest officer from <unk> named Soorma . The real @-@ life Soorma eventually threatened to press charges when people who had viewed the film began referring to him as a <unk> . The main characters ' names , Jai and Veeru , mean " victory " and " heroism " in Hindi . 
 
 = = = Casting = = = 
 
 The producers considered Danny <unk> for the role of bandit chief Gabbar Singh , but he could not accept it as he was committed to act in <unk> Khan 's <unk> ( 1975 ) , under production at the same time . Amjad Khan , who was the second choice , prepared himself for the part by reading the book <unk> <unk> , which told of the exploits of <unk> dacoits . The book was written by <unk> Kumar Bhaduri , the father of fellow cast member Jaya Bhaduri . As cast members had read the script ahead of time , many were interested in playing different parts . <unk> was considered for the role of Thakur Baldev Singh , but Sippy thought Sanjeev Kumar was a better choice . Initially , Dharmendra was also interested to play the role of Thakur . He eventually gave up the role when Sippy informed him that Sanjeev Kumar would play Veeru if that happened , and would be paired with Hema Malini , who Dharmendra was trying to woo . Dharmendra knew that Kumar was also interested in Malini . Sippy wanted <unk> <unk> to play the part of Jai , but there were already several big stars signed , and Amitabh Bachchan , who was not extremely popular yet , lobbied hard to get the part for himself . 
 During the film 's production , four of the leads became romantically involved . Bachchan married Bhaduri four months before filming started . This led to shooting delays when Bhaduri became pregnant with their daughter <unk> . By the time of the film 's release , she was pregnant with their son <unk> . Dharmendra had begun wooing Malini during their earlier film <unk> <unk> <unk> ( 1972 ) , and used the location shoot of Sholay to further pursue her . During their romantic scenes , Dharmendra would often pay the light boys to <unk> the shot , thereby ensuring many <unk> and allowing him to spend more time with her . The couple married five years after the film 's release . 
 
 = = = Filming = = = 
 
 Much of Sholay was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , a town near Bangalore , Karnataka . The filmmakers had to build a road from the Bangalore highway to Ramanagara for convenient access to the sets . Art director Ram <unk> had an entire township built on the site . A prison set was constructed near <unk> Studio in Mumbai , also outdoors , to match the natural lighting of the on @-@ location sets . One part of Ramanagara was for a time called " Sippy Nagar " as a tribute to the director of the film . As of 2010 , a visit to the " Sholay rocks " ( where much the film was shot ) was still being offered to tourists travelling through Ramanagara . 
 Filming began on location on 3 October 1973 , with a scene featuring Bachchan and Bhaduri . The film had a lavish production for its time ( with frequent banquets and parties for the cast ) , took two and a half years to make , and went over budget . One reason for its high cost was that Sippy re @-@ filmed scenes many times to get his desired effect . " Yeh Dosti " , a 5 @-@ minute song sequence , took 21 days to shoot , two short scenes in which Radha lights lamps took 20 days to film because of lighting problems , and the shooting of the scene in which Gabbar kills the imam 's son lasted 19 days . The train robbery sequence , shot on the Mumbai – Pune railway route near <unk> , took more than 7 weeks to complete . 
 Sholay was the first Indian film to have a <unk> soundtrack and to use the 70 mm widescreen format . However , since actual 70 mm cameras were expensive at the time , the film was shot on traditional 35 mm film and the 4 : 3 picture was subsequently converted to a 2 @.@ 2 : 1 frame . Regarding the process , Sippy said , " A <unk> [ sic ] format takes the <unk> of the big screen and <unk> it even more to make the picture even bigger , but since I also wanted a spread of sound we used six @-@ track <unk> sound and combined it with the big screen . It was definitely a <unk> . " The use of 70 mm was emphasised by film posters on which the name of the film was stylised to match the <unk> logo . Film posters also sought to differentiate the film from those which had come before ; one of them added the tagline : " The greatest star cast ever assembled – the greatest story ever told " . 
 
 = = = <unk> version = = = 
 
 The director 's original cut of Sholay has a different ending in which Thakur kills Gabbar , along with some additional violent scenes . Gabbar 's death scene , and the scene in which the imam 's son is killed , were cut from the film by India 's Censor Board , as was the scene in which Thakur 's family is massacred . The Censor Board was concerned about the violence , and that viewers may be influenced to violate the law by punishing people severely . Although Sippy fought to keep the scenes , eventually he had to re @-@ shoot the ending of the film , and as directed by the Censor Board , have the police arrive just before Thakur can kill Gabbar . The censored theatrical version was the only one seen by audiences for fifteen years . The original , <unk> cut of the film finally came out in a British release on VHS in 1990 . Since then , <unk> International has released two versions on DVD . The director 's cut of the film preserves the original full frame and is 204 minutes in length ; the censored widescreen version is 198 minutes long . 
 
 = = Themes = = 
 
 Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory . 
 <unk> Banerjea , a sociologist in the London School of Economics , notes that Sholay exhibits a " sympathetic construction of ' rogue ' <unk> " exemplified by the likeable outlaws Jai and Veeru . Banerjea argues during the film , the moral boundary between legality and <unk> gradually <unk> . Film scholar <unk> Dissanayake agrees that the film brought " a new stage in the evolving dialectic between violence and social order " to Indian cinema . Film scholar M. <unk> Prasad states that Jai and Veeru represent a marginalised population that is introduced into conventional society . Prasad says that , through the elements of revenge included in the plot and the application of Jai and Veeru 's <unk> for the greater good , the narrative reflects reactionary politics , and the audience is compelled to accept feudal order . Banerjea explains that though Jai and Veeru are mercenaries , they are <unk> by their emotional needs . Such dualism makes them vulnerable , in contrast to the pure evil of Gabbar Singh . 
 Gabbar Singh , the film 's antagonist , was well received by the audience , despite his pervasive sadistic cruelty . Dissanayake explains that the audience was fascinated by the dialogues and mannerisms of the character , and this element of spectacle outweighed his actions , a first for Indian melodrama . He notes that the <unk> of violence in the film was <unk> and <unk> . He further notes that , unlike earlier <unk> in which the female body occupies the audience 's attention as an object of male <unk> , in Sholay , the male body becomes the <unk> . It becomes the <unk> where good and evil compete for supremacy . Dissanayake argues that Sholay can be viewed as a national allegory : it lacks a <unk> logical narrative , it shows social stability being repeatedly challenged , and it shows the <unk> of human life resulting from a lack of emotions . Taken together , these elements comprise the allegorical representation of India . The narrative style of Sholay , with its violence , revenge , and <unk> action , is occasionally compared by scholars to the political unrest in India at the time of its release . This tension culminated in the Emergency ( rule by decree ) declared by prime minister Indira Gandhi in 1975 . 
 <unk> and <unk> note that , although the film borrowed heavily from the Hollywood Western genre , particularly in its visuals , it was successfully " <unk> " . As an example , William van der <unk> has compared a massacre scene in Sholay with a similar scene in Once Upon a Time in the West . Although both films were similar in technical style , Sholay emphasised Indian family values and melodramatic tradition , while the Western was more <unk> and restrained in its approach . <unk> Rao , in Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema , notes that Sholay <unk> the style of the Western genre into a " <unk> ethos " . Ted Shen of the Chicago Reader notes Sholay 's " hysterical visual style " and intermittent " populist message " . Cultural critic and Islamist scholar <unk> <unk> <unk> the film in his book The Secret Politics of Our <unk> : Innocence , <unk> and Indian Popular Cinema , both for its caricature and stereotyping of Muslim and women characters , and for what he calls mockery of innocent villagers . <unk> notes that the two most prominent Muslim characters in the film are Soorma Bhopali ( a <unk> criminal ) , and an <unk> victim of the bandits ( the imam ) . Meanwhile , the sole function of one female character ( Radha ) is to suffer her fate in silence , while the other female lead ( Basanti ) is just a garrulous village <unk> . 
 Some scholars have indicated that Sholay contains homosocial themes . Ted Shen describes the male bonding shown in the film as bordering on camp style . <unk> <unk> , in her book Bollywood and <unk> : Indian Popular Cinema , Nation , and <unk> , states that the death of Jai , and resultant break of bonding between the two male leads , is necessary for the sake of establishing a <unk> heterosexual relationship ( that of Veeru and Basanti ) . 
 
 = = Music = = 
 
 R. D. Burman composed the film 's music , and the lyrics were written by Anand <unk> . The songs used in the film , and released on the original soundtrack are listed below . Following that is a list of unused tracks and dialogues which were released later on an updated soundtrack . The album 's cover image depicts an emotional scene from the film in which Basanti is forced to sing and dance on the song " <unk> <unk> <unk> Hai <unk> " on broken glass under the <unk> sun to save Veeru 's life . 
 The song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " was sung by its composer , R. D. Burman , who received his sole Filmfare Award nomination for playback singing for his effort . The song , which is often featured on Bollywood hit song compilations , samples " Say You Love Me " by Greek singer <unk> <unk> . " Mehbooba Mehbooba " has been extensively <unk> , remixed , and recreated . A version was created in 2005 by the <unk> Quartet for their Grammy @-@ nominated album You 've Stolen My Heart , featuring <unk> <unk> . It was also remixed and sung by <unk> <unk> , along with <unk> , in his debut acting film <unk> <unk> <unk> ( 2007 ) . " Yeh Dosti " has been called the ultimate friendship anthem . It was remixed and sung by Shankar <unk> and <unk> Narayan for the 2010 Malayalam film Four Friends , and also in 2010 it was used to symbolise India 's friendship with the United States during a visit from President Barack Obama . 
 Several songs from the soundtrack were included in the annual <unk> <unk> list of top <unk> songs . " Mehbooba <unk> " was listed at No. 24 on the 1975 list , and at No. 6 on the 1976 list . " Koi <unk> " was listed at No. 30 in 1975 , and No. 20 in 1976 . " Yeh Dosti " was listed at No. 9 in 1976 . Despite the soundtrack 's success , at the time , the songs from Sholay attracted less attention than the film 's dialogue — a rarity for Bollywood . The producers were thus prompted to release records with only dialogue . Taken together , the album sales totalled an unprecedented 500 @,@ 000 units , and became one of the top selling Bollywood soundtracks of the 1970s . 
 Music critic <unk> Marlow reviewed the soundtrack in 2013 , calling it a unique fusion of religious , folk , and classical music , with influences from around the world . He also commented on the sound design of the film , calling it psychedelic , and saying that there was " a lot of incredible incidental music " in the film that was not included in the soundtrack releases . In a 1999 paper submitted to London 's Symposium on Sound in Cinema , film critic <unk> A. <unk> said , " Sholay offers a model lesson on how sound can be used to signify the terror a character evokes . Sholay is also exemplary in its use of <unk> to jump cut to a different scene and time , without breaking the continuity of the narrative , yet , intensifying the drama . " 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Box office = = = 
 
 Sholay was released on 15 August 1975 , Indian Independence Day , in Mumbai . Due to <unk> reviews and a lack of effective visual marketing tools , it saw poor financial returns in its first two weeks . From the third week , however , viewership picked up owing to positive word of mouth . During the initial slow period , the director and writer considered re @-@ shooting some scenes so that Amitabh Bachchan 's character would not die . When business picked up , they abandoned this idea . After being helped additionally by a soundtrack release containing dialogue <unk> , Sholay soon became an " overnight sensation " . The film was then released in other distribution zones such as Delhi , Uttar Pradesh , Bengal , and Hyderabad on 11 October 1975 . It became the highest grossing Bollywood film of 1975 , and film ranking website Box Office India has given the film a verdict of " All Time <unk> " . 
 Sholay went on to earn a still @-@ standing record of 60 golden <unk> across India , and was the first film in India to celebrate a silver jubilee at over 100 theatres . It was shown continuously at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre for over five years . Sholay was the Indian film with the longest theatrical run until <unk> <unk> Le <unk> ( 1995 ) broke its record of 286 weeks in 2001 . 
 <unk> figures are not available on the budget and box office earnings of Sholay , but film trade websites provide estimates of its success . According to Box Office India , Sholay earned about ₹ 150 million <unk> gross ( valued at about US $ 16 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 in 1975 ) in India during its first run , which was many times its ₹ 30 million ( valued at about US $ 3 @,@ 355 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) budget . Those earnings were a record that remained unbroken for nineteen years , which is also the longest amount of time that a film has held the record . Its original gross was increased further with re @-@ releases during the late 1970s , 1980s , 1990s , and early 2000s . It is often cited that after adjusting the figures for inflation , Sholay is one of the highest grossing films in the history of Indian cinema , although such figures are not known with certainty . In 2012 , Box Office India gave ₹ 1 @.@ 63 billion ( US $ 24 million ) as Sholay 's adjusted net gross , whereas Times of India , in a 2009 report of business of Indian films , reported over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) as the adjusted gross . 
 
 = = = Critical response = = = 
 
 Initial critical reviews of Sholay were negative . Among contemporary critics , <unk> <unk> of India Today called the film a " dead <unk> " and " a <unk> flawed attempt " . Filmfare said that the film was an unsuccessful <unk> of Western style with Indian milieu , making it an " imitation western — neither here nor there . " Others labelled it as " sound and <unk> signifying nothing " and a " second @-@ rate take @-@ off " of the 1971 film Mera <unk> Mera <unk> . Trade journals and <unk> initially called the film a flop . In a 1976 article in the journal Studies : An Irish Quarterly Review , author Michael Gallagher praised the technical achievement of the film , but otherwise criticised it stating , " As a spectacle it breaks new ground , but on every other level it is intolerable : <unk> , incoherent , superficial in human image , and a somewhat nasty piece of violence " . 
 Over time , the critical reception to Sholay greatly improved ; it is now considered a classic , and among the greatest Hindi @-@ language films . In a 2005 BBC review , the well @-@ rounded characters and simple narrative of the film were commended , but the comical cameos of <unk> and Jagdeep were considered unnecessary . On the film 's 35th anniversary , the <unk> Times wrote that it was a " <unk> in terms of camera work as well as music , " and that " practically every scene , dialogue or even a small character was a highlight . " In 2006 , The Film Society of Lincoln Center described Sholay as " an extraordinary and utterly <unk> blend of adventure , comedy , music and dance " , labelling it an " <unk> classic " . Chicago Review critic Ted Shen criticised the film in 2002 for its formulaic plot and " <unk> " cinematography , and noted that the film " alternates between <unk> and melodrama " . In their obituary of the producer <unk> Sippy , the New York Times said that Sholay " revolutionized Hindi filmmaking and brought true professionalism to Indian script writing " . 
 
 = = = Awards = = = 
 
 Sholay was nominated for nine Filmfare Awards , but the only winner was M. S. Shinde , who won the award for Best Editing . The film also won three awards at the 1976 Bengal Film Journalists ' Association Awards ( Hindi section ) : " Best Actor in Supporting Role " for Amjad Khan , " Best <unk> ( Colour ) " for <unk> <unk> , and " Best Art Director " for Ram <unk> . Sholay received a special award at the 50th Filmfare Awards in 2005 : Best Film of 50 Years . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 Sholay has received many " Best Film " honours . It was declared the " Film of the Millennium " by BBC India in 1999 . It topped the British Film Institute 's " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time poll of 2002 , and was voted the greatest Indian movie in a Sky Digital poll of one million British Indians in 2004 . It was also included in Time Magazine 's " Best of Bollywood " list in 2010 , and in CNN @-@ <unk> 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " in 2013 . 
 Sholay inspired many films and <unk> , and spawned a subgenre of films , the " Curry Western " , which is a play on the term <unk> Western . It was an early and most definitive masala film , and a trend @-@ <unk> for " multi @-@ star " films . The film was a watershed for Bollywood 's <unk> , who were not paid well before Sholay ; after the film 's success , script writing became a more respected profession . 
 Certain scenes and dialogues from the film earned iconic status in India , such as " <unk> <unk> the " ( How many men were there ? ) , " Jo <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( One who is scared is dead ) , and " <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( <unk> like you two are very close ) – all dialogues of Gabbar Singh . These and other popular dialogues entered the people 's daily vernacular . Characters and dialogues from the film continue to be referred to and parodied in popular culture . Gabbar Singh , the sadistic villain , <unk> in an era in Hindi films characterised by " seemingly omnipotent <unk> as villains " , who play the pivotal role in setting up the context of the story , such as <unk> ( played by <unk> <unk> ) of <unk> ( 1980 ) , <unk> ( <unk> Puri ) of Mr. India ( 1987 ) and <unk> ( <unk> Puri ) of <unk> ( 1989 ) . Filmfare , in 2013 , named Gabbar Singh the most iconic villain in the history of Indian cinema , and four actors were included in its 2010 list of " 80 <unk> Performances " for their work in this film . 
 The film is often credited with making Amitabh Bachchan a " superstar " , two years after he became a star with <unk> ( 1973 ) . Some of the supporting actors remained etched in public memory as the characters they played in Sholay ; for example , Mac Mohan continued to be referred to as " Sambha " , even though his character had just one line . Major and minor characters continue to be used in commercials , promos , films and sitcoms . Amjad Khan acted in many villainous roles later in his career . He also played Gabbar Singh again in the 1991 spoof Ramgarh Ke Sholay , and reprised the role in commercials . The British Film Institute in 2002 wrote that fear of Gabbar Singh " is still invoked by mothers to put their children to sleep " . The 2012 film Gabbar Singh , named after the character , became the highest grossing Telugu film up to that point . <unk> Jagdeep , who played Soorma Bhopali in the film , attempted to use his Sholay success to create a spinoff . He directed and played the lead role in the 1988 film Soorma Bhopali , in which Dharmendra and Bachchan had cameos . 
 In 2004 , Sholay was digitally remastered and shown again to packed theatres in India , including Mumbai 's Minerva , where it had run successfully 29 years earlier . An attempt to remake Sholay , Ram Gopal Varma 's film <unk> ( 2007 ) , starring Amitabh Bachchan as the villain , was a commercial and critical disaster . Because of television and home media , Sholay is widely available and still popular . Twenty years after its release , Sholay was first shown on the Indian DD National television channel , where it drew the highest ratings ever for a film broadcast . Video game producer <unk> released the " Sholay Ramgarh Express " game for mobile phones in 2004 , along with other Sholay themed content such as <unk> , video clips , and <unk> . 
 Sholay has been the subject of two books and many articles . <unk> Dissanayake and <unk> <unk> 's Sholay , A Cultural Reading ( 1992 ) attempts a comprehensive scholarly study that sets the film within the broader history of popular cinema in India . Anupama Chopra 's Sholay : The Making of a Classic ( 2000 ) provides an inside look at the film 's production based on interviews with the director , stars , and crew members . 
 Sholay has been labelled by Chopra as the gold standard in Indian cinema , and a reference point for audiences and trade analysts . Over the years , the film has reached a mythic stature in popular culture , and has been called the greatest Hindi film of all time . It belongs to only a small collection of films , including <unk> ( 1943 ) , Mother India ( 1957 ) , Mughal @-@ e @-@ <unk> ( 1960 ) and Hum <unk> <unk> <unk> .. ! ( 1994 ) , which are repeatedly watched throughout India , and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance . The lasting effect of Sholay on Indian cinema was summarised by Anupama Chopra , when in 2004 she called it " no longer just a film , [ but ] an event " . In the 2000 book Sholay : The Making of a Classic , the noted director <unk> <unk> stated " there has never been a more defining film on the Indian screen . Indian film history can be divided into Sholay BC and Sholay AD " . The film was jointly released in Pakistan by <unk> films and <unk> Entertainment on 17 April 2015 , almost 40 years after its theatrical release . The film 's premiere in the country was held in Karachi . 
 
 = = 3D re @-@ release = = 
 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> 's company Maya Digital was responsible for converting Sholay into the 3D format . <unk> was approached by G. P. Sippy 's grandson , <unk> Sippy , about the project in 2010 . In March 2012 , <unk> Uttam Singh , the grandson of producer G. P. Sippy , said that he would sponsor a conversion of the film to 3D , and release it in late 2012 ; this was later postponed to late 2013 , and eventually finalised for 3 January 2014 . It took ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) to convert Sholay to 3D . 
 Under the leadership of computer animator Frank Foster , 350 people worked to convert the film into the digital 3D format , for which every scene had to be individually restored , colour @-@ corrected and re @-@ <unk> in 3D to match the depth . New set @-@ pieces , particularly those suited to the new format were also included , such as digital logs which scatter in the direction of the camera during the first half of the film when the train <unk> with them , the gunshot scene which frees Jai and Veeru from their handcuffs , and panoramic views of Gabbar 's hideout in the caves . 
 The theatrical trailer and release date were unveiled by the original script @-@ writers Salim Khan and Javed <unk> . The two original leads , Bachchan and Dharmendra , were also involved in promoting the re @-@ release . The film was released in 1 @,@ 000 screens in India , and additional screens overseas . It earned approximately ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) during its re @-@ release , not enough to recover its conversion cost . 
 
 
 = Adam Stansfield = 
 
 Adam Stansfield ( 10 September 1978 – 10 August 2010 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He competed professionally for Yeovil Town , Hereford United and Exeter City , and won promotion from the Football Conference to The Football League with all three teams . 
 Having played for three counties as a child , Stansfield began his career in non @-@ league with <unk> Rangers and Elmore , and had unsuccessful trials at league teams . At the age of 23 , he signed his first professional contract with Yeovil Town , after impressing their manager Gary Johnson in a match against them . In his first season , he helped them win the FA Trophy , scoring in the 2002 final . The following season , Yeovil won the Conference and promotion into The Football League , although Stansfield was ruled out with a broken leg in the first game . In 2004 , he transferred to Hereford United , where he won promotion to The Football League via the 2006 play @-@ offs , and repeated the feat with Exeter City a year later . He also helped Exeter earn promotion into League One in 2008 . At international level , Stansfield played five matches and scored one goal for England 's national semi @-@ professional team , winning the 2005 Four Nations Tournament . 
 Stansfield was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in April 2010 . He returned to training after surgery and chemotherapy , but died on 10 August that year . A foundation in his name was posthumously set up by his family to provide sporting opportunities and raise awareness of colorectal cancer . He has posthumously been featured on a <unk> airliner <unk> and tourist currency in Exeter . 
 
 = = Early and personal life = = 
 
 Stansfield was born in Plymouth , Devon , as the third of four children , and supported Nottingham Forest . On 2 June 2001 he married Marie , with whom he had three sons . Devon journalist Gary Andrews remembered Stansfield as a man who would spend time with his family after matches while speaking to fans and the press . He wrote that " I had the pleasure of interviewing Adam on a regular basis ... I say pleasure , because his answers were thoughtful and intelligent and he came across as a man who was delighted to be back home with his friends and family " . 
 
 = = Career = = 
 
 
 = = = Early career = = = 
 
 Stansfield 's first club was Evesham Colts under @-@ 10s . He played at county level for Worcestershire , <unk> and Devon . When his family settled back in Devon he joined <unk> Spartans , scoring 84 goals in 54 matches . He played in <unk> Town 's youth team as a left back before reverting to being a striker at his first senior club , non @-@ League side <unk> Rangers . He later moved to Elmore , where he attracted trials from Exeter City , Wolverhampton Wanderers and Torquay United , all of which were unsuccessful . His siblings joined the Royal Air Force and he thought of joining them , but continued searching for a breakthrough in professional football . 
 
 = = = Yeovil Town = = = 
 
 In October 2001 , Stansfield 's performances for Elmore impressed Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson to sign him . He made his debut in the Conference on 9 November , playing the entirety of a 3 – 0 loss away to <unk> . His first goal came on 1 December , concluding a 3 – 1 victory at <unk> Victoria . His first season at <unk> Park was a success , finishing as the top scorer with 16 goals , 8 of which came in the club 's victorious FA Trophy run . He scored twice in a fourth round replay at Doncaster Rovers , as Yeovil came from 0 – 3 down for an eventual 5 – 4 victory . In the final on 12 May he scored the second goal of a 2 – 0 win over <unk> Borough at the Millennium Stadium . 
 On the first day of the following season , Stansfield was substituted through injury after 16 minutes of an eventual 2 – 2 home draw with <unk> & <unk> to be replaced by <unk> <unk> . It was later confirmed to be a break of the tibia and <unk> . He missed the remainder of the season , in which Yeovil won the Conference to be promoted to The Football League for the first time . 
 He recovered to feature in the next campaign , making his league debut on 16 August 2003 . In that match , Yeovil 's first in The Football League , he came on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Kirk Jackson in a 3 – 0 win against Carlisle United . His first of six goals in the Third Division season came on 6 September , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Swansea City . He was given a rare start in that match as first @-@ choice forward Kevin Gall was away with Wales under @-@ 21 . 
 
 = = = Hereford United = = = 
 
 On 14 June 2004 , Stansfield returned to the Conference with Hereford United , signed by Graham Turner to replace their previous season 's top scorer Steve Guinan , who had been sold to Cheltenham Town . He scored 20 goals across the season , including two on 25 March 2005 in a 6 – 0 win at <unk> Town . In that match , he came on in the 77th minute for Daniel Carey @-@ <unk> , who had also scored two . Hereford reached the promotion play @-@ offs , where they lost in the semi @-@ finals to <unk> . In the following season they won promotion by the play @-@ offs , with Stansfield starting in the final on 20 May 2006 at the <unk> Stadium in Leicester , a 3 – 2 extra @-@ time victory over Halifax Town . 
 
 = = = Exeter City = = = 
 
 On 12 June 2006 , with his contract expired , Stansfield decided to remain in the Conference , joining Exeter City . He told local radio that his aim was not to achieve promotion or reach a certain tally of goals , but to influence the club 's younger players . 
 He scored nine times in 40 league games in his first season , including two in a 2 – 1 home win over relegated <unk> on 28 April 2007 in order to seal a play @-@ off place . Eleven days later , in the second leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final away to Oxford United , he scored a goal which took the match to extra time and eventually a penalty shootout which his side won . In the final on 20 May at Wembley Stadium , he came on as a 36th @-@ minute substitute for goalscorer Lee Phillips in a 1 – 2 loss to Morecambe . 
 On 26 April 2008 , Stansfield scored in Exeter 's 4 – 4 draw at Burton Albion which qualified them for that season 's play @-@ offs . He started in the final , whereby the team returned to The Football League for the first time in five years with a 1 – 0 Wembley win over Cambridge United . 
 He scored 10 goals in 37 league games as they won a second consecutive promotion into League One in the 2008 – 09 season . This included consecutive <unk> on 27 September and 4 October , in wins over Macclesfield Town ( 4 – 1 away ) and Gillingham ( 3 – 0 home ) . The following campaign , despite never having previously played at as high a level , he was a regular starter for Exeter in League One , scoring eight goals in a season curtailed by his cancer diagnosis . 
 
 = = = International career = = = 
 
 Stansfield earned five caps and scored one goal for the England national semi @-@ professional team . He featured in the 2002 edition of the Four Nations Tournament , and made his debut in England 's opening match , a 1 – 1 draw with Wales at York Street in Boston on 14 May . Stansfield was injured in the first half of the last match , a 2 – 0 win against Scotland at <unk> Road in Kettering on 18 May , while Wales won the title . In 2005 , while back in the Conference with Hereford , he was again called up for the tournament by manager Paul <unk> . Stansfield played in two matches as England won the tournament with three wins . 
 
 = = Illness and death = = 
 
 Stansfield suffered from persistent abdominal pain in the early part of 2010 , and was admitted to hospital for tests at the end of March . On 8 April 2010 , Exeter City confirmed to the media that he had been diagnosed with a form of colorectal cancer . Manager Paul <unk> told local news programme BBC Spotlight that " there 's little good on this subject " , but " if there 's someone who can deal with it and meet it head on with real purpose , Adam 's the man . 
 Later that month , Stansfield underwent surgery to remove part of his <unk> . Club vice @-@ chairman Julian <unk> reported that the operation was successful , and that Stansfield appeared happy and was making jokes . He joined the Exeter squad for the first day of pre @-@ season training in July , appearing weak from chemotherapy . His condition deteriorated rapidly and he died on 10 August , with his death being announced shortly after Exeter 's loss to Ipswich Town in the Football League Cup . 
 As a mark of respect , Dagenham & Redbridge postponed the game Exeter were due to play against them at Victoria Road four days after his death . Exeter retired his shirt number 9 for nine seasons . 
 Stansfield 's body was taken from St James Park to his funeral service at Exeter Cathedral on 25 August , attended by over 1 @,@ 000 mourners . A private family service was held later . 
 
 = = = <unk> recognition = = = 
 
 Stansfield continues to be remembered by fans of Exeter . On 9 August 2014 , as they started the new season against Portsmouth , a giant flag resembling his club shirt was displayed by the crowd . 
 At his funeral , Stansfield 's widow Marie had an idea to set up the Adam Stansfield Foundation , which by the fourth anniversary of his death had raised over £ 150 @,@ 000 . It works in offering children football in Devon , Somerset and <unk> , the three counties in which he played professionally , as well as increasing opportunities for the disabled to take part in the sport . The foundation also aims to increase awareness of <unk> cancer . 
 From 2011 to 2015 , an aeroplane belonging to <unk> bore an image of Stansfield , with other aeroplanes belonging to the company featuring such former footballers as George Best and Kevin Keegan . In 2015 , Stansfield was featured on £ 5 Exeter Pound notes in the city . 
 Exeter City and Yeovil Town agreed that on their meeting at St James Park on 8 August 2015 , there would be a minute 's applause in the seventh minute and ninth , for the numbers he wore at each club . Earlier the same day , there was also a match between the two clubs ' supporters in <unk> , Devon , to raise funds for his foundation . 
 
 = = Career statistics = = 
 
 
 = = Honours = = 
 
 Yeovil Town 
 FA Trophy : 2001 – 02 
 Football Conference : 2002 – 03 
 Hereford United 
 Conference National play @-@ offs : 2006 
 Exeter City 
 Conference National play @-@ offs : 2008 
 England semi @-@ professional 
 Four Nations Tournament : 2005 
 
 
 = Saprang Kalayanamitr = 
 
 General Saprang Kalayanamitr ( Thai : <unk> ่ ง กัลยาณมิตร ; <unk> : <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> , also known as <unk> ( Thai : <unk> ) or Big <unk> ( Thai : <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , born 8 July 1948 in <unk> , Thailand ) is a retired officer of the Royal Thai Army , Assistant Secretary @-@ General of the Council for National Security , Commander of the junta 's 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man anti @-@ protest force , Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) , and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major Thai state @-@ owned telecommunication companies . 
 Saprang grew up in an aristocratic military family and graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . He served for nearly three decades in the Army cavalry <unk> , and was promoted to 3rd Army Region Commander in 2005 . He was a key leader of the September 2006 coup that <unk> the government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra . 
 Saprang is one of the <unk> critics of Thaksin Shinawatra , calling him a " traitor " and claiming that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . " Upon appointment to chair Airports of Thailand and TOT , he purged the management , initiated investigations into the overthrown government , and donated 200 million baht of the agency 's funds to the Army . He fired the President of TOT for questioning an 800 million baht donation that the agency made to the Army . As head of CAT Telecom , he was accused of blocking attempts to launch People 's Television , a new television station founded by ex @-@ leaders of Thaksin 's Thai Rak Thai party . 
 Saprang was considered one of the top contenders to lead the army and the junta after CNS @-@ leader Sonthi Boonyaratkalin 's mandatory retirement in 2007 . However , in September 2007 he was demoted to be Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Defense Ministry , while his rival , General Anupong Paochinda , was promoted to lead the Army . As a result , Saprang retired from the Army in 2010 . 
 
 = = Education and early career = = 
 
 
 = = = Education = = = 
 
 Born 8 July 1948 in <unk> , Thailand , Saprang graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School ( <unk> ) and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . His classmates included General <unk> <unk> ( appointed Deputy Army Commander after the coup ) , Admiral Bannawit <unk> ( appointed to the National Legislative Assembly after the coup , and leader of its Suvarnabhumi Airport committee ) , and General <unk> <unk> . He later graduated from the 43rd class of the National Defence College of Thailand in 2001 . His <unk> thesis concerned the role of military forces in the control of illegal <unk> . His <unk> classmates included <unk> <unk> , governor of state energy company <unk> . 
 
 = = = Early career = = = 
 
 Saprang started his military career in 1969 as Rifle Platoon Leader in the 3rd Infantry Battalion , 4th Regimental Combat Team . He claims to have fought 200 battles during the course of his military career . 
 He was appointed Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion of the 4th Infantry Regiment in 1982 , stationed in <unk> ( on the northwestern border with Burma ) . In 1985 , he became Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion in the 19th Infantry Regiment , stationed in <unk> Fort , <unk> ( on the western border with Burma ) . 
 He was then promoted to be Regimental Commanding Officer of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School in 1990 . In 1991 , he began a six @-@ year stint as Regimental Commanding Officer of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . 
 In April 1997 , Saprang was shortly transferred to the Ministry of Defense as a staff officer , before being promoted in October 1997 to Commanding General of the 15th Infantry Division , at the time stationed in <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> Khan Province . In 2003 , he was promoted to 3rd Corps Commander . In 2004 , it was strongly <unk> that Saprang might be promoted to command the 4th Army , replacing General Pongsak <unk> . General Pongsak had been criticized for <unk> fighting the South Thailand insurgency , after 39 successful <unk> attacks occurred in just one night . Pongsak ended up being replaced in April 2004 by <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = 2006 <unk> = = = 
 
 In a surprise to many observers , Saprang was promoted to 3rd Army Area Commander in October 2005 , headquartered in <unk> and responsible most of northern and northeastern Thailand . Analysts had expected Prime Minister Thaksin to promote his own classmates from <unk> Class 10 to the powerful position instead . At the same time , also in a surprise move , Deputy Army Commander Sonthi Boonyaratkalin was promoted to Army Commander . 
 Saprang and Sonthi started planning for the coup 7 to 8 months in advance , in approximately February 2006 . <unk> planning occurred prior to the April 2006 elections , during Thaksin 's controversial sale of Shin Corporation to <unk> Holdings and the peak of the People 's Alliance for Democracy 's campaign to <unk> the government . In July 2006 , Saprang gave an interview where he stated that Thai politics was below standard and that the Kingdom 's leadership was weak . He also claimed that Thailand had a false democracy . He denied that such criticism constituted military interference in politics . At the same time , the Thai media speculated that in the October 2006 annual Army reshuffle , Saprang would not be promoted to Assistant Army Commander and would not be allowed to retain his position of 3rd Army Area Commander . In July , Saprang 's own Deputy Commander in the 3rd Army Area , Major General Manas <unk> , warned the media that " a certain military officer who <unk> to become Assistant Army Commander " was planning a coup . 
 In the weeks leading up to coup , Saprang openly mobilised soldiers and northern residents to rebel against the government . Saprang played a key role on the evening of 19 September 2006 , securing Thaksin 's home town and power base of <unk> Mai . That same night , he was appointed assistant Secretary @-@ General of the CNS . The coup was executed just a week before the announcement of the Army 's annual reshuffle . 
 
 = = After the 2006 coup = = 
 
 A week after the coup , Saprang was promoted to Assistant Army Commander , alongside fellow coup leader Anupong Paochinda . His predecessor , General <unk> <unk> , had not taken part in the coup and was transferred to an inactive position . Saprang was also promoted from Lieutenant General to General . 
 
 = = = CNS Special Operations Center = = = 
 
 On 27 December 2006 , it was revealed that the Cabinet had approved over half a billion baht worth of funding for a 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man secret anti @-@ protest special operations force , of which General Saprang was Commander . The so @-@ called CNS Special Operations Center , funded with <unk> million baht diverted from the Defense Ministry , Police Office , and government emergency reserve fund , had been secretly established by the CNS on 1 December 2006 in order to control protests . 
 
 = = = TOT and CAT Telecom = = = 
 
 Saprang was appointed by the junta to become Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major state @-@ owned telecommunication companies . Saprang 's first move as TOT Chairman was to hand @-@ pick three Army <unk> and vocal Thaksin @-@ critic Vuthiphong <unk> to sit on the state enterprise 's Board of Directors . Saprang transferred TOT President <unk> <unk> to an inactive position and appointed Vuthiphong new President . He then hand @-@ picked all 10 other directors . 
 Saprang noted in an interview that , " if telecommunication businesses are in private hands , the country won 't be safe . " The junta had earlier announced plans to cancel the initial public offering of both TOT and CAT Telecom and to merge the two state enterprises . 
 Under Saprang 's leadership , TOT reaffirmed its ownership rights to all existing backbone telecommunications networks under a new strategy to act as a " genuine " national <unk> company . The new strategy was expected to increase political and business tensions . Under the <unk> @-@ Transfer @-@ <unk> ( <unk> ) concession agreements that TOT signed with private <unk> operators , the TOT technically owns all fixed @-@ line , mobile , and optical fibre networks in Thailand . However , it had never exercised those rights in the past . 
 Vuthiphong was fired from the TOT board and his position of acting TOT President in June 2007 . He immediately accused the Army of using the TOT as an <unk> <unk> fund . He claimed that an unnamed Army unit had requested that TOT buy it 800 million baht worth of electronic equipment . Upon receiving the request , <unk> demanded to know why neither the Army nor the Defence Ministry used their own secret budgets to purchase the equipment , and why an internal Army unit , rather than the Kingdom 's main national security organisations , had made the request . Saprang denied that there was any lack of transparency in the request for financial support . <unk> claimed that the equipment should only have cost 30 million baht , not 800 million baht . He was fired and expelled from the Board soon after refusing to sign off on the deal . The Board later appointed Col. <unk> <unk> as the new TOT President and accepted the army 's donation request . 
 Under his leadership , TOT 's performance dropped . <unk> for the first half of 2007 fell 13 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while net profit fell 36 @.@ 1 % . Fixed line revenue dropped 16 % , while public telephone and international call revenue by 30 % each . 
 As Chairman of CAT Telecom , Saprang was accused by the founders of People 's Television ( PTV ) , a new satellite television station , of being behind CAT Telecom 's refusal to grant an internet link from Bangkok to a satellite up @-@ link station in Hong Kong . PTV was established by several ex @-@ executives of the Thai Rak Thai party . CAT Telecom claimed that it never received PTV 's application for internet access . 
 Under Saprang 's leadership , 80 @,@ 000 subscribers of Thai Mobile , a TOT / CAT joint venture mobile phone operator , were cut off temporarily in early May 2007 when owners TOT and CAT Telecom failed to pay the bills of a major supplier . Thai Mobile had accumulated significant losses and the company was not able to make its debt payments or supplier payments . The partners had stopped payments to the supplier , Samart Corporation , for nearly a year , until Samart threatened to suspend services within three days . After no payment , it delivered on its threat . TOT was subsequently able to negotiate with Samart to restart the service . 
 
 = = = Airports of Thailand = = = 
 
 
 = = = = <unk> of AoT management = = = = 
 
 A week after Saprang hinted at a reshuffle of AoT top management , AoT President <unk> <unk> was forced to resign , citing health reasons , while the Directors of Suvarnabhumi Airport and AoT Commercial Operations were dismissed . Police Commissioner General <unk> <unk> was appointed as an AoT Director . 
 
 = = = = Suvarnabhumi Airport = = = = 
 
 As AoT Chairman , Saprang spearheaded an effort to reopen Don Muang Airport in parallel with the newly opened Suvarnabhumi Airport , despite objections from the Civil Aviation Department , airlines , and internal studies within Airports of Thailand . 60 airlines threatened to halt flights to Thailand if they were forced to move back to Don Muang airport . 
 Saprang also refused to authorize urgent repairs on the airport tarmac , despite warnings from engineers . <unk> <unk> , president of the Engineering Institute of Thailand noted , " Suvarnabhumi is like a patient in a coma who continues to suffer from severe bleeding . <unk> the blood flow now is more urgent and important than debating what caused the injury . " The Engineering Institute of Thailand sent a formal warning to AoT in November 2006 about the urgent need to drain water from beneath the tarmac , and noted that immediate action should be taken . " The AOT did nothing about the problem " , <unk> <unk> of the <unk> noted . " The situation might not have become this bad if the water had been drained then . " <unk> <unk> , a senior foundation engineer and a member of the <unk> <unk> @-@ led airport tarmac inspection panel , accused the AOT of refusing to take any actions to solve the problems at the airport . 
 The airport faced ongoing operational challenges , including a computer virus that shut down the automated luggage bomb @-@ scanning system in June 2007 . A study by the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) released in July 2007 found the airport unsafe , citing numerous spots where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checkpoints . 
 Serious security gaps at Suvarnabhumi Airport became known to the public beginning in early 2007 . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) found that there were many spots in the passenger terminal where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checks and could receive unchecked objects and then carry them on board aircraft . The IATA also suggested that AoT deploy its own security staff instead of contracting out the job to the <unk> @-@ <unk> consortium . AoT threatened the consortium with contract termination , but didn 't follow through with its threat , even though the consortium failed to live up to its contract . Six months later , AoT stated that it still couldn 't make up its mind on how it should improve airport security . AoT said it was open to all possible options , and has taken no action to upgrade the problem . 
 
 = = = = Trip to Europe = = = = 
 
 On Tuesday 27 February 2007 , Saprang led a 13 @-@ member delegation to Europe , on what was claimed to be a week @-@ long trip to study safety and security measures at major European airports . Many delegates and accompanying members shared the same surname , and the trip , which cost 7 @.@ 2 million baht was attacked for " squandering " state funds for personal pleasure , <unk> unrealistic expenses , and inflating costs . The travel agent along received a 500 @,@ 000 baht commission fee for booking the trip . Saprang denied any wrongdoing and claimed he was the victim of a smear campaign . He also noted that " If you knew my character , you would know that even if a relative joined the trip he should have realised that he should work hard . " He also noted that instead of being a viewed as a defendant , he should be viewed as a hero for bringing down the Thaksin government . Saprang then summoned the leader of the AoT labor union in order to identify who leaked information about the trip to his <unk> . 
 
 = = = = Financial performance = = = = 
 
 The first quarter after Saprang was appointed Chairman , AoT profits plunged 90 % compared to the previous year , despite higher traffic volumes and increased passenger service charters and airline fees . Operating expenses <unk> 137 % , contributing to the AoT 's worst <unk> earnings report since it was listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand . 
 The AoT board also granted 200 million baht to the Army , which had requested a financial donation . AoT also lent some of its explosives detectors to the Army for use in the South Thailand insurrection . 
 Financial performance continued to spiral downwards in the 3rd quarter of 2007 . Net profit for the period ending June fell by 84 % from a year before , despite higher traffic and a 17 @.@ 9 % increase in revenue . The fall in profit was attributed to AoT 's court case against King Power , the operator of duty @-@ free shops within Suvarnabhumi Airport . King Power 's concession was suspended while the case was in court , forcing AOT to stop reporting earnings from the <unk> . 
 
 = = = Thaksin Shinawatra = = = 
 
 Saprang had long been a fierce critic of Thaksin Shinawatra , and prior to the coup had even called Thaksin 's supporters within the military " evil . " After the coup , Saprang called Thaksin a " traitor " and said that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . " 
 He also accused Thaksin of <unk> on the military while he was Prime Minister . 
 Although Saprang and General Sonthi accused Thaksin of insulting and <unk> King <unk> , he noted that the junta did not pursue <unk> <unk> charges against Thaksin because " the police corrupted the evidence " , and delivered such a weak case that the attorney @-@ general could not file a lawsuit . A vocal self @-@ proclaimed <unk> , he insisted that various groups actively tried to challenge the monarchy , and that he " couldn 't stand it . " He noted , " I am a soldier , born to protect the Crown . They could only challenge the monarchy over my dead body . " 
 Saprang also suspected that Oliver <unk> , a Swiss man who was jailed for <unk> <unk> for spraying paint on a portrait of image of King <unk> , was hired by somebody to perform his vandalism . Saprang ordered a military investigation into the matter . The results have not been made public . 
 
 = = = 2007 New Years bombings = = = 
 
 Saprang had a public confrontation with former Prime Minister <unk> <unk> regarding the 2006 Bangkok New Year 's Eve bombings after <unk> accused him of incompetence . Saprang claimed that " the evidence and intelligence information proves that the bombs were the dirty work of politicians who lost power and benefits . Bad soldiers loyal to bad politicians collaborated with them with the intention to <unk> this government . " However , his claim was contradicted just an hour later by Prime Minister <unk> <unk> . 
 In May 2007 , Saprang claimed that he had information regarding the seizure of instructional manual on terrorism in Bangkok from a London apartment by English soldiers and police . He said he could not <unk> any further information , but told the public to connect the dots themselves . Days later , a bomb exploded outside of <unk> Palace . Saprang later clarified his remark , saying the Bangkok terrorism manual discovery had been made in the early 1990s . Deputy Chief of the British Mission in Bangkok Andy Pierce said he was " concerned " by Saprang 's remarks , which he insisted were " <unk> " . 
 
 = = = Resignation of Pridiyathorn <unk> = = = 
 
 Saprang was implicated in the resignation of Finance Minister Pridiyathorn <unk> on 28 February 2007 . The Bangkok Post reported that Pridiyathorn resigned in protest after a CNS member lobbied him to sell shares of <unk> ( formerly known as Thai <unk> Industry ) back to a former shareholder . The newspaper identified Saprang as the unnamed CNS member . Saprang 's brother , <unk> , was a key financial advisor to <unk> <unk> , the estranged founder of <unk> . 
 <unk> 's relations with the junta came under further public scrutiny when it was revealed that he was hired by the junta in order to lead a campaign to discredit deposed premier Thaksin Shinawatra . <unk> hired as part of the CNS campaign included Chat <unk> party leader Korn <unk> , Democrats Korn <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , a key Thai Rak Thai member who defected to the Chat Thai party , plus ex @-@ senator <unk> <unk> . Academics hired by the CNS included <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , and <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = Mad dogs and machine guns = = = 
 
 Saprang was an extremely vocal critic of those who he perceived as his political opponents . In an interview with Thai <unk> ( Thailand 's most popular newspaper ) on 8 April 2007 , he called an unspecified enemy a " mad dog " who he claimed was destroying the monarchy . He said that it was necessary to shoot the dog with a machine gun . In the same interview , he threatened violent response to the " bold words that came from the mouths of evil people who did not know restraint " . He urged decisive action , so that the public would believe that good had triumphed over evil . 
 
 = = = Post @-@ coup role = = = 
 
 Saprang was considered a strong contender to lead the junta given the mandatory retirement of Army commander @-@ in @-@ chief and CNS President Sonthi Boonyaratkalin in September 2007 . He unofficially competed with fellow Assistant Army Commander Anupong Paochinda , who , as 1st Army Area Commander , secured Bangkok on the night of the coup . The Bangkok Post reported in October 2006 that Sonthi was <unk> Anupong to be his successor by giving him responsibilities over coup logistics , a greater task than had been assigned to Saprang . The Asia Times quoted a former MP as saying that " Anupong is seen as the real force behind the coup . Saprang is more vocal , but he has no real base . The only way he could be seen as a promising leader is by pushing the country to the brink . " 
 In an interview , Saprang warned that " the three pillars of society - the nation , the religion and the monarchy - might crumble ... If rogue politicians return to power following the next [ post coup ] general election . " 
 Saprang also held the opinion that military coups against the government " should never be ruled out . " The <unk> 1997 constitution had outlawed coups . A replacement constitution was , at the time of Saprang 's statement , being drafted by a military appointed panel . 
 Saprang was sidelined in security plans preceding the Constitutional Tribunal 's 20 May 2007 ruling on the dissolution of the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat <unk> . After the 2006 coup , Sonthi had delegated the task of securing Bangkok to Saprang . The pre @-@ ruling plan put Sonthi directly in charge of Bangkok crowd security , <unk> him with <unk> of <unk> Class 9 , including Army Chief of Staff General <unk> <unk> and First Army Region commander Lt General <unk> Chan @-@ <unk> . 
 <unk> <unk> , a military scholar at <unk> University and a personal adviser to Prime Minister <unk> <unk> noted in early September 2007 that " if the army is going to take a full step into politics , then it will be Saprang . If only a half @-@ step , then Anupong . And if it intends to beat a full retreat or take one step back , it will be [ Army chief of staff ] <unk> [ <unk> ] . " 
 On 19 September 2007 , Saprang 's rival , Assistant Army Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief <unk> Anupong Paochinda , was appointed as the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Army , replacing the retiring General Sonthi . Anupong 's mandatory retirement occurred 2010 . Sonthi was , after resignation , appointed Deputy Prime Minister . Saprang was transferred to become Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defense . Saprang 's ally , Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary Admiral Bannawit <unk> , called Saprang 's transfer a " demotion " and a " punishment . " However , Saprang himself claimed that he did not feel slighted for being passed over , noting that " everything is over " for him . Bannawit himself was later transferred from Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary to be a Chief <unk> of the Ministry , replaced by Chief <unk> General <unk> Muang @-@ am . Bannawit denied that his own transfer was the result of his criticism of Saprang 's transfer . Bannawit then announced that he would resign from the military and enter politics . There was also rampant speculation that Saprang himself would resign and enter politics . Although the <unk> News Agency noted speculation that Saprang would stage a coup against Anupong , Saprang denied coup rumors , saying that another coup would be " suicide . " 
 
 = = Family = = 
 
 Saprang is the youngest of 9 children of Lieutenant Colonel Sri ( Thai : <unk> กัลยาณมิตร ) and <unk> Kalayanamitr ( Thai : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> กัลยาณมิตร ) . Sri was the eldest of the 8 children of <unk> <unk> , ruler ( <unk> Muang ) of the northern border city of <unk> . 
 The <unk> are a military aristocratic family with Chinese ( <unk> ) <unk> Thai roots . Saprang 's ancestor , <unk> <unk> <unk> ( original name <unk> <unk> , Thai : <unk> , <unk> ่ ง <unk> ่ <unk> <unk> ง ) migrated to <unk> during the reign of King <unk> <unk> the <unk> trade , and was given a feudal title during the reign of King Rama I. 
 Saprang has evoked his aristocratic background in order to increase his credibility in public confrontations . Saprang is married to <unk> ( Thai : <unk> ) and has 3 sons : Army Cadet <unk> ( Thai : <unk> ์ ) , Air Force Cadet <unk> ( Thai : <unk> ) , Air Force Cadet <unk> ( Thai : <unk> ์ ) . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Saprang stands 161 centimeters tall and as of March 2007 , weighed 52 kilograms . 
 
 
 = Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video = 
 
 The Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video was an award that was presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 , and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 , for quality , concept music videos . The Grammy Awards ( <unk> ) is an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and was originally called the <unk> Awards ; awards are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical <unk> and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " . 
 Beginning in 1982 , the Academy began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category , which was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and was replaced with two awards ; Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album . <unk> changes for the 1988 and 1989 ceremonies resulted in the Best Concept Music Video award being presented alongside the award for Best Performance Music Video . Best Concept Music Video award recipients were the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " and the American singer " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories are now known as Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences began to honor quality music videos with the Grammy Award for Video of the Year category in 1982 . The first two award recipients were former member of The Monkees Michael <unk> for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael <unk> in Elephant Parts ) and Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical . The Video of the Year category was discontinued in 1984 when MTV established the MTV Video Music Awards whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . For the 26th Grammy Awards the Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form , and Best Video Album . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and awards for the categories Best Concept Music Video , and Best Performance Music Video were presented . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories were renamed Best Music Video , Short Form , and Best Music Video , Long Form . In 1998 , the categories were retitled Best Short Form Music Video , and Best Long Form Music Video , respectively . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 For the 30th Grammy Awards ( 1988 ) , Best Concept Music Video nominees <unk> David Bowie for " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , Kate Bush for The Whole Story , the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " , David Lee Roth for David Lee Roth , and Janet Jackson for Control – The Videos Part II . The music video for Bowie 's " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , directed by Julien Temple , included " offending " scenes such as a man <unk> on Ronald Reagan 's Hollywood Walk of Fame star , which was edited out for television broadcast . Bush 's " imaginative " video sampler accompanies her greatest hits album of the same name and includes music videos for songs throughout her career to that point . The music video for " Land of Confusion " , a song included on the band 's 1986 album Invisible Touch , contained <unk> Image puppets of Ronald Reagan , Margaret Thatcher and other notable individuals . David Lee Roth 's self @-@ titled video consisted of promotional clips created for his debut solo EP Crazy from the Heat and album Eat ' Em and Smile . Jackson 's video collection , which was certified gold in the United States , contained six promotional videos recorded for singles from her album Control . Awards were presented to members of Genesis ( Tony Banks , Phil Collins , and Mike Rutherford ) as the performing artists , Jim <unk> and John Lloyd as the video directors , and Jon Blair as the video producer . 
 <unk> for the 31st Grammy Awards were the Hampton String Quartet for " Get a Job " , George Harrison for " When We Was <unk> " , the American rock band Talking Heads for <unk> Giant , " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " , and Neil Young for " This Note 's for You " . " Get a Job " , a song recorded originally by the American group The <unk> , appears on the Hampton String Quartet 's album What If Mozart <unk> " Roll Over Beethoven " , a collection of 1950s R & B and pop music songs performed in the styles of Beethoven , Debussy , Mozart , and other composers . " When We Was <unk> " , a song from the album Cloud Nine , is constructed from quotations written when The Beatles were at the height of their fame and features Harrison playing a <unk> . The music video shows Elton John dressed as a <unk> , a reference to the 1967 song " I Am the <unk> " . <unk> Giants is a collection of Talking Heads ' music videos and additional material linking them together . Two of the nominated music videos had connections to Michael Jackson ; " Fat " is a parody of Jackson 's song " Bad " , and the video for " This Note 's for You " depicts a Jackson look @-@ alike 's hair catching fire ; a parody of an incident that occurred during a shoot for a Pepsi television advertisement in 1984 . In the " Fat " video , Yankovic becomes a " grossly overweight guy " through the use of cosmetics and special effects , and leads a group of overweight people on a parade . The award was presented to Yankovic as the performing artist , along with Jay <unk> as the video director and Susan <unk> as the video producer . 
 
 
 = Hadji Ali = 
 
 Hadji Ali ( c . 1887 – 92 – November 5 , 1937 ) was a vaudeville performance artist , thought to be of Egyptian descent , who was famous for acts of controlled regurgitation . His best @-@ known feats included water spouting , smoke swallowing , and nut and handkerchief swallowing followed by <unk> in an order chosen by the audience . Ali 's most famous stunt , and the highlight of his act , was drinking copious amounts of water followed by kerosene , and then acting by turns as a human flamethrower and fire <unk> as he expelled the two liquids onto a theatrical prop . While these stunts were performed , a panel of audience members was invited to watch the show up close to verify that no <unk> was employed . 
 Although never gaining wide fame , Ali had a dedicated following on the vaudeville circuit in the United States . He performed for heads of state including Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . Judy Garland named him her favorite <unk> and David Blaine identified Ali as his favorite magician . <unk> of his act were captured in the short film Strange as It Seems ( 1930 ) and in Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's <unk> Come Home . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's <unk> ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville . Ali 's unusual <unk> abilities led to rumors that the Rockefeller Institute had offered a large sum of money to obtain his stomach post @-@ mortem . After he died in England , his body was offered to Johns Hopkins University for study , though the offer was declined . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Hadji Ali was born into a working @-@ class family in approximately 1887 or 1892 , depending on the source consulted , probably in Egypt . His fame was as a <unk> of a recognized vaudeville subgenre known as a " regurgitation act " , involving the swallowing of material or objects and their regurgitation in various ways . Ali became aware as a child that he possessed an unusual <unk> ability . He explained in response to audience questions at a performance held at St. Mary 's Hospital in Niagara Falls , New York , in May 1926 , that while swimming in the Nile as a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , he naturally discovered that he could swallow a large amount of water and blow it out like a whale spouting . He continued to develop and refine the ability as he grew older . A more dramatic version of these events was provided by Ali 's daughter , Almina Ali , in an interview in England after his death . She stated that his abilities were first learned through a single incident : while bathing in the Nile , he inadvertently swallowed a fish and an ample volume of water . Instead of dying , as those present thought he might , Ali simply regurgitated the liquid and the fish without ill effect . 
 Ali learned that his regurgitation talents had the potential to entertain and to earn money through performance at the age of fifteen : 
 I tried out my tricks first of all in the street , swallowing many glasses of water and then pouring forth a great fountain from one side of the road to the other ... A cafe proprietor saw me doing this one day , and chased me down the street . I thought he wanted to beat me up , but no — all he did was to put a coin in my hand and ask me to repeat the trick . Finally , he was so delighted that he asked me to come to his cafe and entertain the customers . 
 Taking his abilities on the road , Ali met an Italian man in Cairo who signed him to a contract for music hall performances . Ali performed under contract throughout Europe and at times for heads of state . According to Ali , in or about 1914 he was summoned by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to perform at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg , Russia . He stated that the Tsar " must have liked my performance because he awarded me a special decoration , which is now one of my most <unk> possessions . " Following World War I , Ali began managing his own affairs and toured the world , learning more tricks as he went . 
 Ali came to the United States with Almina in the mid @-@ 1920s . They performed together at <unk> , carnivals and in vaudeville , sometimes advertised under the collective name , " Hadji Ali & Co . " Almina played the part of assistant in her father 's act , billed in his shows as " The Princess " . Ali alone had a variety of stage names , including : " The Great Egyptian Miracle Man " , " The Amazing <unk> " , " The Egyptian <unk> " , " The Human <unk> " , " The Human <unk> " and " The 9th Wonder of the Scientific World " . Ali has been described as a " large , barrel @-@ <unk> and bearded man ... [ that cut ] an imposing figure in his Arab costume . " 
 Although Ali spoke a number of languages and became a naturalized U.S. citizen , it was reported that Almina acted as his interpreter in the United States and other places , as he did not speak English and was illiterate . Once he had gained some notoriety , Ali took on as his manager Hubert Julian , a former colonel in the <unk> Air Force . Although he developed a significant following , even being named Judy Garland 's favorite <unk> , Ali " remained more a <unk> curiosity than a true vaudeville <unk> " according to at least one source . Nevertheless , at the time of his death in 1937 , Julian commented that Ali had " earned big money in America — $ 1 @,@ 000 a week sometimes . I was building him up here [ in Europe ] and had a Continental tour arranged . " 
 
 = = Performance = = 
 
 The mainstay of Ali 's act was " water spouting " . After swallowing large amounts of water , 60 to 100 glasses at a time , he <unk> the water in a continuous stream for a sustained period of time , sometimes approaching one minute . Another common trick was to swallow 30 to 50 <unk> <unk> ( although one of his posters advertised 40 <unk> ) , followed by another nut of a different variety , such as an <unk> . Ali then brought them up one by one with the odd @-@ nut @-@ out produced at a mark called out by the audience . In another trick , Ali swallowed three to six <unk> of different <unk> and then produced them in a color order requested by audience members . 
 In a 1929 article appearing in the Lowell Sun newspaper , physician Morris <unk> speculated that for Ali 's nut feat , the one nut of a different variety was held in the mouth rather than swallowed , thus allowing him to produce it on cue . Dr. <unk> also stated that unnamed " investigators " were convinced that for Ali 's handkerchief stunt , to produce them in the sequence stipulated by the audience Ali flavored the cloth , and could therefore taste for the correct one as he brought them up . Ali also swallowed live <unk> , watches , coins , costume jewelry , paper money , peach pits , stones , live mice , buttons , pool balls and other odd objects . In another standard performance segment , he placed eight or more lit cigarettes in his mouth but instead of <unk> , he swallowed the smoke and , after a significant time had passed , issued it forth in a steady stream like an <unk> volcano . 
 Ali 's longstanding finale was the swallowing of copious amounts of water again , but this time followed by a pint of kerosene . A prop was then produced , typically a model castle or house made of metal set on a table , within which a small flame burned . <unk> than water and <unk> with it , the kerosene floated above the liquid in Ali 's gut , allowing him to <unk> it first . The stage thus set , and to a drum roll or an imitation of fire bells , Ali became a " human flamethrower " , <unk> the <unk> in a long stream over the sacrificial prop , setting it <unk> . Once the kerosene was exhausted , the water followed , streaming out his mouth in a long flow from up to six feet away , <unk> the fire . 
 At some performances , a panel or " jury " from the audience was invited on stage to verify that no trick mechanism was being employed — that he was actually swallowing the items in question and delivering them back through acts of regurgitation . Sometimes Ali would <unk> into the audience during his nut swallowing trick . His stomach exposed by his standard costume , he invited audience members to pat his stomach , allowing them to hear the nuts <unk> within . One newspaper reported that Ali 's feats , essentially controlled vomiting , were performed in " a manner without the least bit of <unk> or anything bordering on <unk> . " Not everyone felt the same : at least one of Ali 's engagements was cut short once the proprietor realized that the nature of the act " was killing their supper shows " . <unk> <unk> and magician Harry <unk> remarked in his 1920 work Miracle <unk> and Their Methods that water spouting was a " performance that could not fail to disgust a modern audience . " 
 The abilities of Ali fascinated the public and medical authorities . As reported in a 1928 <unk> Press article , at one of Ali 's acts a number of doctors attended and thoroughly examined him during the performance . They came away satisfied that he was actually <unk> and <unk> the material and objects as claimed , but remained " <unk> over his extraordinary performance . " According to an article appearing in the <unk> Daily News , " <unk> of three continents have puzzled over the <unk> mechanism of this human ostrich without success . X @-@ ray experiments have been made during his exhibition without a plausible explanation forthcoming that <unk> the critical , in fact , the profession of surgery has thrown up its hands in <unk> over this human ostrich . " 
 
 = = Film appearances = = 
 
 Ali 's act was captured in two films : the 1930 short Strange as It Seems , and Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the expanded Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's <unk> Come Home . Ali also had a bit part as the " Turkish <unk> " in Warner Bros. ' 1932 film Scarlet Dawn starring Douglas <unk> , Jr. and Nancy Carroll . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's <unk> ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville , a documentary produced by <unk> @-@ TV that exhibits 90 vaudeville acts over a two @-@ hour running time . The documentary has since aired on the Public Broadcasting Service 's American Masters series numerous times . 
 Speaking about the democratic nature of the vaudeville performance circuit , Vaudeville 's writer and executive producer said in reference to Ali that the film " embraced everything from <unk> to a guy who threw up . " By contrast , in episode 30 of the Sundance Channel television program <unk> , magician David Blaine speaks enthusiastically of Ali . During the episode , Blaine shows artist Chuck Close Ali 's kerosene and water finale footage from Politiquerias and comments that Ali is his " favorite magician ... it 's real but nobody 's been able to do it since ... his name was Hadji Ali ... he 's my favorite of all time . " 
 
 = = Death = = 
 
 Ali died on November 5 , 1937 , in Wolverhampton , England , from heart failure during a bout of <unk> . Even before his death , a rumor had circulated that the Rockefeller Institute sought to procure Ali 's stomach upon his death , and would pay as much as $ 50 @,@ 000 for it . This claim appeared in a poster advertising Ali 's impending appearance at a theater during his lifetime . After Ali 's death was reported , the rumor resurfaced as an active offer of $ 10 @,@ 000 . When a Rockefeller Institute manager was interviewed about the story , he said the offer had never been made but that nevertheless , " we should very much like to see the body . " Almina and Julian transported Ali 's body back to the United States on board the Queen Mary . According to a November 29 , 1937 article in the New York Post , upon their arrival , Almina offered her father 's body to Maryland 's Johns Hopkins University for investigation by <unk> , after which it would be transported to Egypt for interment in a mausoleum . However , The Afro @-@ American newspaper reported on December 11 , 1937 , that Johns Hopkins ' officials had declined the offer . 
 
 
 = Battle of Tellicherry = 
 
 The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action fought off the Indian port of Tellicherry between British and French warships on 18 November 1791 during the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Britain and France were not at war at the time of the engagement , but French support for the Kingdom of Mysore in the conflict with the British East India Company had led to Royal Navy patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore . When a French convoy from Mahé passed the British port of Tellicherry in November 1791 , Commodore William Cornwallis sent a small squadron to intercept the French ships . 
 As the British force under Captain Sir Richard Strachan approached the convoy , the escorting frigate Résolue opened fire . A general action followed , with Strachan succeeding in forcing the French ship to surrender within twenty minutes and both sides suffering damage and casualties . All of the French vessels were searched and subsequently returned to Mahé , the local French authorities reacting furiously at what they perceived as a violation of their neutral position . <unk> were sent back to France reporting the action from Commodore Saint @-@ Félix but they evoked little response . Although under normal circumstances the battle might have provoked a diplomatic incident , the upheavals of the ongoing French Revolution meant that the despatches had little effect . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 In December 1789 , after five years of diplomatic wrangling about the terms of the Treaty of Mangalore that had ended the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the ruler of Mysore Tipu Sultan again declared war on the British East India Company and their allies in Southern India . For the next two years the war continued as British forces and their allies drove the Mysore armies back towards the capital of <unk> . Both sides were reliant on supply by sea to maintain their campaigns inland : the British forces were supported from their major ports at Bombay and Madras , later <unk> additional forces at the small port of Tellicherry inside Mysore territory . The Mysorean forces were supplied through Mangalore by French ships . France had been an ally of the Tipu Sultan 's father <unk> Ali during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War and although the political instability caused by the French Revolution in Europe prevented active involvement , they ensured that their ships kept up a supply of equipment to Mysore throughout the war . 
 In an effort to eliminate French support Commodore William Cornwallis , the British naval commander in the region , stationed a squadron of frigates at Tellicherry , where they were ideally situated to blockade Mangalore and prevent the passage of shipping into Mysorean territory . The squadron consisted of Cornwallis in HMS Minerva , Captain Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Phoenix and HMS <unk> under Captain Isaac Smith . The French operated a squadron of their own on the coast , led by Commodore Saint @-@ Félix and consisting of two frigates based at Mahé , a small French port 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of Tellicherry . The French had communicated to the British at Tellicherry that they would not submit to any attempts to search their vessels , but Strachan and Cornwallis replied that they would enforce the blockade of Mangalore whatever the consequences . 
 
 = = Battle = = 
 
 In November 1791 , a French convoy sailed from Mahé on the short journey to Mangalore . The convoy included two merchant vessels and the frigate Résolue , a 36 @-@ gun warship under Captain <unk> . Passing northwards , the convoy soon passed Tellicherry and Cornwallis sent Strachan with Phoenix and <unk> to stop and inspect the French ships to ensure they were not carrying military supplies . As Smith halted the merchant ships and sent boats to inspect them , Strachan did the same to Résolue , <unk> the French captain and placing an officer in a small boat to board the frigate . The French captain was outraged at this violation of his neutrality , and responded by opening fire : British sources suggest that his initial target was the small boat , although Phoenix was the ship most immediately damaged . 
 Strachan was <unk> at the French reaction , and returned fire immediately , the proximity of the ships preventing any manoeuvres . Within twenty minutes the combat was decided , the French captain <unk> down his colours with his ship battered and more than 60 men wounded or dead . The French ship carried significantly weaker cannon than Phoenix , with 6 and 12 pounder guns to the 9 and 18 pounders aboard the British squadron . In addition , Résolue was heavily outnumbered : no other French warships were in the area while the British had three large frigates within sight . French losses eventually totalled 25 men killed and 60 wounded , Strachan suffering just six killed and 11 wounded in return . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 With the enemy subdued , Strachan ordered a thorough search of the captured vessels , but could find no <unk> and returned control to the French commander . The French officer however refused , insisting that he and his ship were treated as prisoners of war . Cornwallis ordered the merchant ships released to continue their journey and for the frigate to be towed back to Mahé , where it was anchored in the roads with its sails and <unk> struck . <unk> was subsequently made at Mahé by Strachan for the wounded French sailors . Soon afterwards Saint @-@ Félix arrived at Mahé in his frigate <unk> and reacted furiously at the discovery that one of his neutral ships had been attacked and captured by the British . When Cornwallis insisted that his ships had been acting within their orders , Saint @-@ Félix promised <unk> if any of his vessels were attacked again and withdrew with both <unk> and Résolue later in the day , followed by Minerva and Phoenix . One account reported that Saint @-@ Félix actually ordered his crew to fire on Cornwallis but that they refused . The British shadowed the French for several days , openly stopping and searching French merchant ships but without provoking a response from Saint @-@ Félix . Résolue and Phoenix were subsequently detached by their commanders , Cornwallis and Saint @-@ Félix remaining in contact for several more days before finally separating . 
 News of the encounter was conveyed back to France , but the country was at this time in one of the most turbulent eras of the ongoing Revolution and little notice was taken of events in India . Historian William James notes that under normal political circumstances the action would have had more significant ramifications , while Edward Pelham Brenton claims that the French deliberately ignored the report out of fear of <unk> Britain . In Britain , the Admiralty approved of Cornwallis ' actions , suggesting that the French were deliberately using the guise of trade to support Mysore against Britain . The action had no effect on the ongoing war in India , which was now centred on the inland city of <unk> . As British forces closed on the city in February 1792 , the Tipu Sultan initiated peace talks which brought the war to an end in exchange for concessions to the Company and its Indian allies . 
 
 
 = Loose ( Nelly Furtado album ) = 
 
 Loose is the third studio album by Canadian singer and songwriter Nelly Furtado , released on 6 June 2006 by Geffen Records and the Mosley Music Group . Following the release of Furtado 's second album , Folklore ( 2003 ) through DreamWorks Records , it was announced that Universal Music Group would acquire DreamWorks Records , the later was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella where Furtado would release any new music . Timbaland and his protégé Danja produced the bulk of the album , which incorporates influences of dance , R & B and hip hop . The album explores the theme of female sexuality and has been described as introspective or even sad in parts . 
 The album received criticism because of the sexual image Furtado adopted for the recording , as some critics felt it was a ploy to sell more records . Further controversy rose over accusations of plagiarism on Timbaland 's part in the song " Do It " ( which contained the melody from Finnish musician <unk> <unk> 's song " <unk> Evening " without proper authorization ) when recordings were leaked onto YouTube . The record was seen generally as critically and commercially successful . It reached high positions on charts across the world , and according to an August 2009 press release , it had sold more than 12 million copies worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling album of 2006 – 07 and the twenty @-@ second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s . 
 The album was heavily promoted , released in several editions and supported by the Get Loose Tour , which is the subject of the concert DVD Loose : The Concert . " Loose " debuted at number one , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart along with eight singles were released from the album , including the US number @-@ one singles " Promiscuous " and " Say It Right " , which received Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , respectively . Other successful singles include the UK number @-@ one single " Maneater " and the European number one single " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Furtado 's second album , Folklore , was released in November 2003 . The lead single is " <unk> ( Say What You Want ) " and the second single is the ballad " Try " . The album was not as successful as her debut , partly due to the album 's less " poppy " sound . " <unk> ( Say What You Want ) " was later remixed , featuring Colombian rocker Juanes , who had previously worked with Furtado on his track " <unk> " ( " <unk> " ) . The two would collaborate again on " Te Busqué " ( " I searched for you " ) , the single from Furtado 's album Loose . The album was <unk> from her label DreamWorks Records ; it was announced on 11 November 2003 that Universal Music Group reached an agreement to acquire DreamWorks Records from DreamWorks <unk> for " about $ 100 million " . The purchase came at a time when the music business was " going through major changes " as it struggled to " counter falling sales and the impact of unofficial online music sales " . DreamWorks Records was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella label in January 2004 . Furtado 's recording contract was then absorbed into Geffen Records . 
 
 = = Recording = = 
 
 Furtado began work on Loose by holding with <unk> <unk> what she referred to as a " hip @-@ hop workshop " , in which they would " write rhymes , <unk> them , and try different flows over beats . " The first producers she worked with were Track & Field — who co @-@ produced her first two albums , <unk> , Nelly ! ( 2000 ) and Folklore ( 2003 ) — and by May 2005 , she had collaborated with <unk> Members and K <unk> . She worked with <unk> Hooper in London on reggae @-@ oriented material and with Lester <unk> in Los Angeles on acoustic songs . One of the tracks <unk> helped to create is " Te Busqué " , which is co @-@ written by and features Juanes , who collaborated with Furtado on his 2002 song " <unk> " . During her time in Los Angeles , she worked with Rick <unk> , who co @-@ wrote and produced " In God 's Hands " and " Somebody to Love " . 
 In Miami , Florida , Furtado collaborated with <unk> ( who introduced her to reggaeton and who gave her a " shout @-@ out " in his 2005 single " Can I Have It Like That " ) and Scott <unk> ( with whom she recorded a " straight @-@ up rap song " ) before entering the studio with Timbaland . He and his protégé at the time , Danja , co @-@ produced eight of the tracks , with another produced solely by Danja . For some of the beats on the songs , Timbaland finished work on ones already present in the studio that were half @-@ developed or just " <unk> " ; the rest were completely reworked . Furtado recorded around forty tracks for Loose , deciding which she would include based on the <unk> of the album — she called Timbaland " a sonic extraterrestrial " who came up with a sequence of songs that flowed , and said that the one she had devised was supposedly unsatisfactory . She recorded an unreleased collaboration with Justin Timberlake , " <unk> Control " , which she described as " kind of sexy " and " a cute , <unk> , upbeat , fun track " . Other songs considered for inclusion on the album include " <unk> Boy " , " Friend of Mine " , " Go " , " Hands in the Air " , " Pretty Boy " , " Vice " and " <unk> " . 
 Furtado said in her diary on her official website that she recorded a remix of " Maneater " with rapper Lil Wayne ; it was only released as part of a compilation album , Timbaland 's Remix & Soundtrack Collection , she also used the instrumental of the song during many television performances of " Maneater " . A version of " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " featuring vocals by Coldplay lead singer Chris Martin , who co @-@ wrote the song , was not released after a request from Martin 's label , EMI . The song was released on the album , but only Furtado 's vocals are featured . Furtado explained that " Loose was 90 percent written with a beat first , and then I ’ d write my melodies and songs to the beat . " 
 
 = = Post @-@ production = = 
 
 The " off @-@ the @-@ cuff " conclusion to production was one of the reasons the album was titled Loose . It was named partly after the spontaneous decisions she made when creating the album . The album is also called Loose because it is " the opposite of calculated " and came naturally to Furtado and Timbaland ; she called him her " distant musical cousin because he was always pushing boundaries and always carving out his own path " , which she believed she was doing with Loose . " I think you have to keep surprising people as an artist , and I like that — I love doing that " , she said . Loose was also named partly for the R & B girl group TLC , who Furtado said she <unk> for " taking back their sexuality , showing they were complete women . " She said she wanted the album to be " assertive and cool " and " sexy but fun " , like TLC , MC <unk> , Queen <unk> and Janet Jackson , who inspired Furtado because , as she put it , she was " comfortable in her sexuality and womanhood " when her 1993 single " That 's the Way Love Goes " was released . 
 During the recording of Loose , Furtado listened to several electro and rock musicians , including <unk> Party , System of a Down , M.I.A. , <unk> , Queens of the Stone Age , <unk> and Death from Above 1979 , some of whom influenced the " rock sound " present on the album and the " <unk> , laughing , distorted <unk> " that were kept in the songs deliberately . According to her , music by such bands is " very loud and has a garage theme " to it , some of which she felt she captured on the album . Furtado has said rock music is " rhythmic again " and hip hop @-@ influenced after it had become " so churning and boring . " Because the mixing engineers were aware of Timbaland and Furtado 's rock influences , the songs were mixed on a mixing board in the studio instead of " the fancy mixer at the end " . Furtado said she preferred the louder volume that process gave to the album because she wanted it to sound like her demo tapes , which she prefers to her finished albums . She said , " It didn 't have that final wash over it ; it didn 't have the final pressing at the end , save for a couple sounds " . 
 
 = = Music and lyrics = = 
 
 Furtado said that with the release of her albums before Loose , she had wanted to prove herself as a musician and earn respect from listeners through using many different instruments on an album , which most hip hop musicians did not do . After she believed she had accomplished that , she felt she had freedom to make the type of music she " really love [ d ] " . Furtado said her previous problem with hip hop was that she did not think it was good enough to base one of her albums on , but that she then asked herself why she was being " pretentious " . The album represents her separating from such notions and , in her words , " jumping in the deep end of the pool — ' <unk> , screw it , this is fun ! ' " . Furtado said she considers herself " all over the map " and <unk> musically because she is not faithful to one style . 
 For the first time , Furtado worked with a variety of record producers and followed a more collaborative approach in creating the album . Produced primarily by Timbaland and Danja , Loose showcases Furtado experimenting with a more R & B – hip hop sound and , as she put it , the " surreal , theatrical elements of ' 80s music " . She has categorized the album 's sound as punk @-@ hop , which she describes as <unk> @-@ influenced " modern , poppy , <unk> music " and stated that " there 's a mysterious , after @-@ midnight vibe to [ it ] that 's extremely visceral " . Furtado has described the album as " more urban , more American , more hip @-@ hop , [ and ] more simplified " than her earlier work , which she said was more layered and textured because she " tend [ s ] to <unk> things " . In contrast , during her studio time with Timbaland , she said she was " in the <unk> boys club of just letting go " and being more impulsive . According to Furtado , instead of " pristine stuff " , the album features " really raw " elements such as distorted bass lines , laughter from studio outtakes and general " room for error " . Furtado has said Loose is not as much about the lyrics , which are not included in the liner notes , as it is about " <unk> in pleasures — whether it 's dancing or <unk> . " According to her , she wasn 't trying to be sexy with the album — " I think I just am sexy now " , she said . 
 
 = = Songs = = 
 
 The opening track , " <unk> " ( featuring rapper <unk> ) , is a description of Furtado 's fear of what people think of her , and she has said the chorus reminds her of " walking down the hall in high school ... because you live from the outside in . Now that I 'm an adult , I care about the inside of me ... Before I said I didn 't care about what people thought about me , but I really did . " " Maneater " is an uptempo electro rock song that combines 1980s electro synths and a more dance @-@ oriented beat . The up @-@ tempo song has prominent electropop and synthpop influences and is lyrically related to how people become " hot on themselves " when dancing in their <unk> in front of a mirror . " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was inspired by a flirting exchange Furtado had with <unk> , who co @-@ wrote the song 
 She has characterised the fifth track , " <unk> " , as " a proper R & B slow jam " . " No Hay Igual " is a hip hop and reggaeton song , that has a <unk> tongue <unk> over " future @-@ <unk> " beats . The song contains a " sharp mix " of percussion and " empowered chanting " . In " No Hay Igual " , Furtado sings in Spanish and raps in Portuguese over a reggaeton rhythm . The album also features more introspective songs , and The Sunday Times wrote that it " has a surprising sadness to it . " The seventh track , " Te Busqué " , which features Latin singer Juanes , is about Furtado 's experiences with depression , which she said she has had periodically since she was around seventeen years old . Furtado said she was unsure what " Say It Right " is about , but that it encapsulates her feeling when she wrote it and " <unk> into this other sphere " ; in an interview for The Sunday Times , it was mentioned that it is about her breakup with DJ Jasper <unk> , the father of her daughter . " In God 's Hands " , another song on the album , was also inspired by the end of their relationship . 
 
 = = Singles = = 
 
 In April 2006 , a remix of " No Hay Igual " featuring Calle 13 was issued as a club single in the US . During the same period , " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was released for digital download in North America . Promiscuous became Furtado 's first single to top the US Billboard Hot 100 and was released in Australia , where it reached the top five . The lead single in Europe and Latin America , " Maneater " , was released in late May to early June 2006 . It became Furtado 's first single to top the UK Singles Chart and made the top ten in other countries ; it reached the top five in Germany and the top twenty in France and Latin America . The second single in Europe , " Promiscuous " , was released in late August to early September 2006 but it did not perform as well as " Maneater " . It peaked inside the top five in the UK and the top ten in other countries , including Germany , and it reached the top twenty in France . During the same period , " Maneater " began its run as the second single in North America ; it was not as successful as " Promiscuous " , reaching number twenty @-@ two in Canada and the top twenty in the US , though it became a top five single on the ARIA Singles Chart . 
 Releases of the third North American single , " Say It Right " , and the third Europe single , " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " , took place in November and December , and the third Latin American single , " Promiscuous " , was released in January 2007 . " Say It Right " went to number one in the US and on the Nielsen BDS airplay chart in Canada ( where it was not given a commercial release ) , and it reached the top five in Australia . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " reached number one on the pan @-@ European singles chart and the top five in the UK , and it was the album 's most successful single in Germany , where it topped the chart , and in France , where it became a top ten hit . After the release of " Say It Right " in Europe in March 2007 , the single reached the top five in Germany and the top ten in the UK , where it was a download @-@ only release . The video for " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " was released in North America during this period . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " peaked in the top five in Canada and in the top twenty in Australia , though it only reached the lower half of the US Hot 100 . 
 The album 's fifth and final UK single was " In God 's Hands " , and the fifth and final single in North America was " Do It " . In May 2007 , Furtado mentioned the possibility of a sixth or seventh single , mentioning the examples of Nickelback 's All the Right Reasons and The Pussycat Dolls ' <unk> as albums that were being supported by seven singles at the time . Furtado said she liked the possibility because she thought Loose was good and " want [ ed ] people to hear as much of it as possible " before she took time off . Two other songs , " Te Busqué " and " No Hay Igual " , were released as singles in other regions of the world . " Te Busqué " was the lead single in Spain because of the limited success hip @-@ hop / R & B @-@ influenced songs in the style of " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " achieved in the country . It was not released in the United States , but it was given airplay on Latin music radio stations and reached the top forty on Billboard 's Latin Pop Airplay chart . The " No Hay Igual " remix featuring Calle 13 was released in Latin America , and the music video debuted in September . 
 
 = = Release and promotion = = 
 
 The album was first released in Japan on 7 June 2006 through Universal Music Group before being released two days later in Germany . In the United Kingdom Loose was released on 12 June 2006 via Geffen Records and was released eight days later on 20 June 2006 in Canada and the United States . 
 In 2007 the album was re @-@ released in Germany . The re @-@ release included bonus content . 
 During the promotion of Loose , Furtado performed at major music festivals and award shows . In Europe , she appeared at Rock am Ring and Rock @-@ <unk> @-@ Park in Germany and the <unk> Festival in the Netherlands in June 2006 . She performed in Canada at the Calgary <unk> , the Ottawa <unk> in July , and at the <unk> Music Festival in September . Shortly after her August 2006 performance at the Summer Sonic in Japan , she sang at the Teen Choice Awards . In November , she contributed to the entertainment during the World Music Awards , the American Music Awards and the 94th Grey Cup halftime show . She performed at the 2007 <unk> Music Awards , held in January 2007 . 
 Furtado embarked on a world concert tour , the Get Loose Tour , on 16 February 2007 in the UK , in support of the album ; the tour included thirty @-@ one dates in Europe and Canada , with additional shows in the US , Japan , Australia and Latin America . Furtado described the show as a " full sensory experience " with " a beginning , middle and end ... [ it ] takes you on a journey " , also stressing the importance of crowd involvement and " spontaneity and <unk> , because those are my roots , you know ? I started by doing club shows , and that 's the energy I love , the raw club energy of just feeling like you 're rocking out . " Though Furtado said choreographed dance routines were to be included in the show , she described it as " music @-@ based ... Everything else is just to keep it sophisticated and sensual and fun . " Furtado said she hoped to have Chris Martin , Juanes , Justin Timberlake , Timbaland and Calle 13 to guest on the tour , and have a " revolving door " of opening acts with Latin musicians opening in the US . 
 
 = = Commercial performance = = 
 
 Loose debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling more than 34 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , at that time the year 's strongest debut for a Canadian artist . In late July , after Furtado embarked on a short tour of Canada and made a guest appearance on the television show Canadian Idol , the album returned to number one . It subsequently stayed near the top of the album chart until late January 2007 , when it reached number one again for two weeks . It was the third best @-@ selling album of 2006 in Canada , and the highest selling by a female solo artist , with 291 @,@ 700 copies sold . The Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) certified Loose five times platinum in May 2007 for shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . It stayed in the top twenty for fifty @-@ seven weeks . 
 The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart with first @-@ week sales of 219 @,@ 000 ; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and ranked sixty @-@ fourth on the Billboard 2006 year @-@ end chart . Loose exited the US top ten in August 2006 but re @-@ entered it in March 2007 , and according to Nielsen SoundScan in October 2007 , it had sold two million units . The album ranked thirty @-@ second on the Billboard 2007 year @-@ end chart . 
 In the United Kingdom , Loose entered the albums chart at number five ; in its forty @-@ third week , it reached number four , and it was certified double platinum for shipments to retailers of more than 600 @,@ 000 copies . As of July 2007 , it had sold roughly <unk> @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The record was certified two times platinum in Australia for more than 140 @,@ 000 units shipped ; it reached number four there and was placed forty @-@ fourth on the Australian Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) list of 2006 bestsellers . The album entered the chart in Germany at number one , spent a record forty @-@ nine weeks in the German top ten , and was certified five times platinum . Loose reached number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart in early 2007 , spending ten non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one . By March 2007 , it had been certified gold or platinum in twenty @-@ five countries . According to a Geffen Records press release , Loose had sold more than seven million copies by November 2007 . 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 Loose received generally positive reviews from music critics ; it holds an average score of 71 out of 100 at aggregate website Metacritic . AllMusic and musicOMH cited the " <unk> " effect of Timbaland on Furtado 's music , and The Guardian called it " slick , smart and surprising . " Q found most of it to be " an <unk> , hip @-@ hop @-@ <unk> delight . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that " the music and the lyrics are mainly aimed at dance floors , and yet this album keeps reminding listeners that a dance floor is one of the most complicated places on earth . " In its review , AllMusic wrote " It 's on this final stretch of the album that the Furtado and Timbaland pairing seems like a genuine collaboration , staying true to the Nelly of her first two albums , but given an adventurous production that helps open her songs up ... Timbaland has <unk> Nelly Furtado both creatively and commercially with Loose " . She won her first BRIT Award — Best International Female — in 2007 . 
 In a mixed review , Nick <unk> of The Village Voice felt that Furtado " <unk> up a bit too <unk> " and lacks " chemistry " with Timbaland , writing that Loose " isn 't a love child , but a bump @-@ and @-@ grind that never finds a groove " . Vibe stated , " she loses herself in Gwen Stefani – like posturing , as on “ <unk> , ” and ethnic <unk> like “ No Hay Igual ” or “ Te Busqué . " In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave the album a " B " and named it " <unk> of the month " , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . " Christgau viewed that its dance @-@ oriented tracks " might accomplish God 's great plan on the dance @-@ floor . But as songs they 're not much " . 
 
 = = Impact = = 
 
 <unk> attention was generated by the more sexual image of Furtado presented in promotion and publicity for the album , and in particular the music videos for " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " , in which she dances around with her <unk> exposed . According to Maclean 's magazine , some said that Furtado 's progression was a natural transformation of a pop singer ; others believed that she had " sold out " in an effort to garner record sales , particularly after her second album was a commercial failure in comparison to her first . Maclean 's wrote that her makeover " seems a bit forced " and contrasted her with singers such as Madonna and Emily <unk> of <unk> : " [ they ] seem to be completely in control , even somewhat intimidating in their sexuality : they 've made a calculated decision for commercial and feminist reasons . In contrast , Furtado 's new , overt sexuality comes off as unoriginal — <unk> by thousands of <unk> pop stars with a quarter of Furtado 's natural talent ... the <unk> feels as if it 's been imposed rather than chosen by the unique , articulate singer we 've seen in the past . " 
 <unk> magazine wrote that Furtado 's new " highly <unk> " image was manufactured , and noted the involvement in the album 's development of Geffen 's Jimmy <unk> , who helped to develop the Pussycat Dolls , a girl group known for their sexually <unk> dance routines . The writer also criticised Furtado 's discussion of her buttocks and apparent rejection of <unk> in a Blender magazine interview , writing : " Girls , do you hear that churning ? Those are the ideas of Gloria <unk> turning in their grave . " A writer for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation said that <unk> could attribute Furtado 's commercial success with Loose to her " <unk> @-@ up sex appeal . " The writer added that , the failure of Janet Jackson 's album <unk> Jo ( 2004 ) indicated such a move was not <unk> . Furtado was " still demure compared to many of her competitors " — she avoided sporting lingerie or performing " Christina Aguilera @-@ style <unk> or <unk> " in the " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " videos . " Despite its dramatic arrival ... Furtado 's new image doesn ’ t feel calculated " , he said . " [ She ] seems to be thinking less and feeling more , to the benefit of her music . " 
 In early 2007 , a video hosted on YouTube led to reports that the song " Do It " , and the Timbaland @-@ produced ringtone " Block Party " that inspired it , used — without authorization — the melody from Finnish <unk> musician <unk> " Tempest " <unk> 's song " <unk> Evening " , winner of the Assembly 2000 <unk> music competition . Timbaland used the record of <unk> adaptation of the song written by Glenn <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) . Timbaland admitted sampling the song , but said that he had no time to research its intellectual owner . <unk> <unk> , a Finnish representative of Universal which represents Nelly Furtado in Finland , commented the controversy as follows in the 15 January 2007 issue of <unk> ; " In case that the artist decides to pursue the matter further , it 's on him to go to America and confront them with the local use of law . It will require a considerable amount of faith and , of course , money . " On 9 February 2007 , Timbaland commented on the issue in an MTV interview : " It makes me laugh . The part I don 't understand , the <unk> is trying to act like I went to his house and took it from his computer . I don 't know him from a can of paint . I 'm 15 years deep . That 's how you attack a king ? You attack <unk> ? Come on , man . You got to come correct . You the laughing stock . People are like , ' You can 't be serious . ' " 
 On 12 June 2009 , <unk> <unk> , who is one of the legal <unk> of <unk> Records , the owner of the sound recording rights , reported that the case had been filed in Florida . In January 2008 , Turkish newspapers reported that <unk> <unk> , the record label that released Turkish folk singer <unk> <unk> 's album Ya <unk> Ya <unk> , pressed charges against Furtado for the Loose track " <unk> for You " , which label officials said features the <unk> instrumental part of <unk> 's song " Allah Allah <unk> <unk> . " 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Notes 
 ^ a signifies a vocal producer 
 
 = = Personnel = = 
 
 
 = = = Production = = = 
 
 Credits adapted from the Loose liner notes . 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 = = Certifications = = 
 
 
 = = Release history = = 
 
 
 
 = 2013 – 14 York City F.C. season = 
 
 The 2013 – 14 season was the <unk> season of competitive association football and 77th season in the Football League played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their 17th @-@ place finish in 2012 – 13 meant it was their second consecutive season in League Two . The season ran from 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014 . 
 Nigel Worthington , starting his first full season as York manager , made eight permanent summer signings . By the turn of the year York were only above the relegation zone on goal difference , before a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run saw the team finish in seventh @-@ place in the 24 @-@ team 2013 – 14 Football League Two . This meant York qualified for the play @-@ offs , and they were eliminated in the semi @-@ final by Fleetwood Town . York were knocked out of the 2013 – 14 FA Cup , Football League Cup and Football League Trophy in their opening round matches . 
 35 players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were 12 different <unk> . Defender Ben Davies missed only five of the fifty @-@ two competitive matches played over the season . Wes Fletcher finished as leading scorer with 13 goals , of which 10 came in league competition and three came in the FA Cup . The winner of the <unk> of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was <unk> Oyebanjo . 
 
 = = Background and pre @-@ season = = 
 
 The 2012 – 13 season was York City 's first season back in the Football League , having won the Conference Premier play @-@ offs in 2011 – 12 after <unk> years in the Football Conference . Manager Gary Mills was sacked in March 2013 following an 11 @-@ match run without a victory , and was replaced by former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington . Despite being in the relegation zone with three matches remaining , Worthington led the team to safety from relegation after a 1 – 0 win away to Dagenham & Redbridge on the final day of the season . York finished the season in 17th @-@ place in the 2012 – 13 League Two table . 
 Following the previous season 's conclusion Lee <unk> , Jon <unk> , Chris <unk> , Ben Everson , Scott Kerr , David <unk> , Patrick <unk> , Michael Potts , Jamie Reed and Jason Walker were released by York , while <unk> Blair departed for Fleetwood Town . David McGurk , <unk> Oyebanjo , Danny Parslow , Tom Platt and Chris Smith signed new contracts with the club . New players signed ahead of the start of the season were goalkeeper Chris <unk> on a season @-@ long loan from Blackpool , defender Ben Davies on loan from Preston North End , midfielders Craig Clay from Chesterfield and Lewis Montrose from Gillingham , winger <unk> Puri from St <unk> and strikers Ryan Bowman from Hereford United , Richard Cresswell from Sheffield United , Wes Fletcher from Burnley and Ryan Jarvis from Torquay United . Defender Mike Atkinson and striker Chris Dickinson entered the first @-@ team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts . 
 York retained the previous season 's home and away kits . The home kit comprised red shirts with white sleeves , light blue shorts and white socks . The away kit included light blue shirts with white sleeves , white shorts and light blue socks . <unk> Health continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season . 
 
 = = Review = = 
 
 
 = = = August = = = 
 
 York began the season with a 1 – 0 home win over the previous season 's play @-@ off finalists , Northampton Town , with <unk> Jarvis scoring the winning goal in the 90th @-@ minute . However , defeat came in York 's match against Championship side Burnley in the first round of the League Cup , going down 4 – 0 at home . The team endured their first league defeat of the season in the following game after being beaten 2 – 0 away by Dagenham & Redbridge , the home team scoring in each half . York then held Hartlepool United to a 0 – 0 home draw , before being beaten 3 – 2 away by Bristol Rovers , in which Jarvis scored twice before John @-@ Joe O 'Toole scored the winning goal for the home team in the 67th @-@ minute . Two signings were made shortly before the transfer deadline ; defender George Taft was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Leicester City , while Middlesbrough midfielder Ryan Brobbel joined on a one @-@ month loan . <unk> John <unk> , who had been told he had no future with the club , departed after signing for FC Halifax Town . Jarvis gave York the lead away at Exeter City before Alan <unk> scored in each half to see the home team win 2 – 1 . 
 
 = = = September = = = 
 
 York suffered their first home league defeat of the season after AFC Wimbledon won 2 – 0 , with Michael Smith scoring in each half . Former Ipswich Town midfielder Josh Carson , who had a spell on loan with York the previous season , signed a contract until the end of 2013 – 14 and Sheffield United midfielder Elliott <unk> signed on a one @-@ month loan . Brobbel opened the scoring in the second minute of his home debut against Mansfield Town , although the away team went on to score twice to win 2 – 1 . York 's run of four defeats ended following a 1 – 1 draw away to Wycombe Wanderers , in which McGurk gave York the lead before the home team levelled through Dean Morgan . Taft was sent back to Leicester after he fell behind McGurk , Parslow and Smith in the pecking order for a central defensive berth . York achieved their first win since the opening day of the season after beating Portsmouth 4 – 2 at home , with Fletcher ( 2 ) , Montrose and Jarvis scoring . 
 
 = = = October = = = 
 
 Defender Luke O 'Neill was signed from Burnley on a 28 @-@ day emergency loan . He made his debut in York 's 3 – 0 win away at Torquay , which was the team 's first successive win of the season . York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the second round after being beaten 3 – 0 at home by League One team Rotherham United , before their winning streak in the league was ended with a 3 – 0 defeat away to Newport County . York drew 2 – 2 away to Chesterfield , having taken a two @-@ goal lead through O 'Neill and Jarvis , before the home team fought back through Armand <unk> and Jay O <unk> . The team then hosted Fleetwood Town , and the visitors won 2 – 0 with goals scored in each half by Gareth Evans and <unk> Matt . Scunthorpe United were beaten 4 – 1 at home to end York 's three @-@ match run without a win , with all the team 's goals coming in the first half from Carson , Fletcher and Brobbel ( 2 ) . 
 
 = = = November = = = 
 
 Bowman scored his first goals for York away to Cheltenham Town , as York twice fought back from behind to draw 2 – 2 . York drew 3 – 3 away to Bristol Rovers to earn a first round replay in the FA Cup , taking the lead through Jarvis before Eliot Richards equalised for the home team . Carson scored a 30 yard volley to put York back in the lead , and after Bristol Rovers goals from Matt <unk> and Chris <unk> , Fletcher scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser for York . Bowman scored with a header from an O 'Neill cross to open the scoring at home to Plymouth Argyle , which was the first goal the visitors had conceded in 500 minutes of action . However , Plymouth equalised 11 minutes later through <unk> <unk> and the match finished a 1 – 1 draw . York were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 3 – 2 at home to Bristol Rovers in a first round replay ; the visitors were 3 – 0 up by 50 @-@ minutes before Fletcher pulled two back for York with a penalty and a long @-@ range strike . 
 Defender Keith Lowe , of Cheltenham , and goalkeeper Nick Pope , of Charlton Athletic , were signed on loan until January 2014 . They both played in York 's first league defeat in four weeks , 2 – 1 away , to Southend United . <unk> <unk> gave Southend the lead early into the match and Bowman equalised for York with a low strike during the second half , before Luke Prosser scored the winning goal for the home side in stoppage time . With Pope preferred in goal , <unk> returned to Blackpool on his own accord , although his loan agreement would stay in place until January 2014 . York then drew 0 – 0 away to Morecambe . After Pope was recalled from his loan by Charlton , York signed Wolverhampton Wanderers goalkeeper Aaron McCarey on loan until January 2014 . McCarey kept a clean sheet in York 's 0 – 0 home draw with Rochdale . 
 
 = = = December = = = 
 
 Cresswell retired from playing as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . York drew 1 – 1 away to Burton Albion , with an own goal scored by Shane <unk> @-@ <unk> giving York the lead in the 64th @-@ minute before the home team equalised eight minutes later through Billy <unk> . Atkinson was released after failing to force himself into the first team and signed for Scarborough Athletic , with whom he had been on loan . York drew 0 – 0 at home with second @-@ placed Oxford United , in which Carson came closest to scoring with a volley that <unk> across the face of the goal . This was followed by another draw after the match away to Accrington Stanley finished 1 – 1 , with the home team <unk> 10 minutes after a Fletcher penalty had given York the lead in the 35th @-@ minute . Striker <unk> McDonald , who had been released by Peterborough United , was signed on a contract until the end of the season . York 's last match of 2013 was a 2 – 1 defeat away at Bury , a result that ended York 's run of consecutive draws at five . The home team were 2 – 0 up by the 19th @-@ minute , before Michael Coulson scored York 's goal in the 73rd @-@ minute . This result meant York would begin 2014 in 22nd @-@ position in the table , only out of the relegation zone on goal difference . 
 
 = = = January = = = 
 
 Jarvis scored the only goal in York 's first win since October 2013 , a 1 – 0 home victory over Morecambe on New Year 's Day . McCarey was recalled by Wolverhampton Wanderers due to an injury to one of their <unk> , while O 'Neill was recalled by Burnley to take part in their FA Cup match . York achieved back @-@ to @-@ back wins for the first time since October 2013 after Dagenham & Redbridge were beaten 3 – 1 at home , with Bowman opening the scoring in the second half before Fletcher scored twice . Adam Reed , who had a spell on loan with York in the previous season , was signed on a contract until the end of the season after parting company with Burton . Davies ' loan was extended , while Brobbel and <unk> returned to their parent clubs . Cheltenham club captain Russell Penn , a midfielder , was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Lowe was subsequently signed permanently from Cheltenham on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Having been allowed to leave the club on a free transfer , Ashley Chambers signed for Conference Premier club Cambridge United . 
 York achieved three successive wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 after beating Northampton 2 – 0 away , with Bowman and Fletcher scoring in three @-@ second half minutes . Defender John McCombe was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract following his release from Mansfield , before Clay and Jamal <unk> left York by mutual consent . Pope returned to York on loan from Charlton for the remainder of the season . York 's run of wins ended with a 0 – 0 draw at home to Bristol Rovers , before their first defeat of the year came after losing 2 – 0 away to Hartlepool . Preston winger Will Hayhurst , a Republic of Ireland under @-@ 21 international , was signed on a one @-@ month loan . York fell to a successive defeat for the first time since September 2013 after being beaten 2 – 0 at home by Chesterfield . Shortly after the match , Smith left the club by mutual consent to pursue first @-@ team football . 
 
 = = = February = = = 
 
 Fletcher scored a 90th @-@ minute winner for York away to Fleetwood in a 2 – 1 win , a result that ended Fleetwood 's five @-@ match unbeaten run . York then drew 0 – 0 at home to fellow mid @-@ table team Cheltenham , before beating Plymouth 4 – 0 away with goals from Fletcher , McCombe ( 2 ) and Carson as the team achieved successive away wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 . York went without scoring for a fourth consecutive home match after drawing 0 – 0 with Southend . Having worn the <unk> since an injury to McGurk , Penn was appointed captain for the rest of the season , a position that had earlier been held by Smith and Parslow . 
 
 = = = March = = = 
 
 York achieved their first home win in five matches after beating Exeter 2 – 1 , with first half goals scored by McCombe and Coulson . Hayhurst 's loan was extended to the end of the season , having impressed in his six appearances for the club . Coulson scored again with the only goal , a 41st @-@ minute header , in York 's 1 – 0 away win over AFC Wimbledon . Bowman scored the only goal with a 32nd @-@ minute penalty as York won 1 – 0 away against Mansfield , in which Fletcher missed the opportunity to extend the lead when his stoppage time penalty was saved by Alan Marriott . York moved one place outside the play @-@ offs with a 2 – 0 home win over Wycombe , courtesy of a second Bowman penalty in as many matches and a Carson goal from the edge of the penalty area . Coulson scored York 's only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over struggling Portsmouth with a low volley in the fifth @-@ minute ; this result meant York moved into the play @-@ offs in seventh @-@ place with eight fixtures remaining . 
 Striker Calvin Andrew , who had been released by Mansfield in January 2014 , was signed on a contract for the remainder of the season . He made his debut as a substitute in York 's 1 – 0 home win over bottom of the table Torquay , in which Hayhurst scored the only goal in the 11th @-@ minute with an 18 yard shot that <unk> off Aaron <unk> . Middlesbrough winger Brobbel rejoined on loan until the end of the season , following an injury to Carson . York 's run of successive wins ended on six matches after a 0 – 0 home draw with Burton , and this result saw York drop out of the play @-@ offs in eighth @-@ place . With the team recording six wins and one draw in March 2014 , including six clean sheets , Worthington was named League Two Manager of the Month . 
 
 = = = April = = = 
 
 Pope made a number of saves as York held league leaders Rochdale to a 0 – 0 away draw , with a point being enough to lift the team back into seventh @-@ place . York were prevented from equalling a club record of eight consecutive clean sheets when Accrington scored a stoppage time equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw , in which York had taken earlier taken the lead with a Coulson penalty . A 1 – 0 win away win over Oxford , which was decided by a second half Coulson penalty , resulted in York moving one place above their opponents and back into seventh @-@ place . York consolidated their place in a play @-@ off position after beating Bury 1 – 0 at home with a fifth @-@ minute goal scored by Lowe from a Hayhurst corner . The result meant York opened up a five @-@ point lead over eighth @-@ placed Oxford with two fixtures remaining . A place in the League Two play @-@ offs was secured following a 1 – 0 win over Newport at home , in which Coulson scored the only goal in the 77th @-@ minute with a 25 yard free kick . Pope earned a nomination for League Two Player of the Month for April 2014 , having conceded only one goal in five matches in that period . 
 
 = = = May = = = 
 
 The league season concluded with an away match against divisional runners @-@ up Scunthorpe ; having gone two goals down York fought back to draw 2 – 2 with goals scored by Brobbel and Andrew . This result meant York finished the season in seventh @-@ place in League Two , and would thus play fourth @-@ placed Fleetwood in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final on the back of a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run . York lost 1 – 0 to Fleetwood in the first leg at <unk> Crescent ; the goal came from former York player <unk> Blair in the 50th @-@ minute , who scored from close range after Antoni <unk> 's shot was blocked on the line . A 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood in the second leg meant York were eliminated 1 – 0 on aggregate , ending the prospect of a second promotion in three seasons . At an awards night held at York Racecourse , Oyebanjo was voted <unk> of the Year for 2013 – 14 . 
 
 = = Summary and aftermath = = 
 
 York mostly occupied the bottom half of the table before the turn of the year , and dropped as low as 23rd in September 2013 . During February 2014 the team broke into the top half of the table and with one match left were in sixth @-@ place . York 's defensive record was the third best in League Two with 41 goals conceded , bettered only by Southend ( 39 ) and Chesterfield ( 40 ) . Davies made the highest number of appearances over the season , appearing in 47 of York 's 52 matches . Fletcher was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with 10 league goals and 13 in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Jarvis with nine goals . 
 After the season ended York released Tom Allan , Andrew , Dickinson , McDonald , Puri and Reed , while McGurk retired from professional football . Bowman and Oyebanjo left to sign for Torquay and Crawley Town respectively while Coulson signed a new contract with the club . York 's summer signings included goalkeeper Jason <unk> from Tranmere Rovers , defenders <unk> <unk> from Dagenham , Marvin McCoy from Wycombe and Dave Winfield from Shrewsbury Town , midfielders <unk> <unk> from Mansfield , Anthony <unk> from Southend and Luke <unk> from Shrewsbury and striker Jake Hyde from <unk> . 
 
 = = Match details = = 
 
 League positions are sourced by <unk> , while the remaining information is referenced individually . 
 
 = = = Football League Two = = = 
 
 
 = = = League table ( part ) = = = 
 
 
 = = = FA Cup = = = 
 
 
 = = = League Cup = = = 
 
 
 = = = Football League Trophy = = = 
 
 
 = = = Football League Two play @-@ offs = = = 
 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 
 = = = In = = = 
 
 <unk> around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York . 
 
 = = = Out = = = 
 
 <unk> around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired . 
 
 = = = Loan in = = = 
 
 
 = = = Loan out = = = 
 
 
 = = Appearances and goals = = 
 
 Source : 
 Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . 
 Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season . 
 Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York . 
 Players listed with no appearances have been in the <unk> squad but only as unused <unk> . 
 Key to positions : <unk> – <unk> ; <unk> – Defender ; <unk> – <unk> ; <unk> – Forward 
 
 
 = Antimony = 
 
 Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb ( from Latin : stibium ) and atomic number 51 . A lustrous gray metalloid , it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) . Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were used for cosmetics ; metallic antimony was also known , but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery . In the West , it was first isolated by <unk> Biringuccio and described in 1540 , although in primitive cultures its powder has been used to cure eye <unk> , as also for eye shadow , since time immemorial , and is often referred to by its Arabic name , kohl . 
 For some time , China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds , with most production coming from the <unk> Mine in <unk> . The industrial methods to produce antimony are roasting and reduction using carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron . 
 The largest applications for metallic antimony are as <unk> material for lead and tin and for lead antimony plates in lead – acid batteries . <unk> lead and tin with antimony improves the properties of the alloys which are used in solders , bullets and plain bearings . Antimony compounds are prominent <unk> for chlorine and <unk> @-@ containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products . An emerging application is the use of antimony in <unk> . 
 
 = = Characteristics = = 
 
 
 = = = Properties = = = 
 
 Antimony is in the nitrogen group ( group 15 ) and has an <unk> of 2 @.@ 05 . As expected from periodic trends , it is more electronegative than tin or <unk> , and less electronegative than <unk> or arsenic . Antimony is stable in air at room temperature , but reacts with oxygen if heated , to form antimony trioxide , <unk> . 
 Antimony is a silvery , lustrous gray metalloid that has a <unk> scale hardness of 3 . Thus pure antimony is too soft to make hard objects ; coins made of antimony were issued in China 's <unk> province in 1931 , but because of their rapid wear , their <unk> was discontinued . Antimony is resistant to attack by acids . 
 Four <unk> of antimony are known : a stable metallic form and three metastable forms ( explosive , black and yellow ) . Elemental antimony is a brittle , silver @-@ white <unk> metalloid . When slowly cooled , molten antimony <unk> in a trigonal cell , <unk> with the gray allotrope of arsenic . A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony <unk> . When <unk> with a sharp implement , an <unk> reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony is formed ; when rubbed with a <unk> in a mortar , a strong detonation occurs . Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of vapor derived from metallic antimony . It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic , it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously . At 100 ° C , it gradually transforms into the stable form . The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable . It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine ( <unk> ) at − 90 ° C. Above this temperature and in ambient light , this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope . 
 Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure ( space group <unk> No. 166 ) in which layers consist of fused <unk> six @-@ membered rings . The nearest and next @-@ nearest neighbors form an irregular <unk> complex , with the three atoms in the same double layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next . This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6 @.@ 697 g / cm3 , but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and <unk> of antimony . 
 
 = = = Isotopes = = = 
 
 Antimony has two stable isotopes : <unk> with a natural abundance of 57 @.@ 36 % and <unk> with a natural abundance of 42 @.@ 64 % . It also has 35 <unk> , of which the longest @-@ lived is <unk> with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 75 years . In addition , 29 metastable states have been characterized . The most stable of these is <unk> with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 76 days . Isotopes that are lighter than the stable <unk> tend to decay by β + decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay , with some exceptions . 
 
 = = = Occurrence = = = 
 
 The abundance of antimony in the Earth 's crust is estimated at 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 5 parts per million , comparable to <unk> at 0 @.@ 5 parts per million and silver at 0 @.@ 07 ppm . Even though this element is not abundant , it is found in over 100 mineral species . Antimony is sometimes found <unk> ( e.g. on Antimony Peak ) , but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) which is the predominant ore mineral . 
 
 = = Compounds = = 
 
 Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state : Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . The + 5 oxidation state is more stable . 
 
 = = = <unk> and <unk> = = = 
 
 Antimony trioxide ( Sb 
 4O 
 6 ) is formed when antimony is burnt in air . In the gas phase , this compound exists as Sb 
 4O 
 6 , but it <unk> upon <unk> . Antimony <unk> ( Sb 
 4O 
 10 ) can only be formed by oxidation by concentrated nitric acid . Antimony also forms a mixed @-@ valence oxide , antimony tetroxide ( Sb 
 2O 
 4 ) , which features both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic , these various oxides are <unk> , do not form well @-@ defined <unk> and react with acids to form antimony salts . 
 <unk> acid Sb ( OH ) 
 3 is unknown , but the <unk> base sodium <unk> ( [ Na 
 <unk> 
 3 ] 
 4 ) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and Sb 
 4O 
 6 . Transition metal <unk> are also known . <unk> acid exists only as the hydrate <unk> ( OH ) 
 6 , forming salts containing the <unk> anion Sb ( OH ) − 
 6 . <unk> metal salts containing this anion yields mixed oxides . 
 Many antimony ores are sulfides , including stibnite ( Sb 
 2S 
 3 ) , <unk> ( <unk> 
 <unk> 
 3 ) , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . Antimony <unk> is non @-@ stoichiometric and features antimony in the + 3 oxidation state and S @-@ S bonds . Several <unk> are known , such as [ Sb 
 <unk> 
 10 ] 2 − and [ Sb 
 <unk> 
 13 ] 2 − . 
 
 = = = Halides = = = 
 
 Antimony forms two series of halides : <unk> 
 3 and <unk> 
 5 . The <unk> SbF 
 3 , SbCl 
 3 , <unk> 
 3 , and <unk> 
 3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry . 
 The <unk> SbF 
 3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb 
 2O 
 3 with HF : 
 Sb 
 2O 
 3 + 6 HF → 2 SbF 
 3 + 3 H 
 2O 
 It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF − 
 4 and <unk> − 
 5 . <unk> SbF 
 3 is a weak electrical conductor . The <unk> SbCl 
 3 is prepared by dissolving Sb 
 2S 
 3 in <unk> acid : 
 Sb 
 2S 
 3 + 6 <unk> → 2 SbCl 
 3 + 3 H 
 2S 
 The <unk> SbF 
 5 and SbCl 
 5 have trigonal <unk> molecular geometry in the gas phase , but in the liquid phase , SbF 
 5 is <unk> , whereas SbCl 
 5 is <unk> . SbF 
 5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the <unk> <unk> acid ( " <unk> " ) . 
 <unk> are more common for antimony than arsenic and phosphorus . Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form <unk> compounds such as <unk> and ( <unk> ) 
 <unk> 
 4 . 
 
 = = = <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> compounds = = = 
 
 Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3 − . Antimony forms antimonides with metals , such as indium antimonide ( <unk> ) and silver antimonide ( <unk> 
 <unk> ) . The alkali metal and zinc antimonides , such as <unk> and <unk> , are more reactive . <unk> these antimonides with acid produces the unstable gas stibine , <unk> 
 3 : 
 Sb3 − + 3 H + → <unk> 
 3 
 <unk> can also be produced by treating Sb3 + salts with hydride reagents such as sodium <unk> <unk> spontaneously at room temperature . Because stibine has a positive heat of formation , it is <unk> unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly . 
 <unk> compounds are typically prepared by <unk> of antimony halides with <unk> reagents . A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) centers , including mixed <unk> @-@ organic derivatives , anions , and <unk> . Examples include Sb ( C6H5 ) 3 ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( C6H5 ) 4 ( with an Sb @-@ Sb bond ) , and cyclic [ Sb ( C6H5 ) ] n . <unk> <unk> compounds are common , examples being Sb ( C6H5 ) 5 and several related halides . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Antimony ( III ) sulfide , Sb2S3 , was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic ( kohl ) as early as about 3100 BC , when the cosmetic palette was invented . 
 An artifact , said to be part of a vase , made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at <unk> , <unk> ( part of present @-@ day Iraq ) , and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and <unk> BC has been found in Egypt . Austen , at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892 commented that " we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal , which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase , and therefore this remarkable ' find ' ( artifact mentioned above ) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable . " 
 <unk> was <unk> the artifact was indeed a vase , mentioning that <unk> , after his analysis of the <unk> object ( published in 1975 ) , " attempted to relate the metal to <unk> natural antimony " ( i.e. native metal ) and that " the antimony objects from <unk> are all small personal ornaments . " This weakens the evidence for a lost art " of rendering antimony malleable . " 
 The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History . Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between " male " and " female " forms of antimony ; the male form is probably the sulfide , while the female form , which is superior , heavier , and less <unk> , has been suspected to be native metallic antimony . 
 The Roman naturalist <unk> <unk> mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air . It is thought that this produced metallic antimony . 
 The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la <unk> of 1540 by <unk> Biringuccio ; this predates the more famous <unk> book by <unk> , De re <unk> . In this context <unk> has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony . The book <unk> <unk> <unk> ( The <unk> Chariot of Antimony ) , describing the preparation of metallic antimony , was published in Germany in 1604 . It was purported to have been written by a Benedictine monk , writing under the name <unk> <unk> , in the 15th century ; if it were authentic , which it is not , it would predate Biringuccio . 
 The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas <unk> in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide , salt and potassium tartrate . This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface . 
 With the advent of challenges to <unk> theory it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides , oxides , and other compounds , as is the case with other metals . 
 The first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the Earth 's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von <unk> in 1783 ; the type @-@ sample was collected from the <unk> Silver Mine in the <unk> mining district of <unk> , <unk> , Sweden . 
 
 = = = Etymology = = = 
 
 The ancient words for antimony mostly have , as their chief meaning , kohl , the sulfide of antimony . 
 The Egyptians called antimony <unk> ; in hieroglyphs , the vowels are uncertain , but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is <unk> <unk> . The Greek word , <unk> stimmi , is probably a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian <unk> 
 and is used by <unk> tragic poets of the 5th century BC ; later Greeks also used <unk> <unk> , as did <unk> and Pliny , writing in Latin , in the first century AD . Pliny also gives the names <unk> [ sic ] , <unk> , alabaster , and the " very common " <unk> , " wide @-@ eye " ( from the effect of the cosmetic ) . Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium . The Arabic word for the substance , as opposed to the cosmetic , can appear as <unk> <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , or <unk> . <unk> suggests the first form , which is the earliest , derives from <unk> , an <unk> for stimmi . 
 The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to <unk> Jakob Berzelius , who used this abbreviation of the name stibium . The medieval Latin form , from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony , is antimonium . The origin of this is uncertain ; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation . The popular etymology , from <unk> anti @-@ <unk> or French <unk> , still has adherents ; this would mean " monk @-@ killer " , and is explained by many early <unk> being monks , and antimony being poisonous . 
 Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word <unk> <unk> , " against <unk> " , explained as " not found as metal " , or " not found <unk> " . <unk> conjectured a hypothetical Greek word <unk> <unk> , which would mean " <unk> " , and cites several examples of related Greek words ( but not that one ) which describe chemical or biological <unk> . 
 The early uses of antimonium include the translations , in <unk> – 1100 , by Constantine the African of Arabic medical <unk> . Several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form ; <unk> derives it from <unk> ; other possibilities include <unk> , the Arabic name of the metalloid , and a hypothetical as @-@ stimmi , derived from or parallel to the Greek . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 
 = = = Top producers and production volumes = = = 
 
 The British Geological Survey ( <unk> ) reported that in 2005 , China was the top producer of antimony with an approximately 84 % world share , followed at a distance by South Africa , Bolivia and <unk> . <unk> Mine in <unk> province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2 @.@ 1 million metric tons . 
 In 2010 , according to the US Geological Survey , China accounted for 88 @.@ 9 % of total antimony production with South Africa , Bolivia and Russia sharing the second place . 
 However , Roskill <unk> estimates for primary production show that in 2010 China held a 76 @.@ 75 % share of world supply with 120 @,@ 462 tonnes ( 90 @,@ 000 tonnes of reported and 30 @,@ <unk> tonnes of un @-@ reported production ) , followed by Russia ( 4 @.@ 14 % share , 6 @,@ 500 tonnes of production ) , <unk> ( 3 @.@ 76 % share , 5 @,@ <unk> tonnes ) , Canada ( 3 @.@ 61 % share , 5 @,@ 660 tonnes ) , <unk> ( 3 @.@ 42 % share , 5 @,@ 370 tonnes ) and Bolivia ( 3 @.@ 17 % share , 4 @,@ 980 tonnes ) . 
 Roskill estimates that secondary production globally in 2010 was 39 @,@ 540 tonnes . 
 Antimony was ranked first in a Risk List published by the British Geological Survey in the second half of 2011 . The list provides an indication of the relative risk to the supply of chemical elements or element groups required to maintain the current British economy and lifestyle . 
 Also , antimony was identified as one of 12 critical raw materials for the EU in a report published in 2011 , primarily due to the lack of supply outside China . 
 <unk> production of antimony in China fell in 2010 and is unlikely to increase in the coming years , according to the Roskill report . No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years , and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted . 
 The world 's largest antimony producers , according to Roskill , are listed below : 
 
 = = = Reserves = = = 
 
 According to statistics from the USGS , current global reserves of antimony will be depleted in 13 years . However , the USGS expects more resources will be found . 
 
 = = = Production process = = = 
 
 The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality of the ore and composition of the ore . Most antimony is mined as the sulfide ; lower @-@ grade ores are concentrated by <unk> flotation , while higher @-@ grade ores are heated to 500 – 600 ° C , the temperature at which stibnite <unk> and is separated from the <unk> minerals . Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by a reduction with scrap iron : 
 Sb 
 2S 
 3 + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 <unk> 
 The sulfide is converted to an oxide and advantage is often taken of the <unk> of antimony ( III ) oxide , which is recovered from roasting . This material is often used directly for the main applications , impurities being arsenic and sulfide . <unk> antimony from its oxide is performed by a <unk> reduction : 
 2 Sb 
 2O 
 3 + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 CO 
 2 
 The lower @-@ grade ores are reduced in blast <unk> while the higher @-@ grade ores are reduced in <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = Applications = = 
 
 About 60 % of antimony is consumed in flame retardants , and 20 % is used in alloys for batteries , plain bearings and solders . 
 
 = = = Flame retardants = = = 
 
 Antimony is mainly used as its trioxide in making flame @-@ <unk> compounds . It is nearly always used in combination with halogenated flame retardants , with the only exception being in <unk> @-@ containing polymers . The formation of halogenated antimony compounds is the cause for the flame <unk> effect of antimony trioxide , due to reaction of these compounds with hydrogen atoms and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals , thus inhibiting fire . <unk> for these flame @-@ <unk> applications include children 's clothing , toys , aircraft and automobile seat covers . It is also used in the fiberglass <unk> industry as an <unk> to <unk> <unk> for such items as light aircraft engine covers . The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead , increasing its hardness and mechanical strength . For most applications involving lead , varying amounts of antimony are used as <unk> metal . In lead – acid batteries , this addition improves the charging characteristics and reduces generation of <unk> hydrogen during charging . It is used in <unk> alloys ( such as <unk> metal ) , in bullets and lead shot , cable <unk> , type metal ( for example , for <unk> printing machines ) , <unk> ( some " lead @-@ free " solders contain 5 % Sb ) , in <unk> , and in <unk> alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes . 
 
 = = = Other applications = = = 
 
 Three other applications make up nearly all the rest of the consumption . One of these uses is as a <unk> and a catalyst for the production of <unk> . Another application is to serve as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass , mostly for TV screens ; this is achieved by the interaction of antimony ions with oxygen , interfering the latter from forming bubbles . The third major application is the use as pigment . 
 Antimony is being increasingly used in the <unk> industry as a <unk> for heavily doped n @-@ type silicon <unk> in the production of diodes , infrared detectors , and Hall @-@ effect devices . In the 1950s , tiny beads of a lead @-@ antimony alloy were used to <unk> the <unk> and collectors of n @-@ p @-@ n alloy junction <unk> with antimony . <unk> antimonide is used as a material for mid @-@ infrared detectors . 
 Few biological or medical applications exist for antimony . <unk> principally containing antimony are known as <unk> and are used as <unk> . Antimony compounds are used as <unk> drugs . <unk> <unk> tartrate , or tartar emetic , was once used as an anti @-@ <unk> drug from 1919 on . It was subsequently replaced by <unk> . Antimony and its compounds are used in several <unk> preparations like <unk> or lithium antimony <unk> , which is used as a skin <unk> in <unk> . Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on <unk> tissues , at least in animals . 
 Antimony @-@ based drugs , such as <unk> <unk> , are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of <unk> in domestic animals . Unfortunately , as well as having low therapeutic <unk> , the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow , where some of the <unk> amastigotes reside , and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult . Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine . It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination . 
 In the heads of some safety matches , antimony ( III ) sulfide is used . Antimony @-@ 124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources ; the gamma rays emitted by antimony @-@ 124 initiate the <unk> of beryllium . The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV . Antimony sulfides have been shown to help stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials . 
 Antimony also is used in the making of bullets and bullet <unk> . This element is also used in paint and glass art crafts and as <unk> in enamel . 
 
 = = Precautions = = 
 
 The effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely . The massive antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health . Inhalation of antimony trioxide ( and similar poorly soluble Sb ( III ) dust particles such as antimony dust ) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer . However , these effects are only observed with female rats and after long @-@ term exposure to high dust concentrations . The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance , lung <unk> , inflammation and ultimately <unk> formation , not to exposure to antimony ions ( <unk> , 2008 ) . Antimony <unk> are corrosive to skin . The effects of antimony are not comparable to arsenic ; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake , metabolism and <unk> between arsenic and antimony . 
 For oral absorption , <unk> ( 1994 ) recommended values of 10 % for tartar emetic and 1 % for all other antimony compounds . <unk> absorption for metals is estimated at most 1 % ( <unk> , 2007 ) . Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb ( III ) substances ( such as antimony dust ) is estimated at 6 @.@ 8 % ( <unk> , 2008 ) , whereas a value < 1 % is derived for Sb ( V ) substances . Antimony ( V ) is not <unk> reduced to antimony ( III ) in the cell , and both species exist simultaneously . 
 Antimony is mainly excreted from the human body via urine . Antimony and its compounds do not cause acute human health effects , with the exception of antimony potassium tartrate ( " tartar emetic " ) , a <unk> that is intentionally used to treat <unk> patients . 
 <unk> skin contact with antimony dust may cause <unk> . However , it was agreed at the European Union level that the skin <unk> observed are not substance @-@ specific , but most probably due to a physical blocking of <unk> <unk> ( <unk> / PR / 09 / 09 , Helsinki , 6 July 2009 ) . Antimony dust may also be explosive when dispersed in the air ; when in a bulk solid it is not <unk> . 
 Antimony is incompatible with strong acids , halogenated acids , and <unk> ; when exposed to newly formed hydrogen it may form stibine ( <unk> ) . 
 The 8 hour time weighted average ( TWA ) is set at 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 by the American Conference of <unk> Industrial <unk> and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( <unk> ) as a legal permissible exposure limit ( <unk> ) in the workplace . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( <unk> ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( <unk> ) of 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 as an 8 hour TWA . Antimony compounds are used as <unk> for <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) production . Some studies report minor antimony <unk> from <unk> bottles into liquids , but levels are below drinking water guidelines . Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher ( up to 44 @.@ 7 µg / L of antimony ) , but <unk> do not fall under the drinking water regulations . The drinking water guidelines are : 
 World Health Organization : 20 µg / L 
 Japan : 15 µg / L 
 United States Environmental Protection Agency , Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment : 6 µg / L 
 EU and German Federal Ministry of Environment : 5 µg / L 
 The <unk> proposed by WHO is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight . The <unk> ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) value for antimony is 50 mg / m3 . 
 
 
 = Mortimer Wheeler = 
 
 Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH , <unk> , MC , <unk> , <unk> , FRS , <unk> ( 10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976 ) was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army . Over the course of his career , he served as Director of both the National Museum of Wales and London Museum , Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , and the founder and Honorary Director of the Institute of Archaeology in London , further writing twenty @-@ four books on archaeological subjects . 
 Born in Glasgow to a middle @-@ class family , Wheeler was raised largely in Yorkshire before relocating to London in his teenage years . After studying Classics at University College London ( UCL ) , he began working professionally in archaeology , specializing in the Romano @-@ British period . During World War I he volunteered for service in the Royal Artillery , being stationed on the Western Front , where he rose to the rank of major and was awarded the Military Cross . Returning to Britain , he obtained his doctorate from UCL before taking on a position at the National Museum of Wales , first as Keeper of Archaeology and then as Director , during which time he oversaw excavation at the Roman forts of Segontium , Y <unk> , and <unk> Augusta with the aid of his first wife , Tessa Wheeler . <unk> by the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , Wheeler argued that excavation and the recording of <unk> context required an increasingly scientific and methodical approach , developing the " Wheeler Method " . In 1926 , he was appointed Keeper of the London Museum ; there , he oversaw a reorganisation of the collection , successfully lobbied for increased funding , and began lecturing at UCL . 
 In 1934 , he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London , adopting the position of Honorary Director . In this period , he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle . During World War II , he re @-@ joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier , serving in the North African Campaign and then the Allied invasion of Italy . In 1944 he was appointed Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , through which he oversaw excavations of sites at Harappa , Arikamedu , and <unk> , and implemented reforms to the subcontinent 's archaeological establishment . Returning to Britain in 1948 , he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistan 's government . In later life , his popular books , cruise ship lectures , and appearances on radio and television , particularly the BBC series Animal , <unk> , Mineral ? , helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience . Appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , he raised large sums of money for archaeological projects , and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects . 
 Wheeler is recognised as one of the most important British archaeologists of the twentieth century , responsible for successfully encouraging British public interest in the discipline and advancing methodologies of excavation and recording . Further , he is widely acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology . However , many of his specific interpretations of archaeological sites have been discredited or <unk> , and he was often criticised for bullying colleagues and sexually harassing young women . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 
 = = = Childhood : 1890 – 1907 = = = 
 
 Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler ( née <unk> ) . The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol , in youth Robert had considered becoming a Baptist minister , but instead became a staunch <unk> while studying at the University of Edinburgh . Initially working as a lecturer in English literature , Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth . His second wife , Emily , shared her husband 's interest in English literature , and was the niece of Thomas Spencer <unk> , a Shakespearean scholar at St. Andrews University . Their marriage was emotionally strained , a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity . Within two years of their son 's birth , the family moved to Edinburgh , where a daughter named Amy was born . The couple gave their two children nicknames , with Mortimer being " <unk> " and Amy being " <unk> " . 
 When Wheeler was four , his father was appointed chief leader writer for the Bradford Observer . The family relocated to <unk> , a village northwest of Bradford , a cosmopolitan city in Yorkshire , northeast England , which was then in the midst of the wool trade boom . Wheeler was inspired by the <unk> surrounding <unk> and fascinated by the area 's archaeology . He later wrote about discovering a late prehistoric cup @-@ marked stone , searching for <unk> on <unk> Moor , and digging into a barrow on <unk> Moor . Although suffering from ill health , Emily Wheeler taught her two children with the help of a maid up to the age of seven or eight . Mortimer remained emotionally distant from his mother , instead being far closer to his father , whose company he favoured over that of other children . His father had a keen interest in natural history and a love of fishing and shooting , rural <unk> in which he encouraged Mortimer to take part . Robert acquired many books for his son , particularly on the subject of art history , with Wheeler loving to both read and paint . 
 In 1899 , Wheeler joined Bradford Grammar School shortly before his ninth birthday , where he proceeded straight to the second form . In 1902 Robert and Emily had a second daughter , whom they named Betty ; Mortimer showed little interest in this younger sister . In 1905 , Robert agreed to take over as head of the London office of his newspaper , by then renamed the Yorkshire Daily Observer , and so the family relocated to the southeast of the city in December , settling into a house named Carlton Lodge on South Croydon Road , West <unk> . In 1908 they moved to 14 <unk> Avenue in nearby <unk> Hill . Rather than being sent for a conventional education , when he was 15 Wheeler was instructed to educate himself by spending time in London , where he frequented The National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum . 
 
 = = = University and early career : 1907 – 14 = = = 
 
 After passing the entrance exam on his second attempt , in 1907 Wheeler was awarded a scholarship to read classical studies at University College London ( UCL ) , <unk> daily from his parental home to the university campus in Bloomsbury , central London . At UCL , he was taught by the prominent <unk> A. E. <unk> . During his undergraduate studies , he became editor of the Union Magazine , for which he produced a number of illustrated cartoons . Increasingly interested in art , he decided to switch from classical studies to a course at UCL 's art school , the <unk> School of Fine Art ; he returned to his previous subject after coming to the opinion that – in his words – he never became more than " a conventionally accomplished picture maker " . This interlude had adversely affected his classical studies , and he received a second class <unk> on graduating . 
 Wheeler began studying for a Master of Arts degree in classical studies , which he attained in 1912 . During this period , he also gained employment as the personal secretary of the UCL Provost Gregory Foster , although he later criticised Foster for transforming the university from " a college in the truly academic sense [ into ] a <unk> <unk> as little like a college as a <unk> is like a man " . It was also at this time of life that he met and began a relationship with Tessa <unk> , a student then studying history at UCL , when they were both serving on the committee of the University College Literary Society . 
 During his studies , Wheeler had developed his love of archaeology , having joined an excavation of <unk> <unk> , a Romano @-@ British settlement in <unk> , in 1913 . Considering a profession in the discipline , he won a <unk> that had been established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries in memory of Augustus <unk> Franks . The prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans doubled the amount of money that went with the <unk> . Wheeler 's proposed project had been to <unk> Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , and with the grant he funded a trip to the Rhineland in Germany , there studying the Roman pottery housed in local museums ; his research into this subject was never published . 
 At this period , there were very few jobs available within British archaeology ; as the later archaeologist Stuart Piggott related , " the young Wheeler was looking for a professional job where the profession had yet to be created . " In 1913 Wheeler secured a position as junior investigator for the English Royal Commission on Historical Monuments , who were embarking on a project to assess the state of all structures in the nation that pre @-@ dated 1714 . As part of this , he was first sent to <unk> in Essex to assess Late Medieval buildings , although once that was accomplished he focused on studying the Romano @-@ British remains of that county . In summer 1914 he married Tessa in a low @-@ key , secular wedding ceremony , before they moved into Wheeler 's parental home in <unk> Hill . 
 
 = = = First World War : 1914 – 18 = = = 
 
 After the United Kingdom 's entry into World War I in 1914 , Wheeler volunteered for the armed forces . Although preferring solitary to group activities , Wheeler found that he greatly enjoyed <unk> . For the next seven months , he was posted as an instructor in the University of London Officer Training Corps . It was during this period , in January 1915 , that a son was born to the Wheelers , and named Michael . Michael was their only child , something that was a social anomaly at the time , although it is unknown if this was by choice or not . In May 1915 , Wheeler transferred to the Royal Field Artillery ( Territorial Force ) and shortly thereafter was appointed captain . In this position he was stationed at various bases across Britain , often bringing his wife and child with him ; his responsibility was as a battery commander , initially of field guns and later of howitzers . 
 In October 1917 Wheeler was posted to the 76th Army Field Artillery Brigade , one of the Royal Field Artillery brigades under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding , Third Army . The brigade was then stationed in Belgium , where it had been engaged in the Battle of Passchendaele against German troops along the Western Front . There , he was immediately placed in command of an artillery battery , replacing a major who had been poisoned by <unk> gas . Being promoted to the rank of acting major , he was part of the Left Group of artillery covering the advancing Allied infantry in the battle . Throughout , he maintained <unk> with his wife , his sister Amy , and his parents . After the Allied victory in the battle , the brigade was transferred to Italy . 
 Wheeler and the brigade arrived in Italy on 20 November , and proceeded through the Italian <unk> to reach <unk> , where it had been sent to bolster the Italian troops against a German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . As the Russian Republic removed itself from the war , the German Army <unk> its efforts on the Western Front , and so in March 1918 Wheeler 's brigade was ordered to leave Italy , getting a train from <unk> to <unk> Rouen in France . Back on the Western Front , the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division , again part of Julian <unk> 's Third Army , reaching a stable area of the front in April . Here , Wheeler was engaged in artillery fire for several months , before the British went on the offensive in August . On 24 August , in between the ruined villages of <unk> and <unk> , he led an expedition which captured two German field guns while under heavy fire from a castle mound ; he was later awarded the Military Cross for this action . Wheeler continued as part of the British forces pushing westward until the German surrender in November 1918 . He was not <unk> for several months , instead being stationed at <unk> in Germany until March ; during this time he wrote up his earlier research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , making use of access to local museums , before returning to London in July 1919 . 
 
 = = Career = = 
 
 
 = = = National Museum of Wales : 1919 – 26 = = = 
 
 On returning to London , Wheeler moved into a top @-@ floor flat near Gordon Square with his wife and child . He returned to working for the Royal Commission , examining and <unk> the historic structures of Essex . In doing so , he produced his first publication , an academic paper on Colchester 's Roman <unk> Gate which was published in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society in 1920 . He soon followed this with two papers in the Journal of Roman Studies ; the first offered a wider analysis of Roman Colchester , while the latter outlined his discovery of the vaulting for the city 's Temple of Claudius which was destroyed by <unk> 's revolt . In doing so , he developed a reputation as a Roman archaeologist in Britain . He then submitted his research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pots to the University of London , on the basis of which he was awarded his Doctorate of Letters ; <unk> until his knighthood he styled himself as Dr Wheeler . He was unsatisfied with his job in the Commission , unhappy that he was receiving less pay and a lower status than he had had in the army , and so began to seek out alternative employment . 
 He obtained a post as the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales , a job that also entailed becoming a lecturer in archaeology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire . Taking up this position , he moved to Cardiff with his family in August 1920 , although he initially disliked the city . The museum was in <unk> ; prior to the war , construction had begun on a new purpose @-@ built building to house the collections . This had ceased during the conflict and the edifice was left abandoned during Cardiff 's post @-@ war economic slump . Wheeler recognised that Wales was very divided regionally , with many Welsh people having little loyalty to Cardiff ; thus , he made a point of touring the country , lecturing to local societies about archaeology . According to the later archaeologist Lydia C. Carr , the Wheelers ' work for the cause of the museum was part of a wider " cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party <unk> Cymru was founded in 1925 . 
 Wheeler was impatient to start excavations , and in July 1921 started a six @-@ week project to excavate at the Roman fort of Segontium ; accompanied by his wife , he used up his holiday to oversee the project . A second season of excavation at the site followed in 1922 . <unk> influenced by the writings of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , Wheeler emphasised the need for a strong , developed methodology when undertaking an archaeological excavation , believing in the need for strategic planning , or what he termed " controlled discovery " , with clear objectives in mind for a project . Further emphasising the importance of prompt publication of research results , he wrote full seasonal reports for <unk> <unk> before publishing a full report , Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales . Wheeler was keen on training new generations of archaeologists , and two of the most prominent students to excavate with him at Segontium were Victor Nash @-@ Williams and Ian Richmond . 
 Over the field seasons of 1924 and 1925 , Wheeler ran excavations of the Roman fort of Y <unk> near <unk> , a project aided by his wife and two archaeological students , <unk> Myres and Christopher Hawkes . During this project , he was visited by the prominent Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie and his wife Hilda Petrie ; Wheeler greatly admired Petrie 's emphasis on strong archaeological methodologies . Wheeler published the results of his excavation in The Roman Fort Near <unk> . He then began excavations at <unk> Augusta , a Roman site in <unk> , where he focused on revealing the Roman amphitheatre . Intent on attracting press attention to both raise public awareness of archaeology and attract new sources of funding , he contacted the press and organised a sponsorship of the excavation by the middle @-@ market newspaper the Daily Mail . In doing so , he emphasised the <unk> and legendary associations that the site had with King Arthur . In 1925 , Oxford University Press published Wheeler 's first book for a general audience , Prehistoric and Roman Wales ; he later expressed the opinion that it was not a good book . 
 In 1924 , the Director of the National Museum of Wales , William Evans <unk> , resigned amid ill health . Wheeler applied to take on the role of his replacement , providing supportive <unk> from Charles Reed <unk> , Robert <unk> , and H. J. <unk> . Although he had no prior museum experience , he was successful in his application and was appointed Director . He then employed a close friend , Cyril Fox , to take on the vacated position of Keeper of Archaeology . Wheeler 's proposed reforms included extending the institution 's reach and influence throughout Wales by building affiliations with regional museums , and focusing on fundraising to finance the completion of the new museum premises . He obtained a £ 21 @,@ 367 donation from the wealthy <unk> William <unk> Smith and appointed Smith to be the museum 's treasurer , and also travelled to <unk> , London , where he successfully urged the British Treasury to provide further funding for the museum . As a result , construction on the museum 's new building was able to continue , and it was officially opened by King George V in 1927 . 
 
 = = = London Museum : 1926 – 33 = = = 
 
 Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler had simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he had abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he had left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he had implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station . 
 Tessa 's biographer <unk> Carr later commented that together , the Wheelers " <unk> the London Museum " . Wheeler expressed his opinion that the museum " had to be cleaned , <unk> , and <unk> ; in general , turned from a junk shop into a <unk> rational institution " . Focusing on <unk> the exhibits and developing a more efficient method of <unk> the artefacts , he also authored A Short Guide to the Collections , before using the items in the museum to write three books : London and the Vikings , London and the Saxons , and London and the Romans . Upon his arrival , the Treasury allocated the museum an annual budget of £ 5 @,@ 000 , which Wheeler deemed insufficient for its needs . In 1930 , Wheeler persuaded them to increase that budget , as he highlighted increasing visitor numbers , publications , and acquisitions , as well as a rise in the number of educational projects . With this additional funding , he was able to employ more staff and increase his own annual salary to £ 900 . 
 Soon after joining the museum , Wheeler was elected to the council of the Society of Antiquaries . Through the Society , he became involved in the debate as to who should finance archaeological supervision of building projects in Greater London ; his argument was that the City of London Corporation should provide the funding , although in 1926 it was agreed that the Society itself would employ a director of excavation based in Lancaster House to take on the position . Also involved in the largely <unk> Royal Archaeological Institute , Wheeler organised its relocation to Lancaster House . In 1927 , Wheeler took on an unpaid <unk> at University College London , where he established a graduate <unk> course on archaeology ; one of the first to enroll was Stuart Piggott . In 1928 , Wheeler <unk> an exhibit at UCL on " Recent Work in British Archaeology " , for which he attracted much press attention . 
 Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological <unk> outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the <unk> amphitheatre in 1928 , he began <unk> at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , having been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney <unk> of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted had " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports . 
 From there , Wheeler was invited to direct a Society of Antiquaries excavation at the Roman settlement of Verulamium , which existed on land recently acquired by the Corporation of St Albans . He took on this role for four seasons from 1930 to 1933 , before leaving a fifth season of excavation under the control of the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and the architect A. W. G. <unk> . Wheeler enjoyed the opportunity to excavate at a civilian as opposed to military site , and also liked its proximity to his home in London . He was particularly interested in searching for a pre @-@ Roman Iron Age oppidum at the site , noting that the existence of a nearby <unk> settlement was attested to in both classical texts and numismatic evidence . With Wheeler focusing his attention on potential Iron Age evidence , Tessa concentrated on excavating the inside of the city walls ; Wheeler had affairs with at least three assistants during the project . After Tessa wrote two interim reports , the final excavation report was finally published in 1936 as Verulamium : A <unk> and Two Roman Cities , jointly written by Wheeler and his wife . The report resulted in the first major published criticism of Wheeler , produced by the young archaeologist <unk> Myres in a review for Antiquity ; although stating that there was much to praise about the work , he critiqued Wheeler 's selective excavation , dubious dating , and <unk> . Wheeler responded with a piece in which he defended his work and launched a personal attack on both Myres and Myres 's employer , Christ Church , Oxford . 
 
 = = = Institute of Archaeology : 1934 – 39 = = = 
 
 Wheeler had long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie had donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy <unk> . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " . 
 After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@ fort of Maidan Castle near to <unk> , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that had been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler had not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that had come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall <unk> . 
 In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from <unk> to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of <unk> . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel <unk> was adopting standards that had been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa had died of a pulmonary <unk> after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also died . By the summer of 1937 , he had embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de <unk> Cole , who had first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were <unk> early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East . 
 After a search that had taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William <unk> @-@ <unk> ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed <unk> made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of <unk> , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the <unk> Institute of Art . 
 Wheeler had also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed . 
 After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites had <unk> behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d <unk> , near <unk> , <unk> . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton <unk> to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum had been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott had been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of <unk> , near <unk> . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and <unk> . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 . 
 
 = = = Second World War : 1939 – 45 = = = 
 
 Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought had been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . <unk> for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at <unk> , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash <unk> " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Having been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole had meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive <unk> , who lambasted Wheeler as " that <unk> <unk> " . When Wheeler discovered <unk> in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 . 
 In the summer of 1941 , Wheeler and three of his batteries were assigned to fight against German and Italian forces in the North African Campaign . In September , they set sail from Glasgow aboard the <unk> Empress of Russia ; because the Mediterranean was controlled largely by enemy naval forces , they were forced to travel via the Cape of Good Hope , before taking shore leave in Durban . There , Wheeler visited the local <unk> to compare them with the settlements of Iron Age Britain . The ship docked in Aden , where Wheeler and his men again took shore leave . They soon reached the British @-@ controlled Suez , where they disembarked and were stationed on the shores of the Great <unk> Lake . There , Wheeler took a brief leave of absence to travel to Jerusalem , where he visited Petrie on his hospital deathbed . Back in Egypt , he gained permission to fly as a front gunner in a Wellington bomber on a bombing raid against Axis forces , to better understand what it was like for aircrew to be fired on by an anti @-@ aircraft battery . 
 Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El <unk> . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El <unk> and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and <unk> Magna , where he found that Roman remains had been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island . 
 Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office had requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various <unk> who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies . 
 Wheeler left Italy in November 1943 and returned to London . There , he resigned as the director of the London Museum and focused on organising the Institute of Archaeology , preparing it for its adoption of a new director , V. Gordon Childe , after the war . He also resigned as director of the Society of Antiquaries , but was appointed the group 's representative to the newly formed Council for British Archaeology . He developed a relationship with a woman named Kim Collingridge , and asked her to marry him . As she was a devout Roman Catholic , he officially converted to the religion , something which shocked many of his friends , who believed that he was being dishonest because he did not genuinely believe in the doctrines of the faith . He then set sail for Bombay aboard a transport ship , the City of Exeter , in February 1944 . 
 
 = = = Archaeological Survey of India : 1944 – 48 = = = 
 
 Wheeler arrived in Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John <unk> , before heading by train to Delhi and then <unk> , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler had been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who had authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them . 
 From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . <unk> with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He had drawn up a <unk> containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the <unk> , dating the <unk> invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi . 
 In October 1944 , he opened his six @-@ month archaeological field school in <unk> , where he instructed various students from across India in the methodologies of the discipline . Wheeler became very fond of his students , with one of them , B. B. Lal , later commenting that " behind the <unk> exterior , Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart " . Throughout his period in India , his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed ; more widely , he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness , incompetence and corruption of Indian society . Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent , Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization . On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa , he organised a very brief excavation which revealed fortifications around both settlements . He later led a more detailed excavation at Harappa , where he exposed further fortifications and established a <unk> for the settlement . 
 Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman <unk> in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which had traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation had been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra <unk> for the day . It has since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it had previously been established by A. <unk> , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist <unk> Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in <unk> , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India . 
 Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in <unk> , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government had deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to <unk> before visiting <unk> , Tehran , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient <unk> and visited the archaeology of <unk> . 
 Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events had affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was <unk> by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they had taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation had changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave . 
 As their relationship had become increasingly strained , his wife had left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman <unk> at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological <unk> to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three . 
 
 = = Later life = = 
 
 
 = = = Between Britain and Pakistan : 1948 – 52 = = = 
 
 Returning to London , Wheeler moved into the Hallam Street flat where his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law were living . Wheeler and the latter disliked each other , and so in summer 1950 he moved out and began renting an apartment in Mount Street . A year later he moved into his wife 's house in <unk> Street , in an unsuccessful hope of <unk> their relationship . Taking up his part @-@ time <unk> at the Institute of Archaeology , he began to lecture to students almost every day . There , he found that he developed a relationship of mutual respect with the director , Childe , despite their strong personal and professional differences . In April 1949 , after the retirement of Cyril Fox , Wheeler was nominated for the <unk> of the Society of Antiquaries , but lost to James Mann ; many archaeologists , including Childe and O. G. S. Crawford , resigned from the Society in protest , deeming Wheeler to have been a far more appropriate candidate for the position . Wheeler was nevertheless elected director of the Society . In 1950 he was awarded the Petrie Medal , and in 1952 was knighted . That same year he was invited to give the Norton lectures for the Archaeological Institute of America , and while in the United States was also awarded the Lucy <unk> <unk> medal at Pennsylvania . He nevertheless disliked the country , and in later life exhibited anti @-@ Americanism . 
 Wheeler spent three months in Pakistan during early 1949 , where he was engaged in organising the fledgling Pakistani Archaeological Department with the aid of former members of the Archaeological Survey and new students whom he recruited . The Minister of Education , <unk> <unk> , was sympathetic to Wheeler 's plans , and the government agreed to establish a National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi , which opened in April 1950 . Wheeler himself was appointed the first President of the Pakistani Museums Association , and found himself as a mediator in the arguments between India and Pakistan over the <unk> of archaeological and historic artefacts following the partition . He also wrote a work of archaeological propaganda for the newly formed state , Five Thousand Years of Pakistan ( 1950 ) . 
 To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and <unk> and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year . 
 Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he had organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at <unk> Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the <unk> Iron Age <unk> in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 . 
 In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after <unk> G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution had " <unk> drifted into <unk> without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to <unk> the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of <unk> who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating <unk> " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life . 
 
 = = = Popular fame : 1952 – 69 = = = 
 
 In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time <unk> at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of <unk> Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former <unk> at 27 <unk> Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society . 
 
 = = = = Media fame and public archaeology = = = = 
 
 Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a <unk> on the new BBC television series , Animal , <unk> , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss <unk> Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The <unk> That Was Rome , for which he travelled to <unk> 's Wall , Pompeii , and <unk> Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent . 
 From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still <unk> , which had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions . 
 He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher <unk> & <unk> had also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , <unk> of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over <unk> , in which Wheeler discussed <unk> and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great . 
 In 1954 , the tour company <unk> Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company <unk> and <unk> . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible . 
 Wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and <unk> de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at <unk> to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the <unk> Research Committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at <unk> Castle in Somerset run by his friends <unk> Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , <unk> it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis . 
 
 = = = = British Academy and UNESCO = = = = 
 
 As Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , Wheeler focused on increasing the organisation 's revenues , thus enabling it to expand its remit . He developed personal relationships with various employees at the British Treasury , and offered the Academy 's services as an <unk> in dealing with the Egypt Exploration Society , the British School at Athens , the British School at Rome , the British School at <unk> , the British School in Iraq , and the British School at Jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the Treasury . Accepting this offer , the Treasury agreed to double its funding of the Academy to £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . <unk> various charitable foundations , from 1955 Wheeler also secured funding from both the Pilgrim Trust and the <unk> Foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the Rockefeller Foundation . 
 With this additional money , the Academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the United Kingdom , <unk> a report that was published by Oxford University Press in 1961 as Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences . On the basis of this report , Wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the British Treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @,@ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after . According to his later biographer Jacquetta Hawkes , in doing so Wheeler raised the position of the Academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the United Kingdom , while Piggott stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " . 
 To improve Britain 's cultural influence abroad , Wheeler had been urging the establishment of a British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa , touring East Africa itself in August 1955 . In 1956 the Academy requested £ 6 @,@ 000 from the Treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959 . The Institute was initially established in Dar es Salaam in 1961 , although later relocated to <unk> . Meanwhile , Wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a British Institute of Persian Studies , a project which was supported by the British Embassy in Tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful French Institute in the city . In 1960 , the Treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the University of Tehran . He further campaigned for the establishment of a British Institute in Japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the British financial crisis of 1967 . 
 Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife <unk> Christie , there inspecting the excavations at <unk> . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the <unk> Derek Allen taking on the position . 
 <unk> his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed Wheeler as the British representative on a UNESCO project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the Nile Valley ahead of the construction of the <unk> Dam , which was going to flood large areas of Egypt and Sudan . <unk> securing UK funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the British government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the Abu <unk> temples . In October 1968 , he took part in a UNESCO visit to Pakistan to assess the state of Mohenjo @-@ daro , writing the project 's report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . His involvement with UNESCO continued for the rest of his life , and in March 1973 he was invited to the organisation 's conference in Paris . 
 
 = = = Final years : 1970 – 76 = = = 
 
 During his final years , Wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the Antiquity journal and the Management Committee of the Royal Archaeological Institute . In March 1971 , the archaeologist Barry <unk> and a number of his undergraduate students at the University of Southampton organised a conference on the subject of " The Iron Age and its <unk> " to celebrate Wheeler 's <unk> birthday . Wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a <unk> for the <unk> . In spring 1973 , Wheeler returned to BBC television for two episodes of the archaeology @-@ themed series Chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . The episodes were well received , and Wheeler became a close friend of the show 's producer , David <unk> . 
 In the 1970s , Wheeler became increasingly <unk> and came to rely largely on his assistant , Molly Myres , to organise his affairs . Amid increasing ill health , in September 1973 he moved full @-@ time into Myres 's house in <unk> , Surrey , although he continued to use his central London flat during day @-@ trips to the city . There , he authored a final book , My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan , although much of the text was culled from his previous publications ; it was published by Thames and Hudson in 1976 . After suffering a stroke , Wheeler died at Myers ' home on 22 July 1976 . In <unk> , the British Academy , Royal Academy , and Royal Society flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Wheeler 's funeral was held with military <unk> at a local <unk> , while a larger memorial service was held in St James 's Church , Piccadilly in November . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Wheeler was known as " <unk> " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others <unk> him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being <unk> . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker . 
 Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the <unk> and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties . 
 Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa <unk> . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de <unk> Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and <unk> , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a <unk> and a sex pest and an incredible <unk> as well " . 
 
 = = Reception and legacy = = 
 
 Wheeler has been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a <unk> 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the <unk> Memoirs of <unk> of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . " 
 Piggott believed that Wheeler 's greatest impact was as " the great innovator in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to Pitt @-@ Rivers . Piggott stated that the " importance of Wheeler 's contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @-@ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what Pitt @-@ Rivers had done , but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " L. C. Carr stated that it was for his methodological developments , oft termed " the Wheeler Method " , that Wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as Arthur Evans and <unk> or Leonard Woolley and <unk> . 
 Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical <unk> and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , <unk> <unk> noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " <unk> and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was <unk> . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its <unk> significance . " 
 Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the <unk> and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and <unk> . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of <unk> strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the <unk> admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist <unk> K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the <unk> onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for <unk> and <unk> Indian archaeology and for " <unk> a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . " 
 On Wheeler 's death , <unk> <unk> of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a <unk> and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty <unk> " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . " 
 
 = = = Biographies and studies = = = 
 
 In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . <unk> Somerset , 4th Baron <unk> reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : <unk> in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a <unk> energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social <unk> had <unk> and condemned aspects of his greatness . 
 In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , <unk> Ram ( played by <unk> <unk> ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah <unk> Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. <unk> , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , <unk> <unk> published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the <unk> from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex <unk> depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of Libya during World War II . 
 
 
 = Species of Allosaurus = 
 
 There have been a number of potential species assigned to the <unk> dinosaur genus Allosaurus since its description in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . Allosaurus was originally described from material from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States of America ; the type species A. fragilis became one of the best @-@ known species of dinosaur . 
 The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung <unk> as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania . 
 
 = = <unk> about type specimen = = 
 
 The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the <unk> to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen <unk> ( as a <unk> ) . This request is currently pending review . 
 
 = = <unk> valid species = = 
 
 It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. <unk> , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that have been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax . 
 A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level . 
 A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception <unk> maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus <unk> , and is based on what is now AMNH <unk> , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a <unk> . Following Paul 's work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis . 
 Allosaurus material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of <unk> / <unk> , a partial skeleton including a <unk> , vertebrae , ribs , <unk> , chevrons , part of the <unk> , and hindlimbs . This specimen was assigned to A. fragilis , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ML 415 ) near <unk> , in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the <unk> Formation , spurred the naming of the new species A. europaeus . It differs from other species of Allosaurus in cranial details . However , more material may show it to be A. fragilis , as originally described . 
 Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison <unk> remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or <unk> with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt <unk> Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher <unk> Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant <unk> remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains had been known as <unk> , but that name was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This <unk> was rejected in the most recent review of basal <unk> . 
 
 = = Biological variation , A. atrox , and A. fragilis = = 
 
 The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an <unk> , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species has had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature . 
 David K. Smith , examining Allosaurus fossils by quarry , found that the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur <unk> ( Utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from <unk> Bluff ( Wyoming ) or <unk> Young University 's Dry Mesa <unk> ( Colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park ( Colorado ) and Dinosaur National Monument ( Utah ) specimens found no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was <unk> , suggesting individual variation was responsible . Further work on size @-@ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the <unk> , an ankle bone . Kenneth Carpenter , using skull elements from the Cleveland Lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal . 
 
 = = <unk> and synonymous species = = 
 
 A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. <unk> " , seen in <unk> , 1887 , and <unk> , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and has been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this has not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was <unk> , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. <unk> " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a <unk> of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and has not been recognized . 
 Several species coined in genera other than Allosaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with A. fragilis . Labrosaurus ferox was named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was <unk> , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is recognized as most likely a specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus valens is a <unk> for <unk> valens accidentally used by Friedrich von <unk> in 1932 ; <unk> valens itself may also <unk> to Allosaurus fragilis , as Gilmore suggested in 1920 . <unk> <unk> , based on a scrap of <unk> Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or may not be the same as Allosaurus . 
 
 = = <unk> species = = 
 
 Several species initially classified within or referred to Allosaurus do not belong within the genus . A. medius was named by Marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland , although most of the remains were removed by Richard <unk> Lull to the new ornithopod species <unk> <unk> , except for a tooth . Gilmore considered the tooth <unk> but transferred it to a new species , <unk> medius . The referral was not accepted in the most recent review , and Allosaurus medius was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod . Allosaurus <unk> was described in 1914 by A. N. <unk> on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth <unk> , from the Early Cretaceous of <unk> , Russia . It was transferred to <unk> in 1990 . 
 Allosaurus <unk> was described in 1870 by <unk> as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It has occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus <unk> , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by <unk> as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the <unk> beds of Tanzania . With the <unk> of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. <unk> listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious <unk> . 
 There are also several species left over from the <unk> of Creosaurus and Labrosaurus with Allosaurus . Creosaurus <unk> was named by Lull in 1911 for a <unk> from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland . It is now regarded as a dubious theropod . Labrosaurus fragilis is a typographical error by Marsh ( 1896 ) for Labrosaurus ferox . L. <unk> , named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth , which like L. stechowi is now regarded as either Ceratosaurus sp. or a dubious <unk> . 
 A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner <unk> for a partial <unk> ( <unk> 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of <unk> , in <unk> , Tanzania . This species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis has placed it in <unk> . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight . 
 
 = = Specimens <unk> to Allosaurus though not described as new species = = 
 
 <unk> and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as Allosaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of Allosaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . Also , reports of Allosaurus in Shanxi , China go back to at least 1982 . 
 An <unk> ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a <unk> for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an <unk> , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure <unk> the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an <unk> . Similarly , <unk> <unk> and Phil <unk> , in their description of <unk> , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus <unk> " , an informal museum name . It may have belonged to something similar to , or the same as , <unk> , or it may represent an <unk> . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs . 
 
 
 = Astraeus hygrometricus = 
 
 Astraeus hygrometricus , commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar , the barometer earthstar , or the false earthstar , is a species of fungus in the Diplocystaceae family . Young specimens resemble a puffball when young and <unk> . In maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @-@ like manner . The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . A. hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @-@ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in drier conditions . The rays have an irregularly cracked surface , while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . The gleba is white initially , but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature . The spores are reddish @-@ brown , roughly spherical with minute warts , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 11 <unk> in diameter . 
 Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been <unk> confused . The species was first described by <unk> <unk> Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research has revealed the presence of several <unk> chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible . 
 
 = = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = = 
 
 Because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of Geastrum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with Christian <unk> Persoon in 1801 ( as <unk> , an alternate spelling of Geastrum ) . According to the American botanist Andrew P. Morgan , however , the species differed from those of Geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba , having larger and branched <unk> threads , not having a true hymenium , and having larger spores . Accordingly , Morgan set Persoon 's <unk> <unk> as the type species of his new genus Astraeus in 1889 . Despite Morgan 's publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in Geastrum . The New @-@ Zealand based mycologist Gordon <unk> Cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus Geastrum in 1944 , explaining : 
 The treatment of this species by certain <unk> well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of <unk> classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the <unk> cavities are separated by <unk> plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the <unk> worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the <unk> of any other member of the genus . The <unk> is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded . 
 Cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered Astraeus a distinct genus . According to the <unk> authority <unk> , synonyms of Astraeus hygrometricus include <unk> <unk> <unk> . ( 1772 ) ; Geastrum <unk> <unk> . ( 1822 ) ; Geastrum <unk> ( <unk> . ) <unk> . ( 1885 ) ; and Astraeus <unk> <unk> ( 1900 ) . 
 Astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of <unk> names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " <unk> earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words <unk> ( <unk> ) " wet " and <unk> ( <unk> ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 . 
 Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of <unk> and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the <unk> region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations have been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with <unk> 's A. <unk> described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct <unk> , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named . 
 A form of the species found in Korea and Japan , A. hygrometricus var. koreanus , was named by <unk> <unk> in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — A. koreanus — by <unk> <unk> . As pointed out by <unk> and colleagues , clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of A. hygrometricus var. koreanus specimens from the type locality in North Korea . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 Young specimens of A. hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . A smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially encrusted with debris . As the fruit body matures , the mycelial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , breaks open in a star @-@ shaped ( <unk> ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . This simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin <unk> <unk> . The rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . This is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue ; the innermost , fibrous layer is hygroscopic , and <unk> or <unk> the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . This adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of <unk> moisture , and reduce evaporation during dry periods . Further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll . 
 The fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded . The exoperidium is thick , and the rays are typically <unk> ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . The spore case is <unk> ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @-@ like or <unk> ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface ; the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or pore . The interior of the spore case , the gleba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval <unk> — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from Geastrum . The gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures . Small dark <unk> threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . The rhizomorphs are fragile , and often break off after maturity . 
 The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and <unk> ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are <unk> to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the <unk> @-@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter . 
 
 = = = Edibility = = = 
 
 North American sources describe A. hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility , or too tough to be edible . However , they are regularly consumed in Asia , including Nepal and South Bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India . 
 A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ <unk> , 1 @-@ <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ <unk> , and 1 @-@ <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , <unk> , and pungent odor that was evident as an <unk> and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> flavor " . <unk> compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . 
 
 = = Similar species = = 
 
 Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earthstars " Geastrum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays . <unk> earthstars include G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , G. <unk> , and G. <unk> . Unlike Geastrum , the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a <unk> ( sterile tissue in the gleba , at the base of the spore sac ) . Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a <unk> or a disc , in contrast with the single <unk> slit of A. hygrometricus . There are also several microscopic differences : in A. hygrometricus , the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium . Despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field . One species of Geastrum , G. <unk> , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic , and could be confused with A. hygrometricus ; however , its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus , typically about 4 µm in diameter . 
 Astraeus <unk> is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced <unk> pattern on the inner surface of the rays . It is found in North America and the Canary Islands . A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia , respectively . A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . A. asiaticus has an outer <unk> surface covered with small granules , and a gleba that is purplish @-@ chestnut in color , compared to the smooth <unk> surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus . The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @.@ 75 – 15 @.@ 2 μm . A. koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus ; see Taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopically , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @.@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . It is known from Korea and Japan . 
 
 = = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = = 
 
 Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives <unk> from <unk> . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it has been noted to grow commonly with <unk> pine ( Pinus <unk> ) and <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or <unk> soils . It has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . <unk> <unk> is a <unk> fungus with minute , gelatinous , <unk> ( cushion @-@ shaped ) <unk> , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus . 
 The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for <unk> , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It has been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America . 
 
 = = <unk> compounds = = 
 
 Mushroom <unk> from a number of species have attracted research interest for their <unk> and <unk> properties . <unk> from A. hygrometricus containing the <unk> named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of <unk> , <unk> , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of <unk> . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a <unk> @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple <unk> <unk> , glucose , and <unk> in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio . 
 In addition to the previously known steroid compounds <unk> @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ <unk> acetate and <unk> @-@ <unk> ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique <unk> — derivatives of 3 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> — have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named <unk> , 3 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> , and <unk> ( 3 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ 8 @-@ <unk> @-@ 26 @,@ 22 @-@ lactone ) , have <unk> @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the <unk> . A previously unknown <unk> <unk> ( <unk> , <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> , <unk> ) <unk> @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a <unk> <unk> @-@ type nucleus . 
 <unk> <unk> of the fruit body are high in <unk> activity , and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug <unk> . Studies with mouse models have also demonstrated <unk> ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the <unk> enzymes <unk> <unk> and <unk> caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon <unk> . 
 
 = = Traditional beliefs = = 
 
 This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a <unk> agent ; the spore dust is applied <unk> to stop wound bleeding and reduce <unk> . Two Indian forest tribes , the <unk> and the <unk> of <unk> Pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies <unk> . The spore mass is blended with <unk> seed oil , and used as a <unk> against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events . 
 
 
 = Paul Thomas Anderson = 
 
 Paul Thomas Anderson ( born June 26 , 1970 ) also known as <unk> Anderson , is an American film director , screenwriter and producer . <unk> in film @-@ making at a young age , Anderson was encouraged by his father Ernie Anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / <unk> artist ) to become a filmmaker . 
 In 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled <unk> & Coffee on a budget of $ 20 @,@ 000 . After he attended the Sundance Institute , Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @-@ noir crime thriller titled Hard Eight , in 1996 . Anderson received critical and commercial success for his film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , set during the Golden Age of <unk> in the 1970s and 1980s . His third feature , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office . 
 In 2002 , the romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson 's fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . After a five @-@ year absence , the epic drama There Will Be Blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . In 2012 , Anderson 's sixth film , the drama The Master , was released to critical acclaim . His seventh film , the crime comedy @-@ drama Inherent Vice , based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Pynchon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim . 
 Anderson has been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née <unk> ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " <unk> " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas <unk> School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and <unk> <unk> . 
 Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films . He made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a <unk> video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old . He later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier . He began writing in adolescence , and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a <unk> sixteen millimeter camera . After years of experimenting with " standard fare " , he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at <unk> <unk> using money he earned cleaning <unk> at a pet store . The film was a thirty @-@ minute <unk> shot on video called The Dirk <unk> Story ( 1988 ) , about a pornography star ; the story was inspired by John Holmes , who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights . 
 
 = = Career = = 
 
 
 = = = Early career = = = 
 
 Anderson spent two <unk> as an English major at Emerson College , and only two days at New York University before he began his career as a production assistant on television films , music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City . Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into " <unk> or a <unk> " , Anderson decided to make a twenty @-@ minute film that would be his " college " . 
 For $ 20 @,@ 000 , made up of gambling <unk> , his girlfriend 's credit card , and money his father set aside for him for college , Anderson made <unk> & Coffee ( 1993 ) , a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @-@ dollar bill . The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program . He decided to expand the film into a feature @-@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program . At the Sundance Feature Film Program , Michael <unk> @-@ Jones served as Anderson 's mentor ; he saw Anderson as someone with " talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @-@ on experience " and gave him some hard and practical lessons . 
 
 = = = 1990s = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Hard Eight = = = = 
 
 While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the <unk> of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , <unk> <unk> and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career . 
 
 = = = = Boogie Nights = = = = 
 
 Anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with Hard Eight , completing the script in 1995 . The result was Anderson 's breakout for the drama film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which is based on his short The Dirk <unk> Story . The script was noticed by New Line Cinema 's president , Michael De Luca , who felt " totally <unk> " reading it . It was released on October 10 , 1997 and was a critical and commercial success . The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds , and provided breakout roles for Mark <unk> and Julianne Moore . At the 70th Academy Awards ceremony , the film received three Academy Award nominations , including for Best Supporting Actor ( Burt Reynolds ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Julianne Moore ) and Best Original Screenplay . 
 
 = = = = Magnolia = = = = 
 
 After the success of Boogie Nights , New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control . Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was " intimate and small @-@ scale " , the script " kept <unk> " . The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia ( 1999 ) , which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley . Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film , commissioning her to write eight new songs . At the 72nd Academy Awards , Magnolia received three nominations , for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tom Cruise ) , Best Original Song for " Save Me " by Aimee Mann and Best Original Screenplay . Anderson stated after the film 's release that " what I really feel is that Magnolia is , for better or worse , the best movie I 'll ever make . " 
 
 = = = 2000s = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Punch @-@ Drunk Love = = = = 
 
 After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a <unk> small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven <unk> sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that had made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the <unk> d 'Or . 
 
 = = = = There Will Be Blood = = = = 
 
 There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the <unk> Sinclair novel Oil ! . The budget of the film was $ 25 million , and it earned $ 76 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis starred and won an Oscar for Best Leading Actor for his role . The film received eight nominations overall at the 80th Academy Awards . Paul <unk> received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor . Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America . The film also received eight Academy Award nominations , tying with No Country for Old Men for the most nominations . Anderson received nominations for Best Picture , Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay , losing all three to the <unk> Brothers for No Country for Old Men . There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade , some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era ; David <unk> of The New Yorker wrote " the young writer @-@ director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford " , while Richard <unk> proclaimed it " one of the most wholly original American movies ever made " . 
 
 = = = 2010s = = = 
 
 
 = = = = The Master = = = = 
 
 In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it has " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : <unk> Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress . 
 
 = = = = Inherent Vice = = = = 
 
 Production of Anderson 's adaptation of Thomas Pynchon 's 2009 novel Inherent Vice began in May 2013 and ended in August of the same year . The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen and saw Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time . The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson , Reese Witherspoon , <unk> Malone , Martin Short , <unk> Del Toro , Katherine <unk> , Josh <unk> , Peter <unk> , Michael K. Williams and Eric Roberts . The film received two nominations at the 87th Academy Awards : Anderson for Best Adapted Screenplay and Mark Bridges for Best Costume Design . 
 
 = = = = Junun = = = = 
 
 In 2015 , Anderson directed a 54 @-@ minute documentary , Junun , about the making of an album of the same name by Jonny Greenwood , Israeli composer <unk> Ben <unk> and a group of Indian musicians . Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th @-@ century <unk> Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan . Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival . 
 
 = = = = Future projects = = = = 
 
 Anderson is currently working on a drama about the New York fashion industry in the 1950s , which is expected to star Daniel Day @-@ Lewis in his first acting role since Lincoln in 2012 . 
 
 = = = Other work = = = 
 
 Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson has directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the <unk> Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred <unk> , with a live musical score by Jon <unk> . 
 
 = = Influences and style = = 
 
 
 = = = Influences = = = 
 
 Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson has cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan <unk> , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max <unk> , as his main influences as a filmmaker . 
 
 = = = Themes and style = = = 
 
 Anderson is known for films set in the San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters . Among the themes dealt with in Anderson 's films are dysfunctional familial relationships , alienation , surrogate families , regret , loneliness , destiny , the power of forgiveness , and ghosts of the past . Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency . In Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch Drunk Love and The Master , the phrase " I didn 't do anything " is used at least once , developing themes of responsibility and denial . Anderson 's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic <unk> such as constantly moving camera , <unk> @-@ based long takes , memorable use of music , and <unk> <unk> imagery . Anderson also tends to reference the Book of Exodus , either explicitly or subtly , such as in recurring references to Exodus 8 : 2 in Magnolia , which chronicles the plague of frogs , culminating with the literal <unk> of frogs in the film 's climax , or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood , a phrase that can be found in Exodus 7 : 19 , which details the plague of blood . 
 Within his first three films , Hard Eight , Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson explored themes of dysfunctional families , alienation and loneliness . Boogie Nights and Magnolia were noted for their large ensemble casts , which Anderson returned to in Inherent Vice . In Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson explored similar themes but expressed a different visual style , shedding the influences and references of his earlier films , being more surreal and having a heightened sense of reality . It was also short , compared to his previous two films , at 90 minutes . 
 There Will Be Blood stood apart from his first four films but shared similar themes and style such as flawed characters , moving camera , memorable music , and a lengthy running time . The film was more overtly engaged with politics than his previous films had been , examining capitalism and themes such as <unk> , optimism , and obsession . The Master dealt with " ideas about American personality , success , <unk> , master @-@ disciple dynamics , and father @-@ son mutually assured destruction . " All of his films deal with American themes with business versus art in Boogie Nights , ambition in There Will Be Blood , self @-@ <unk> in The Master . 
 
 = = = Frequent collaborators = = = 
 
 Anderson frequently <unk> with many actors and crew , carrying them over from film to film . Anderson has referred to his regular actors as " my little <unk> company " that has included John C. Reilly , Philip Baker Hall , Julianne Moore , William H. <unk> , <unk> Walters , and most prominently , the late Philip Seymour Hoffman . Luis <unk> is also considered an Anderson regular . Hoffman acted in Anderson 's first four films as well as The Master . Except for Paul F. Tompkins , Kevin <unk> , and Jim <unk> , who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia , There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast . Robert <unk> has been cinematographer for all of Anderson 's films except The Master which was shot by Mihai <unk> Jr . Jon <unk> served as composer for Hard Eight , Magnolia , and Punch @-@ Drunk Love , and Jonny Greenwood of <unk> for There Will Be Blood , The Master , and Inherent Vice . Anderson also regularly works with producing partners <unk> <unk> , Scott <unk> , Michael De Luca , and Daniel <unk> as well as casting director Cassandra <unk> . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Anderson dated ( and frequently collaborated with ) singer Fiona Apple for several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s . He has been in a relationship with actress and comedian Maya Rudolph since 2001 . They live together in the San Fernando Valley with their four children : daughters Pearl Bailey ( born October 2005 ) , Lucille ( born November 2009 ) , and Minnie Ida ( born August 2013 ) and son Jack ( born July 2011 ) . 
 
 = = Filmography = = 
 
 
 = = Awards and recognition = = 
 
 Anderson has been called " one of the most exciting talents to come along in years " and " among the supreme talents of today . " After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson was praised as a <unk> . In his 2002 interview with Jan <unk> , the director <unk> <unk> referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema . In 2004 , Anderson was ranked twenty @-@ first on The Guardian 's list of the forty best living filmmakers . In 2007 , Total Film named him the twentieth greatest director of all time and the American Film Institute regarded him as " one of American film 's modern masters . " In 2012 , The Guardian ranked him number one on its list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World , " writing " his dedication to his craft has intensified , with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation . " In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth @-@ greatest working director , calling him " one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the last 20 years . " In a podcast interview with critic Elvis Mitchell , director Sam <unk> referred to Anderson as " a true <unk> – and there are very few of those who I would classify as <unk> " , and Ben Affleck in his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director said " Paul Thomas Anderson , who I think is like Orson Welles . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that " The Master , the sixth film from the 42 @-@ year @-@ old writer @-@ director , affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation . Anderson is a rock star , the artist who knows no limits . " As of 2016 , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals ( Cannes , Berlin , Venice ) . 
 
 
 = The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman = 
 
 The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman is a poem by the 15th @-@ century Scottish poet Robert Henryson and part of his collection of moral fables known as the <unk> <unk> of <unk> the Phrygian . It is written in Middle Scots . As with the other tales in the collection , <unk> to it is a moralitas which <unk> on the moral that the fable is supposed to contain . However , the <unk> of the moralitas for the tale itself has been questioned . 
 The tale combines two motifs . Firstly , a husbandman <unk> the fields with his new oxen makes a rash oath aloud to give them to the wolf ; when the wolf <unk> this , he attempts to make sure that the man <unk> his promise . The fox <unk> a solution by speaking to them individually ; eventually he fools the wolf into following him to claim his supposed reward for dropping the case , and tricks him into a draw @-@ well . The moralitas connects the wolf to the wicked man , the fox to the devil , and the husbandman to the godly man . A probable source for the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina <unk> , containing the same motifs , and William Caxton 's Aesop 's <unk> — though the tale is a beast fable , not Aesopic . 
 
 = = Source = = 
 
 A probable source of the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina <unk> , which has the same three motifs : the rash promise of the husbandman ; the wolf <unk> the moon for cheese ; and the wolf that descends into the well via a bucket , thereby trapping himself and freeing the fox . However , the discussion of legality and the questioning of language that take place alongside these motifs are entirely Henryson 's invention . Whereas the moral of Alfonsi 's tale explains that the wolf lost both the oxen and the cheese because he " relinquished what was present for what was to come " ( Latin : pro <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , Henryson 's moralitas more fully involves the husbandman . 
 Another source may be Aesop 's <unk> as published by William Caxton — scholar John <unk> considers this more likely than Disciplina <unk> — although the tale itself is not Aesopic but rather of the beast fable ( also beast @-@ epic ) genre . The plots of such works are more complicated than their Aesopic counterpart , tend more towards <unk> , and feature the fox making a victim of the wolf . 
 
 = = Synopsis = = 
 
 
 = = = Tale = = = 
 
 A husbandman <unk> the fields with his new , untrained oxen is made furious by their <unk> of the land . In his anger he makes the rash oath that the wolf " <unk> have you all at <unk> ! [ may , at once ] " . However , the wolf is lying nearby with the fox , and , <unk> it , promises to make him stay true to his word . Eventually the oxen calm down , but on the way back home the wolf jumps into their path . The wolf asks where the husbandman is driving them , since they are not his , to which he confirms that they are and asks why he is being stopped since he never offended the wolf before . The wolf reminds the husbandman of his earlier declaration , to which he replies that a man may say things that do not mean anything . They argue , and the husbandman <unk> the wolf for not having a witness ; in response , he produces the fox . The creature takes it upon himself to mediate the dispute , and takes each aside in turn . To the husbandman he says that he would lend his expertise to help him were it not for the " grit <unk> and <unk> " of doing so ; the husbandman offers him half a dozen of the <unk> <unk> he has , to which the fox <unk> and goes off . To the wolf he says that the husbandman has offered an unparalleled block of cheese in exchange for him dropping the case . 
 The wolf , after some complaint , agrees to this and the two proceed through the woods after the prize — all the while the fox considers how to trick the wolf . Eventually , as the wolf complains of the <unk> of their quest , they arrive at a draw @-@ well with buckets on each end of a rope . Seeing the reflection of the moon in the water at the bottom of the well , the wolf believes there to be cheese down there and lowers the fox down to pick it up . When he complains that it is too heavy for him to lift alone , the wolf jumps into the other bucket and descends to help . However , this pulls up the other bucket , into which the fox has jumped , and so the two swap places ; the wolf at the bottom of the well and the fox safely escaped . The narrator <unk> that he does not know who helped the wolf out of the well , but that the tale is at an end . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The wolf is likened to a wicked man who <unk> others . The fox is likened to the devil . The farmer is likened to the godly man , with whom the <unk> finds fault . The woods where the wolf was cheated are <unk> goods that man longs to get . The cheese represents covetousness ; the well that contains it is fraud and fantasy , which draws men downwards into hell . 
 
 = = Analysis = = 
 
 As with other tales in the collection , the moralitas of The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman can be considered at odds with the tale itself . <unk> Farber highlights a number of these discrepancies , and says that the allegory " does not hold true in any traditional sense " . Amongst the inconsistencies is that the fox , not the wolf , is the figure that argues with and finds fault in the husbandman ; the " woods of the world " are not <unk> by the husbandman , in spite of the moralitas suggesting it is applicable to all men ; Farber argues that even assuming the moral to be true is problematic , since it apparently suggests that the godly man must <unk> the figure of the judge , and that this does not affect his godly status . Furthermore , the absence of the legal discussion and the binding quality of words from the moralitas suggests to Farber that the " intricate legal framework … has no impact whatsoever in resolving the issues with which it is supposed to deal " . In contrast , <unk> M. Bright considers that the moralitas of this tale , as well as several others , create " an additional sense which co @-@ exists with the literal narrative and extends and <unk> it thematically " ; treating literal details symbolically and establishing the sense through direct comparisons . 
 According to Dorothy Yamamoto , the significant themes in the tale are " <unk> and vacancy , substance and illusion " . The cheese that apparently resides in the well is only an illusion , not a solid object , and similarly the fox creates a surface reconciliation between the wolf and the husbandman , but which betrays his real intentions . Through their frequent misuse , words that should convey real value are emptied of meaning . As an example , Yamamoto highlights the fox 's <unk> on which the wolf and husbandman make their pledge — which body part she says is used by the fox in other tales to blind his <unk> , and is thereby a highly inappropriate object to use . 
 
 = = = Modern edition = = = 
 
 Henryson , Robert ( 2009 ) . The Testament of <unk> & seven fables . <unk> by Seamus Heaney . London : <unk> and <unk> . ISBN <unk> . 
 
 
 = Joe Nathan = 
 
 Joseph Michael " Joe " Nathan ( born November 22 , 1974 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nathan started out his baseball career as a shortstop in high school and while at Stony Brook University , but converted to a pitcher after being drafted by the San Francisco Giants . He worked his way through the minor leagues , alternating between spots in the rotation and the bullpen . After a few years of splitting time between the majors and the minors , Nathan had a breakout season as a setup man for the Giants in 2003 . That offseason , Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins and became their closer . 
 From 2004 to 2009 , Nathan was considered one of the top <unk> in MLB with four All @-@ Star appearances and a league @-@ leading <unk> saves . In 2010 , Nathan underwent Tommy John surgery to repair a torn ulnar collateral ligament in his throwing elbow and missed the entire season . On April 3 , 2011 , Nathan recorded his first save since his injury against the Toronto Blue Jays and later that year in July , Nathan regained the role as closer . On August 10 , 2011 , he became the Twins all @-@ time leader in saves with his <unk> in a game against the Boston Red Sox . After the 2011 season , Nathan left the Twins via free agency to sign with the Texas Rangers , becoming an All @-@ Star again in 2012 and 2013 . On April 8 , 2013 , he earned his 300th save . After the 2013 season , Nathan left the Rangers via free agency to sign with the Detroit Tigers . Nathan is currently 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . 
 
 = = Early career = = 
 
 Nathan graduated from Pine Bush High School in Pine Bush , New York in 1992 , where he played basketball and baseball and ran track . Only Division III colleges showed minimal interest in him , and he ended up at Stony Brook University largely because his high school assistant coach Jeff <unk> and Stony Brook baseball coach Matt <unk> knew each other as former teammates in the State University of New York at Cortland baseball program . 
 
 = = College career = = 
 
 He first played shortstop for the then Division III Stony Brook <unk> ( now Division I and called the <unk> ) , at Stony Brook University in Long Island , New York . Nathan became a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ American and graduating as a member of the Golden Key International Honour Society . During his tenure there , professional baseball scouts began to notice his good arm and pitcher 's body , and on the day of a <unk> , unfortunately , " literally someone from every organization " came to watch him pitch . He was drafted in the sixth round ( <unk> overall ) of the amateur draft by the San Francisco Giants in 1995 , and signed the next day , June 2 . His college jersey number has since been retired , and he was awarded the University Medal , the highest recognition given by <unk> / Stony Brook . He also played for the Fairfield <unk> in the New England Collegiate Baseball League in 1994 . 
 In August 2008 , he gave the <unk> / Stony Brook athletics department $ 500 @,@ 000 for a new baseball facility . In recognition of this " lead gift " from the Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , the college named it " Joe Nathan Field . " 
 
 = = Professional career = = 
 
 
 = = = Minor <unk> = = = 
 
 He began his minor league career in Class A for the <unk> Giants . After an unsuccessful year at the plate the Giants tried to convert Nathan into a pitcher , but he refused and left to return to Stony Brook for a year , graduating with a degree in business management . He gave more thought to his future in baseball , however , and after graduation decided to return to the Giants organization and developed into a standout pitching prospect . After a season with the Salem @-@ <unk> <unk> , he pitched for both the A and AA levels for ( the San Jose Giants and Shreveport Captains ) in 1998 as a starter . During his tenure with San Jose he started 22 games with an ERA of 3 @.@ 32 and 118 strikeouts , leading the Class A Giants to the California League championship . Promoted to AA Shreveport in 1999 , he pitched in only two games before being promoted to the parent club in 1999 . 
 
 = = = San Francisco Giants ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = = 
 
 Nathan was promoted to the San Francisco Giants on April 20 , 1999 , taking the roster spot of superstar <unk> Barry Bonds , who went on the disabled list after left elbow surgery . He made his major league debut the next day , pitching seven shutout innings and winning his first major league decision against the Florida Marlins , 4 – 0 . He then divided the rest of the season between the AAA Fresno <unk> and the Giants , going 6 – 4 with the <unk> and 7 – 4 and 4 @.@ 18 with the Giants , earning his first career save on May 16 against the Houston <unk> . 
 After a short stint in the minors in 2000 , Nathan spent most of the season in the majors , finishing 5 – 2 and even hitting two home runs . But he struggled with his control , walking 63 in <unk> ⁄ 3 innings and ending the season with a 5 @.@ 21 ERA . He was on the disabled list twice : from May 17 to June 6 for right shoulder tendinitis and from July 14 to August 18 for an <unk> right shoulder , <unk> <unk> surgery on the afflicted shoulder at the end of the season . Nathan divided 2001 between the AAA Fresno <unk> and AA Shreveport both starting and relieving , finishing with a disappointing combined 3 – 11 record and an ERA over 7 . Nathan improved slightly in 2002 to 6 – 12 with an ERA of over 5 at Fresno , but finally <unk> his <unk> struggles to return to the Giants in September with 32 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in relief . 
 Nathan spent all of 2003 with the Giants in the bullpen after marrying Lisa <unk> , his girlfriend of five years , in November 2002 . This was a breakout year for Nathan , starting the season with 23 scoreless innings en route to a 12 – 4 record in his first full year as a reliever . His 78 appearances put him high on the list of most @-@ used pitchers for the season as one of the best setup men in the NL , allowing no runs in 15 appearances from July 18 to August 20 . His 12 wins in relief led the majors . The Giants won the National League West by 151 ⁄ 2 games and drew the Florida Marlins , the National League 's wild card winner , in the NLDS . Nathan was hit hard in that series , blowing his only save opportunity . His team fared no better , winning Game 1 behind Jason Schmidt 's complete game shutout before dropping the next three . 
 
 = = = Minnesota Twins ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = = 
 
 
 = = = = 2004 = = = = 
 
 Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins on November 16 , 2003 , in one of the more lopsided trades in San Francisco Giants history . The Giants sent Nathan to the Twins along with pitchers <unk> <unk> and Francisco <unk> for catcher A. J. <unk> and cash . The Twins decided to make Nathan their closer starting in 2004 , risky move considering that Nathan had notched only one save in six opportunities as a Giant , but he won the job over J. C. Romero and Jesse <unk> in spring training . He was signed to a three @-@ year deal on March 4 , 2004 and agreed to an incentive @-@ laden contract with a base salary of $ 440 @,@ 000 . He started off the season strong , allowing no runs in 20 appearances and earning 14 saves from April 15 to June 4 . He was named AL Co @-@ Player of the Week starting on May 10 with four saves in four innings and four appearances , facing the minimum number of batters each time . His credentials for the first half of the season , 23 saves in 24 opportunities with a 1 @.@ 19 ERA in 26 appearances , earned him his first All @-@ Star appearance in the 2004 MLB All @-@ Star Game . He was the only Twin on the squad and pitched a perfect seventh inning , getting Bobby <unk> to strike out , Mike Lowell to fly out and Miguel Cabrera to strike out . His numbers were impressive through the rest of the season , allowing no runs between June 9 and August 18 , and between August 25 and September 16 @.@ and finishing 2004 with 44 saves in 47 opportunities and an ERA of 1 @.@ 62 . The Twins won the AL Central division and faced the New York Yankees in the ALDS . Nathan picked up his first postseason save in Game 1 , but blew his second opportunity in Game 2 as the Twins went on to lose the ensuing three games . His outstanding season earned him MVP and Cy Young votes , finishing fourth for Cy Young and 12th for MVP . His first child , a son named Cole , was born on November 9 , 2004 . 
 
 = = = = 2005 = = = = 
 
 During spring training in 2005 , Nathan signed a two @-@ year deal that includes a club option for 2008 . He picked up from where he left off in 2004 , allowing no earned runs in 15 appearances from April 5 to May 10 . He also had streaks of 13 and 12 consecutive save opportunities converted between April and July . As a result , Nathan was named the American League Player of the Week for the week of June 27 . Nathan earned another All @-@ Star appearance in 2005 for his pitching in the first half of the season . Although his record was 1 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 57 ERA in 37 appearances , he had struck out 43 batters in <unk> ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and lead the AL with 23 saves in 25 opportunities . Nathan pitched in the 2005 MLB All @-@ Star Game alongside fellow pitcher Johan Santana . Pitching the eighth inning of the game , he got Morgan <unk> to pop out for the first out , then gave out a double to <unk> <unk> . Felipe López singled , and Nathan was able to get Miguel Cabrera and Luis <unk> out , but not before <unk> scored . Nathan had a brilliant second half as he went 6 – 1 with 18 saves in 20 chances , and posted an ERA of 1 @.@ 76 . He finished the season with a 7 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 70 ERA , 43 saves in 48 opportunities , and 94 strikeouts . Nathan also became the third pitcher in club history to post consecutive 40 save seasons . The Twins however missed the playoffs . 
 
 = = = = 2006 = = = = 
 
 Before the 2006 season began , Nathan participated in the 2006 World Baseball Classic as one of the 30 players selected for the Team USA roster . He played the first game , a 2 – 0 win against Mexico , striking out the side while allowing one hit . He also pitched the 4 – 3 victory against Japan , again throwing a shutout inning . Nathan went on to pitch the last game for the United States in the ninth inning against Mexico , again not allowing a run and striking out two . 
 As the regular 2006 season began for the Twins , Nathan started off strong , allowing no runs from the start of the season to April 25 . He also converted 10 straight save opportunities from April 11 to June 17 . On June 24 , Nathan recorded his one hundredth career save against the Chicago Cubs , and 99th save with Minnesota . Four days later he got save number 101 , his hundredth save with Minnesota against the Los Angeles Dodgers , becoming the fifth pitcher in Twins history to achieve that mark . Despite putting up great numbers during the 2006 season , Nathan was not selected to the All @-@ Star Game . He continued to pitch well throughout the season , passing Eddie <unk> for second on the Twins ' all @-@ time save list when he earned his <unk> save against the Detroit Tigers on September 9 . Nathan was also given the Major League Baseball <unk> Man of the Month award for July , going nine for nine in save opportunities and posting a 0 @.@ 75 ERA for the month . He finished the season with some of his best numbers to date : a 7 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 58 ERA , 95 strikeouts , 36 saves , an 18th @-@ place finish in MVP voting , and a fifth @-@ place finish in Cy Young voting . His 61 games finished were also good for the AL lead and opponents batted just <unk> against him , a career high . With 36 saves in 38 opportunities , Nathan also became the first pitcher for the organization to earn 35 saves in three straight seasons . The Twins won the division on the last day of the regular season , but were swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALDS as Nathan made one scoreless appearance . 
 
 = = = = 2007 = = = = 
 
 Nathan continued as the Twins ' closer for the 2007 season . He had a stretch between July and August where he gave up just two earned runs and converted all 12 save chances . Once again despite Nathan 's numbers , he was not picked for the All @-@ Star team . Nathan finished the year by converting 37 of 41 save opportunities with a record of 4 – 2 and an ERA of 1 @.@ 88 . The Twins however had a disappointing season and missed the playoffs . 
 On September 25 , 2007 , Nathan was named as one of 10 finalists for the " <unk> <unk> Man of the Year Award " , the third year in a row that he has been a <unk> . On October 29 , the Twins exercised Nathan 's club option for 2008 . 
 
 = = = = 2008 = = = = 
 
 Though Nathan was slated to make $ 6 million in 2008 , on March 24 , 2008 , the Minnesota Twins re @-@ signed Nathan to a four @-@ year , $ 47 million contract through 2011 . The deal also includes a $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option for 2012 with a $ 2 million buyout . 
 Nathan started the season with 13 consecutive saves but blew his first save of the season on May 27 by giving up a three @-@ run inside @-@ the @-@ park home run on a <unk> fly ball by teammate <unk> Young ; however , Nathan got two outs to end the 9th inning and the Twins went on to win the game . By converting 27 of 29 save opportunities prior to the All @-@ Star break , Nathan was selected as a reserve player for the American League in the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . Nathan finished the year with 39 saves and a career best 1 @.@ 33 ERA . He also had a career high six blown saves and surrendered his first career walk @-@ off home run to Victor Martinez on September 16 . Nathan ranked seventh in the majors in saves and had the lowest ERA of the top 30 save leaders in 2008 . 
 
 = = = = 2009 = = = = 
 
 Nathan had a strong season , as he was selected as an All @-@ Star for the 2009 MLB All Star Game , and he finished the year with 2 @.@ 10 ERA with 47 saves in 52 opportunities , which was a franchise record . He shared honors for the AL <unk> Relief Man award with Mariano Rivera . However , Nathan did not fare as well in the postseason ; in Game 2 of the American League Division Series against the New York Yankees , with the Twins leading 3 – 1 in the bottom of the ninth inning , Nathan blew the save when he surrendered a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run to Alex Rodriguez . It was the first home run Nathan had allowed with men on base all year . The Yankees later won the game in the 11th inning and swept the series . On October 11 , 2009 , after the Twins lost the final game at the Metrodome ( a 4 – 1 playoff loss to the Yankees that eliminated them ) , Nathan took a pile of dirt from the mound as a <unk> from the Metrodome . 
 
 = = = = 2010 = = = = 
 
 On March 9 , 2010 , it was reported that Nathan had a tear in his ulnar collateral ligament . On March 21 , after attempting to pitch without having surgery , Nathan decided to undergo Tommy John surgery , missing the entire 2010 season . 
 
 = = = = 2011 = = = = 
 
 Nathan earned his first save at Target Field on April 8 , 2011 . He emptied the container of dirt he took from the Metrodome on the mound at Target Field before pitching . On April 18 , Nathan was replaced at closer by Matt <unk> after going 3 for 5 in save opportunities . On May 28 , 2011 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a right <unk> muscle strain . Chuck James was called up to take his place . 
 On August 10 , 2011 , against the Boston Red Sox , Nathan became the Twins all @-@ time saves leader with 255 , passing Rick Aguilera . 
 After the Twins declined his $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option and exercised a $ 2 million buyout , Nathan became a free agent at the end of the 2011 season . 
 Nathan is currently the Minnesota Twins leader in career saves . 
 
 = = = Texas Rangers ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = 
 
 On November 21 , 2011 , Nathan agreed to terms on a two @-@ year deal with the Texas Rangers worth $ 14 @.@ 5 million guaranteed with an option for a third year at $ 9 million or a $ 500 @,@ 000 buyout . 
 Nathan had a strong first season with the Rangers , as he was selected to the represent the Rangers at the 2012 MLB All Star Game , the fifth all star selection of his career . He finished his 2012 campaign with 37 saves and an ERA of 2 @.@ 80 . During a game against the Tampa Bay <unk> on April 8 , 2013 , Nathan earned his 300th career save after striking out Ben <unk> looking on a controversial strike call made by home plate umpire Marty Foster . TV cameras captured Nathan saying " <unk> ! " after the call . 
 Nathan was selected to his sixth All Star Game in 2013 , and earned the save for the American League . Nathan improved on his 2012 campaign , finishing his 2013 season with 43 saves and an ERA of 1 @.@ 39 . Nathan finished his Rangers career with an overall record of 9 – 7 , 80 saves , a 2 @.@ 08 ERA and 0 @.@ 98 <unk> . 
 
 = = = Detroit Tigers ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = 
 
 On December 4 , 2013 , the Tigers signed Nathan to a two @-@ year , $ 20 million contract , with a club option for 2016 . This reunited him with former teammate and fellow ex @-@ Twins great , <unk> Hunter along with Rangers teammate Ian <unk> . On May 5 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his <unk> career save , tying him with Randy Myers for ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . Two days later , Nathan recorded career save number 348 , putting him alone at ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . On June 9 , Nathan recorded career save 358 , tying him with Troy Percival for 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . On August 23 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his <unk> career save , passing up Jeff <unk> for 7th place on the all @-@ time saves list . In a September 16 game against the Minnesota Twins , Nathan blew his seventh save of the season , surpassing his previous career high of six blown saves when he pitched for the Twins in 2008 . Nathan finished his first season with the Tigers making 62 appearances and recording 35 saves in 42 chances , while posting an ERA of 4 @.@ 81 . He made one postseason appearance in 2014 , retiring all three batters he faced in a non @-@ save situation in Game 2 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles . The Tigers were swept in the series , 3 – 0 . 
 On April 8 , 2015 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained right elbow . During a rehab start with the Toledo <unk> <unk> on April 22 , Nathan re @-@ injured his elbow after throwing only 10 pitches . The same night , Nathan underwent <unk> , which tested positive revealing tears in his ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow and his <unk> <unk> muscle , and would undergo Tommy John surgery , ending Nathan 's 2015 season . Sources projected that this surgery could end Nathan 's career , but he was not planning to retire yet . 
 During the 2015 offseason , the Tigers declined the $ 10 million club option for Nathan for the 2016 season , and exercised a $ 1 million buyout . 
 
 = = = Chicago Cubs ( 2016 – present ) = = = 
 
 On May 17 , 2016 , Nathan signed with the Chicago Cubs . He was immediately placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list upon signing to continue recovery from his previous Tommy John surgery . Nathan made his Cubs debut on July 24 , 2016 against the Milwaukee Brewers . He pitched one inning and struck out the side , allowing one hit and one walk . 
 
 = = Records and notable statistics = = 
 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Nathan is married to Lisa ( <unk> <unk> ) . They have two children . Nathan 's foundation , Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , also called " Save It " , helps raise money and awareness for many different charities . The Nathan 's reside in <unk> , Tennessee in the offseason . 
 
 = = Pitching style = = 
 
 Nathan throws a mix of four pitches . His main pitch , a four @-@ seam fastball was once thrown in the mid @-@ to @-@ upper 90s , but now settles between 91 and 94 mph . His main breaking ball is a hard slider in the upper 80s , occasionally even touching 90 . He uses the slider less frequently against left @-@ handed hitters , preferring to use a curveball in the low 80s . He also uses a two @-@ seam fastball against <unk> . His slider is his best swing @-@ and @-@ miss pitch , with a <unk> rate of 42 % since 2007 . 
 
 
 = Art Ross = 
 
 Arthur <unk> " Art " Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 . Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass it to a forward . He was on Stanley Cup championship teams twice in a playing career that lasted thirteen seasons ; in January 1907 with the <unk> Thistles and 1908 with the Montreal Wanderers . Like other players of the time , Ross played for several different teams and leagues , and is most notable for his time with the Wanderers while they were members of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and its successor , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In 1911 he led one of the first organized player strikes over increased pay . When the Wanderers ' home arena burned down in January 1918 , the team ceased operations and Ross retired as a player . 
 After several years as an on @-@ ice official , he was named head coach of the Hamilton Tigers for one season . When the Boston Bruins were formed in 1924 , Ross was hired as the first coach and general manager of the team . He would go on to coach the team on three separate occasions until 1945 and stayed as general manager until his retirement in 1954 . Ross helped the Bruins finish first place in the league ten times and to win the Stanley Cup three times ; Ross personally coached the team to two of those victories . After being hired by the Bruins , Ross , along with his wife and two sons , moved to a suburb of Boston , and became an American citizen in 1938 . He died near Boston in 1964 . 
 Outside of his association with the Bruins , Ross also helped to improve the game . He created a style of hockey puck still used today , and advocated an improved style of goal nets , a change that lasted forty years . In 1947 Ross donated the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer of the NHL regular season . Ross was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Ross was born January 13 , 1885 , in <unk> , Ontario . His father , Thomas <unk> Ross , was the head of a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post in the area . The ninth of ten children , Ross grew up speaking both English and Ojibwe , a native Canadian language . Ross moved to Montreal in 1902 to play in organized hockey leagues , living in the affluent <unk> district . He played high school and junior hockey with Lester and Frank Patrick , both of whom were later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Ross and Lester had a financially successful ticket <unk> business at the Montreal Arena , buying tickets for thirty @-@ five cents and selling them for up to a dollar . 
 
 = = Playing career = = 
 
 
 = = = 1905 – 09 = = = 
 
 The best hockey players on their high school team , Ross and the Patrick brothers were invited to play occasional games for local league teams in Montreal . Ross first played in an organized league in 1905 , joining Montreal <unk> of the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( <unk> ) , the top amateur league in Canada . He scored ten goals in eight games during the season . His opponents regarded him as one of the best rushing <unk> . Most defenders at the time either shot the puck down the ice or passed to a forward ; in contrast , Ross <unk> up the ice , taking the puck into the offensive zone . Later that year , wishing to pursue a career in banking , he moved to Brandon , Manitoba , where he joined the Brandon <unk> of the Manitoba Hockey League , the senior league in the province . In 1906 , his first season , he scored six goals in seven games while he recorded six goals in ten games in 1907 . Around this time , the <unk> Thistles , the Manitoba League champions , wanted to strengthen their team for the Stanley Cup challenge against the Montreal Wanderers in Montreal during January 1907 . They paid Ross $ 1 @,@ 000 to play both matches , a common practice at the time , and the Thistles won the Cup . While failing to score , Ross started many plays and proved an important part of the team . Although he played for the opposing team , he received a good reception from the Montreal crowd . Ross did not play for the Thistles when the two teams played for the Cup again in March , which the Wanderers won to take back the Cup . 
 The following year Ross moved back to Montreal . He joined the Wanderers , the team he had helped to defeat , who played in the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , the successor league to the <unk> as the premier league in the country . He scored eight goals in ten games over the two @-@ month season that lasted from January to March . He helped the team to finish first in the ECAHA and retain the Cup in 1908 with challenges from Ottawa , Winnipeg and Toronto . The Wanderers were Cup champions throughout these challenges , so Ross became the second player to win the Cup with different teams in consecutive years , after Jack Marshall in 1901 and 1902 . In January 1908 , he participated in the first all @-@ star game in sports history , a benefit for the family of former <unk> defender Hod Stuart , who died the previous summer . Aside from his time with the Wanderers , Ross repeated his practice of playing for other teams who paid for his services in important matches . For the 1909 season Ross demanded a salary of $ 1 @,@ 600 . Although he settled for $ 1 @,@ 200 , the average salary of hockey players at the time was $ 600 . Ross received a cash bonus of $ 400 to play in a Stanley Cup challenge against a team from Edmonton in December 1908 , in which the Wanderers won the two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series 13 – 10 . He finished the season with two goals in nine games . 
 
 = = = 1909 – 18 = = = 
 
 A new league , the Canadian Hockey Association ( <unk> ) , was formed in late November 1909 . One of the teams , the All @-@ Montreal Hockey Club , hired Ross as a playing @-@ manager , but the league only lasted to mid @-@ January 1910 before disbanding . Ross , who scored four goals in four games in the <unk> , then signed with the <unk> <unk> of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , a league formed in December 1909 , which proved to be the stronger replacement to the ECAHA as the highest level of hockey in Canada . He received $ 2 @,@ 700 to play in the 1910 season , which lasted from January to March , playing twelve games for the team and finishing with six goals . Before the following season , the NHA imposed a salary cap of $ 5 @,@ 000 per team . The players , including Ross , were unhappy as this would result in a pay decrease , and began looking to form their own league without a cap . Ross wrote to the Montreal Herald , stating " all the players want is a fair deal ... The players are not trying to <unk> the NHA , but we want to know where we get off at . " The plans were abandoned when they realized all the suitable arenas would be unavailable as they were owned or leased by the NHA . Ross scored four goals in eleven games with the Wanderers , who finished fourth in the five team league . During a match against the Quebec Bulldogs on February 25 , 1911 , Ross knocked out Eddie <unk> in a fight , provoking a massive brawl between the two teams , which the police had to break up . The fight helped to increase the reputation Ross had as a tough player unwilling to back down from any opponent . The following season Ross had eleven goals in nineteen games as the Wanderers improved to second in the league . 
 Prior to the 1913 – 14 NHA season , Ross refused to sign a contract for the Wanderers , requesting a salary increase . As one of the top players on the team , the Wanderers agreed to his demands of $ 1 @,@ 500 for the forthcoming season , in which he finished with four goals and nine points in eighteen games . The next season Ross , again concerned with his salary , began negotiating with other players in the NHA to leave their teams and form a new league that would offer higher wages . These actions resulted in his suspension in November 1914 by Emmett Quinn , president of the NHA . Ross responded by declaring himself a free agent and claiming his contract with the Wanderers was no longer valid . Consequently , although having no technical power to do so , Quinn suspended Ross from all organized hockey . The proposed new league failed to materialize and Ross applied for <unk> to the NHA , which was granted at a meeting of the team owners on December 18 , 1914 . The owners realized if they suspended Ross , they would also have to suspend all those he signed , hurting the league . However , Ross 's actions led to his release by the Wanderers . At first he trained with the Montreal Canadiens , then joined the Ottawa Senators . 
 At the conclusion of the 1914 – 15 season , the Senators and Wanderers finished with identical records of fourteen wins and six losses . A two @-@ game , total goal series was played to determine the NHA league champion who would contest the Stanley Cup with the Pacific Coast Hockey Association winner , the Vancouver <unk> . Ross , who finished with three goals in sixteen games in the season , scored one goal in the first match against the Wanderers , a Senators 4 – 0 victory , and though Ottawa lost the second game 1 – 0 , they won the series , 4 – 1 . To help the Senators stop the Wanderers , who were known for their speed , Ross created a new system of defence . <unk> " <unk> bar the door " , it required three defenders to align themselves across the ice 30 feet in front of the goaltender to stop offensive rushes . This style of defence would later be used in a modified version known as the neutral zone trap , later used widely to stop opposition offensive chances . 
 The following year Ross , who had eight goals and eight assists in twenty @-@ one games , was the second highest paid player on the team ; his salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 was $ 100 less than Frank <unk> made . Even so , Ross left the team in 1916 , returning to Montreal in order to look after his sporting @-@ goods store , and rejoining the Wanderers . He scored six goals and had two assists in sixteen games for the team . The Wanderers , along with the Montreal Canadiens , Toronto Arenas , Quebec Bulldogs and Ottawa Senators dissolved the NHA and founded the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in November 1917 . Ross became coach of the Wanderers , but a fire on January 2 , 1918 , destroyed their home , the Montreal Arena , and forced them to fold after four games . However , the NHL insisted the team continue to play , and recorded two additional scheduled matches as <unk> losses for the Wanderers , even though the matches were not played . With the Wanderers disbanded , Ross retired as a player . His NHL career yielded one goal in three games played . 
 
 = = Managerial career = = 
 
 
 = = = 1918 – 36 = = = 
 
 Ross began his career as a hockey coach in the midst of his playing days , when at age 24 he led the McGill University <unk> to a 4 – 2 – 1 record during the 1910 – 11 season . Following his playing career , Ross became a NHL referee . He was hired to coach the Hamilton Tigers for the 1922 – 23 season , and adopted new methods in training camp that emphasized physical fitness , including work off the ice . However , the Tigers finished with a record of six wins and eighteen losses , last in the NHL for the third successive year , and Ross did not return the next season . His next coaching appointment arose from meeting Boston grocery store magnate Charles Adams during the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals . Before the 1924 season , the NHL awarded Adams an expansion team . Adams ' first move was to hire Ross as vice president , general manager , coach and scout . Adams instructed Ross to come up with a nickname portraying an <unk> animal displaying speed , agility and <unk> . With this in mind , Ross named the team the Boston Bruins , after the Old English word for a bear . The team 's nickname went perfectly with the original colours of brown and yellow , which were the same colours of Adams ' grocery chain , First National Stores . 
 Ross utilized his many hockey connections throughout Canada and the United States to sign players . Even so , the team started poorly . Early in the first season the University of Toronto hockey team was in Boston for matches against local universities . The team 's manager , <unk> <unk> , who later owned and managed the Toronto Maple Leafs , said that his team could easily defeat the Bruins — Ross 's team had won only two of their first fifteen NHL games . This began a feud between <unk> and Ross which lasted for over 40 years , until Ross ' death ; while mostly confined to newspaper reports , they refused to speak to each other at NHL Board of Governor meetings . The Bruins finished their first season with six wins in thirty games , one of the worst records in the history of the league . Several records were set over the course of the season ; the three home wins are tied for the second fewest ever , and an eleven @-@ game losing streak from December 8 , 1924 , until February 17 , 1925 , set a record for longest losing streak , surpassed in 2004 and now second longest in history . With 17 wins in 36 games the following season , the team greatly improved , and finished one point out of a playoff spot . 
 In 1926 the Western Hockey League , the other top professional hockey league , was in decline . The Patrick brothers , who controlled the league , offered to sell the remaining five teams for $ 300 @,@ 000 . Ross realized the potential talent available and convinced Adams to pay the money . As a result , the Bruins acquired the rights to several future Hall of Fame players , the most notable being defender Eddie Shore . Ross signed goaltender Cecil " Tiny " Thompson in 1928 , who was with a team in Minnesota , despite never watching him play ; Ralph " <unk> " Weiland was also brought over from Minnesota . Ross acquired Cy <unk> from Ottawa and made him a player @-@ assistant @-@ coach while he assumed the role of coach and team manager . On November 20 , 1928 , the Bruins moved to a new arena when the Boston Garden opened . The team played the Canadiens who won the match 1 – 0 in front of 16 @,@ 000 fans . The players signed by Ross helped the Bruins to improve quickly , and they won the Stanley Cup in 1929 . <unk> retired after the Cup win , Ross guiding the team to several league records in the 1929 – 30 season . The team won 38 of 44 games for an <unk> winning percentage , the highest in league history ; the five losses tied a record for fewest ever , and the four road losses tied a record for second fewest . The Bruins also only finished one game in a tie , a record for fewest ties in a season since the NHL began recording the record in 1926 . One of the longest winning streaks was also set during the season . From December 3 , 1929 , until January 9 , 1930 , the team won fourteen games in a row , a record that lasted until 1982 and now tied for third longest , as of October 2010 . A home winning streak began the same day and lasted for twenty games , until March 18 , 1930 , which was tied for the longest of its kind in 1976 . In 1930 – 31 , the Bruins again lost only one home game , which equalled their previous record . 
 On March 26 , 1931 , Ross substituted a sixth <unk> for goaltender Tiny Thompson in the final minute of play in a playoff game against the Montreal Canadiens . Although the Bruins lost the game 1 – 0 , Ross became the first coach to replace his goaltender with an extra attacker , a tactic which became widespread practice in hockey . <unk> aside as coach in 1934 to focus on managing the team , Ross hired Frank Patrick as coach with a salary of $ 10 @,@ 500 , which was high for such a role . However rumours spread during the season that Patrick was drinking heavily and not being as strict with the players as Ross wanted . After the Bruins lost their playoff series with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1936 playoffs , the result of an 8 – 1 score in the second game , a newspaper claimed that Patrick had been drinking the day of the game and had trouble controlling the team . Several days later , Ross relieved Patrick of his duties and once again assumed the role of coach . 
 
 = = = 1936 – 54 = = = 
 
 Ross took over an improved team . He had recently signed three players , <unk> Schmidt , Bobby Bauer and Woody <unk> , who all grew up together in <unk> , Ontario , and had them play on the same line , soon nicknamed the <unk> Line in reference to the German heritage of all three . Along with them , Ross had acquired a new goaltender in 1938 , Frank Brimsek ; after Brimsek earned six <unk> in his first eight games , the Bruins traded away Tiny Thompson to allow Brimsek to play . With these players the Bruins finished first in the league in 1937 – 38 ; Ross was named as the second best coach in the league , selected for the end of season All @-@ Star Second Team . The next season the Bruins won 36 of 48 games , and won the Stanley Cup in the playoffs ; Ross was named to the First All @-@ Star Team as the best coach in the league for the season and the team only tied two games , which is tied for the second fewest in a season . He hired the recently retired <unk> Weiland to coach the Bruins for the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The Bruins would win the Cup again in 1941 , and tied their record of only four away losses all season . Ross once again took over as coach of the team before the 1941 – 42 season began , as Weiland became coach of the <unk> Bears of the American Hockey League , and led the team to 25 wins in 48 games , which was enough to earn third place in the league . By this time the Second World War had caused several Bruins players , including the entire <unk> Line and goaltender Brimsek , to enlist in their respective armed forces . The Bruins finished second in the NHL during the 1942 – 43 season with 24 wins in 50 games and Ross was again named in the Second NHL All @-@ Star Team as second best coach in the league . The Bruins missed the playoffs in 1943 – 44 , the first time in ten years they failed to qualify , but returned to the playoffs the next season , something they did for five straight years . 
 In 1949 , Ross had signed Georges Boucher as coach , but Boucher did not work well with Ross and team president Weston Adams . Looking to hire a new coach in the summer of 1950 , Ross <unk> Lynn Patrick , the son of Lester , who had just resigned from the New York Rangers after coaching the team to the Stanley Cup Final . Lynn had moved his family back to Victoria , British Columbia , where he grew up as a child , with the intention of coaching the Victoria Cougars , a team in the minor professional Pacific Coast Hockey League . Though reluctant to move back to the eastern United States , Lynn was hired by Ross after he was offered a salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . He would coach the team for the next four seasons and become the second general manager of the Bruins when Ross retired at the end of October 1954 . 
 
 = = = Legacy = = = 
 
 Aside from his career in hockey , Ross was interested in improving the game . Prior to the start of the 1927 – 28 season , the NHL adopted a new style of goal net created by Ross . With the back <unk> into a B @-@ shape , it was better designed to catch <unk> and the net was used until 1984 , when a modified version was adopted . He also improved the design of the puck . Ross ' design had <unk> edges , which prevented it bouncing too much , and used synthetic rubber , rather than the natural rubber previously in vogue . Along with New York Rangers coach Frank Boucher , Ross helped to create the red line , which was introduced to help speed up the game by removing the ability for defenders to pass the puck from the defensive to offensive zone ; until 2006 it was against the rules of hockey to make a two line pass . More scoring chances resulted as teams could not simply send the puck down the ice with <unk> . In order to help tell the red line and blue lines apart on television , Ross suggested that the red line be striped . 
 Regarded throughout his playing career as one of the best defenders in hockey , Ross was named to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , selected for his playing career rather than his work as an executive . A ceremony for his induction was held prior to a Bruins game on December 2 , 1949 , where he was given his Hall of Fame scroll and a silver <unk> with the <unk> of the six NHL teams on it . In 1975 he was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Along with his two sons he donated the Art Ross Trophy to the NHL in 1947 , to be awarded to the leading scorer in the league 's regular season . In 1984 he was posthumously awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for service to hockey in the United States . 
 A descriptive biography entitled Art Ross : The Hockey Legend who Built the Bruins by Eric Zweig was published by <unk> Press in <unk> 2015 . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Ross also excelled in baseball , football , <unk> and motorcycle racing . Before he became a hockey executive , he had a career as a bank clerk and ran a sporting @-@ goods store in Montreal . Ross had moved to Brandon , Manitoba , in 1905 at the advice of his parents so he could get a job with a bank , with a salary of $ 600 per year . He gave that career up when he began playing hockey professionally . He was married to <unk> , a native of Montreal , and had two sons , Art and John . During the Second World War , both sons served in the Royal Canadian Air Force . After the war Ross made his son Art the business manager for the Bruins . Ross was named coach and manager of the Boston Bruins in 1924 and moved his family to <unk> , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , after being hired . In 1928 , he served as the traveling secretary of the Boston Braves baseball team , which was owned by Bruins owner Charles Adams . He became a naturalized American citizen on April 22 , 1938 . On August 5 , 1964 , Ross died at a nursing home in <unk> , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , at the age of 79 . A sister , both his sons , and three grandchildren survived him . 
 
 = = Career statistics = = 
 
 
 = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = 
 
 * Playing stats from Total Hockey 
 
 = = = Coaching record = = = 
 
 * Coaching stats from Total Hockey 
 
 = = Awards = = 
 
 
 = = = NHL = = = 
 
 * Awards from Legends of Hockey 
 
 
 = Saint Leonard Catholic Church ( Madison , Nebraska ) = 
 
 Saint Leonard Catholic Church is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Madison , in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States . Built in 1913 , it has been described as " an outstanding example of the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . " 
 St. Leonard 's parish , named after Saint Leonard of Port Maurice , was organized in 1879 . A wood frame church was built in 1881 on the outskirts of Madison , and moved into the city in 1898 . In 1902 , the basement of the current church was built , and the congregation moved into it , converting the old church to a school . When funds allowed , the basement was extended , and the current brick church completed in 1913 . 
 In 1989 , the church , its 1912 rectory , and the rectory 's garage were listed in the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of noted Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . A pupil of Thomas Rogers Kimball , Nachtigall designed a number of Catholic churches and other buildings in the state , several of which are also listed in the National Register . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The first white settlers to occupy the site of Madison were a party led by Henry Mitchell Barnes , who settled near the junction of Union and Taylor Creeks in 1867 . Growth of the new settlement was rapid ; in particular , there was an influx of German families from Wisconsin . The town of Madison was officially <unk> by Barnes in 1870 or 1871 . In 1875 , it became the county seat of Madison County , and in 1876 it was incorporated . The Union Pacific Railroad reached Madison in 1879 ; by 1880 , the town had a population of about 300 . 
 The first Christian services held in Madison were Presbyterian , taking place in Barnes 's and other homes . A Presbyterian congregation was organized in 1870 , and a church built in 1872 . A Methodist circuit encompassing Madison and <unk> counties was organized in 1871 ; a <unk> was built in Madison ca . 1875 , and a church begun in 1877 . A Lutheran congregation may have formed in Madison in about 1875 , although early records are incomplete ; the congregation was initially served by the pastor of a Lutheran church in Green Garden Precinct , located about seven miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Madison . It was formally organized in 1885 , and a church built in Madison in 1887 . 
 The first Catholic settlers in Madison County <unk> near present @-@ day Battle Creek , northwest of Madison , in the late 1860s . In 1874 , they organized a parish ; in 1874 – 75 , they built St. Patrick 's Church , the county 's first Catholic church . In 1877 , they wrote to Bishop James O 'Connor of the Diocese of Omaha , asking that a priest be assigned to visit the church at intervals until a permanent priest could be assigned to the parish ; in apparent response to this , Franciscan missionaries based in Columbus were given the responsibility of providing for Madison County . 
 
 = = = 1879 – 1900 = = = 
 
 In 1879 , a group of Catholic residents of the Madison area met to plan the building of a church . At the meeting , a total of $ 426 @.@ 75 was subscribed ; additional contributions of $ 322 @.@ 86 were obtained from citizens of Madison . In January 1880 , the church 's trustees spent $ 100 for five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) on a hill at the southeastern edge of town . In the spring , a party of parishioners drove their <unk> teams to <unk> , about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Madison , for the first load of lumber for the new church . The 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 m × 12 m ) frame structure , with a capacity of 100 , was completed in November 1881 ; the total cost was $ 957 @.@ 61 , leaving $ 208 @.@ 00 owed to the carpenter . The new church was dedicated to St. Leonard of Port Maurice , an 18th @-@ century Franciscan priest , preacher , ascetic , and writer venerated as the patron saint of parish missions . 
 In 1882 , a parcel of land southeast of the church was purchased for a cemetery ; a one @-@ year @-@ old child buried in September of that year became its first <unk> . The cemetery was <unk> in 1883 . In 1884 , the church was enlarged : a sacristy and a room for the priest were added to the east end , and a steeple to the west end . 
 As Madison 's population grew , the church became too small for the expanding congregation . In addition , its location outside of the city was <unk> for many parishioners . In 1898 , a tract of land inside Madison was bought . Rather than building a new church at the time , the parish elected to move the old one to the new site . The church was moved in two parts ; when it was reconstructed , another section was added between them , increasing the building 's seating capacity to 180 . The church on the new site was dedicated in November 1898 . 
 
 = = = 1900 – 1913 = = = 
 
 In the early 20th century , the parish decided that the old church should be remodelled into a school and a convent for the teachers , and that a new church should be built . Brother Leonard <unk> , a Franciscan architect , drew up plans for a church ; but financial constraints precluded its construction . Instead , a temporary basement church was built just west of the old church building . It is not known whether the design of the basement used <unk> 's plans . Construction of the basement church began in July 1902 , services were held there beginning in September 1902 , and it was dedicated in February 1903 . 
 The school opened in September 1903 , with two classrooms staffed by two members of the Sisters of the Presentation of <unk> , Iowa . 66 students were enrolled , including a number of non @-@ Catholics , owing to overcrowding in the public schools . To make more space available , a basement was dug in 1904 . In 1910 , a third classroom was added . 
 In 1910 , the Franciscans turned the management of the parish over to the Diocese of Omaha . In October of that year , Edward S. Muenich became the first diocesan pastor of St. Leonard 's . 
 Muenich embarked upon an extensive building campaign , for which he retained Omaha architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Born in Germany in 1874 , Nachtigall had immigrated to the United States with his family in 1883 . Initially working as a <unk> in Omaha , he had served as a draftsman for that city 's 1898 Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition . He had then worked as a draftsman for Omaha architect Thomas Rogers Kimball from 1900 to 1908 ; during this time , Kimball had designed the city 's St. Cecilia 's Cathedral . In 1909 , Nachtigall had opened his own architectural office . 
 In 1911 , a two @-@ story eight @-@ room brick rectory designed by Nachtigall was begun ; it was completed and furnished in 1912 , at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 374 . In the fall of 1912 , the church basement was extended by over 50 percent . 
 
 = = = 1913 – 1946 = = = 
 
 In 1913 , a Romanesque Revival church designed by Nachtigall was built on the existing basement . The cornerstone was laid and construction begun in May ; the church was completed by the end of November , and formally dedicated on December 4 . The cost of construction was about $ 75 @,@ 000 . While the church was under construction , Catholic services were held in Madison 's armory . 
 The new church had a seating capacity of 700 . In its 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) tower was a clock with four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials , and a <unk> of three bells , contributed by the citizens of Madison ; beside summoning the parishioners to Mass , these rang the quarter @-@ hours , marking time for the residents of the city and the surrounding rural areas . 
 While the urban United States experienced an economic boom during the 1920s , the agricultural sector of the country experienced a depression . <unk> of European agriculture by World War I had produced high prices for farm commodities , and it had been thought that Europe 's recovery would be slow and that the high prices would persist . This gave rise to a bubble in farmland prices , which burst when the rapid postwar recovery of European agriculture drove commodity prices down again . At the same time , increasing mechanization reduced the need for farm labor , pushing agricultural wages downward and rural unemployment upward . Madison and St. Leonard 's parish suffered from this agricultural depression and from the Great Depression of the 1930s . During this time , the parish 's population remained more or less stable : in 1918 , it consisted of 440 individuals ; in 1929 , <unk> . 
 In 1926 , the parish was forced to close its school , since the Presentation Sisters were no longer able to staff it . The school re @-@ opened in 1931 , with 60 pupils taught by <unk> Benedictine Sisters based in Norfolk . 
 The onset of World War II once again brought prosperity to rural Nebraska , and it persisted into the 1950s . St. Leonard 's paid off its remaining debt , held a <unk> @-@ burning ceremony in 1946 , and began raising funds for a new school . 
 
 = = = 1946 – present = = = 
 
 The cornerstone for a new school was laid in November 1953 . A property adjoining the new school site was bought , and the house standing upon it converted to a convent for the nuns staffing the school . The new building was completed and opened for classes in August 1954 ; the old school , which had begun life as the first St. Leonard 's Church , was demolished that fall , and its site became a parking lot . 
 The Benedictine Sisters withdrew from the school in 1978 , prompting the closing of the seventh and eighth grades . The school continued to offer grades 1 – 6 , taught by three lay instructors . 
 Beginning in the early 1990s , Madison experienced a large influx of <unk> . In 1990 , Madison County 's population was 2 % Hispanic ; by 2010 , the number had increased to 13 % . In the city of Madison , whose single largest employer was a <unk> plant with over 1000 employees , operated by <unk> and then by Tyson <unk> , the increase was far greater : the Hispanic fraction of the population rose from less than 1 % in 1980 to 48 @.@ 8 % in 2010 , as the Spanish @-@ speaking population increased and the white non @-@ Hispanic population fell . By 2011 , an estimated two @-@ thirds of St. Leonard 's parishioners were Hispanic . Beginning in 1991 , the <unk> assigned Spanish @-@ speaking priests to the parish , and both <unk> and Spanish @-@ language services were offered . 
 The centennial of the church building was celebrated in December 2013 , at a bilingual Mass conducted by <unk> <unk> , archbishop emeritus of the Archdiocese of Omaha . 
 
 = = Architecture = = 
 
 In 1989 , three of the parish 's buildings — the church , the rectory , and the rectory 's garage — were added to the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of distinguished Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Beside St. Leonard 's , Nachtigall designed a number of other notable buildings in Nebraska , many of them Catholic ; these include St. Mary of the Assumption Church in Dwight ( 1914 ) , St. Anthony 's Church in Cedar Rapids ( 1919 ) , St. <unk> 's Church in <unk> ( 1919 ) , Immaculate Conception Church in Omaha ( 1926 ) , and Father Flanagan 's House at Boys Town ( 1927 ) . 
 
 = = = Church = = = 
 
 The church is oriented east @-@ west , with the main entrance facing westward . It is just over 153 feet ( 47 m ) long from east to west ; 52 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The walls are made of mosaic gray pressed brick trimmed with Bedford stone , rising from a rock @-@ faced limestone foundation , and are about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . The peak of the roof is about 70 feet ( 21 m ) above ground level . 
 At the west end of the church , a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) <unk> rises above the main entrance . The tower is topped with a copper dome , capped with a cross . It contains three bells , weighing 900 , 1 @,@ 600 , and 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 410 , 730 , and 1 @,@ 130 kg ) . The tower 's clock has four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials . Below the tower , a flight of seventeen steps <unk> to the church 's main entrance , via a set of double doors through a semicircular <unk> . 
 The church 's north and south walls are supported by a series of buttresses . Seven windows run along each wall . A line of brick <unk> runs along the walls below the eaves . Near the east end of the church , a short transept extends a short distance outward . At the church 's east end , beyond the transept , is a semicircular apse with a conical roof , topped with a six @-@ <unk> conical <unk> . 
 
 = = = = Interior = = = = 
 
 The interior plan of the church consists of a nave , a short transept , and a semicircular apse . At the west end of the nave is a narthex . At the center of this is a <unk> leading to the church 's main entrance ; at the church 's northwest corner is a reconciliation room , formerly a <unk> ; at the southwest corner is a short passage from which a staircase descends to the basement and another rises to the choir <unk> . In the <unk> is the church 's organ , a <unk> model manufactured by the <unk> Organ Company in 1879 ; the organ was not originally built for St. Leonard 's . 
 The nave measures 98 feet ( 30 m ) between the entrance and the communion rail . An aisle passes down its center ; narrower aisles follow the north and south walls . Two rows of seven circular columns run along the nave . The columns are made of wood , plastered to conceal the material , and decorated with Corinthian capitals . The rib @-@ vaulted ceiling rises 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above the floor . Fourteen stained @-@ glass windows , depicting scenes from the life of Christ , occupy the nave 's walls . The 13 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 1 m × 1 @.@ 5 m ) windows were produced by the Muenich Art Studio of Chicago . Between the windows are sculpted stations of the cross . In three <unk> above columns on each side are <unk> paintings . 
 Two marble steps rise from the nave to the chancel . At the top of the steps is a hand @-@ carved white wood communion rail , decorated with miniature <unk> columns and topped with marble . 
 At the northwest and southwest corners of the chancel are two side altars : to the north , a Marian altar ; to the south , an altar of St. Joseph . The original image on the Marian altar depicts Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception ; more recently , an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been added . The St. Joseph altar includes a bone relic of St. Leonard of Port Maurice . 
 On the Gospel side of the chancel is a large hand @-@ carved wood pulpit , decorated with carved figures of the four <unk> . 
 The chancel is dominated by the high altar , which stands over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall , and which cost its donors $ 2 @,@ <unk> in 1913 . Like the communion rail , the side altars , and the pulpit , it is made of hand @-@ carved wood decorated with small <unk> columns . At the base is a relief sculpture of the Last Supper ; above that is a marble altar table . The tabernacle is just above that ; to either side is a sculpted angel , kneeling to the tabernacle and holding the sanctuary lamps . Above the tabernacle is a sculpted <unk> of Jesus , with the Virgin Mary and the <unk> John on either side of the cross . In separate niches on either side of the <unk> scene are statues of St. <unk> and St. Patrick , representing the German and Irish ethnicity of the parish in the early 20th century . Above their niches are figures of angels blowing <unk> ; at the top of the altar is a statue of St. Leonard . 
 On the half @-@ domed ceiling of the apse is a large oil @-@ painted mural depicting a scene in Heaven . In the center , God the Father and Jesus are enthroned on a cloud ; a stained @-@ glass <unk> at the top of the dome depicting the Holy Spirit completes the Trinity . <unk> the Father and Son are the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist . Below the cloud is Satan in <unk> . At the left and right of the scene is an assemblage of 18 Catholic saints and 10 angels . 
 Beside the fourteen large windows in the nave , there are 25 stained @-@ glass windows in the church , depicting saints and symbols of the Catholic Church . These include St. Cecilia , patron saint of the Archdiocese of Omaha , and a pair of windows depicting St. <unk> and St. Patrick . 
 In the 1989 form nominating it for the National Register of Historic Places , it was noted that the church had undergone only minor alterations , including an interior <unk> in 1964 , the replacement of roof slates with asphalt shingles in 1977 , and the addition of a concrete ramp for access by the handicapped in 1986 . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The rectory , located just south of the church , was designed in <unk> style , with Romanesque Revival elements . It is a rectangular house measuring 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide by 57 feet ( 17 m ) long , with eight rooms in two stories . Like the church , it is made of mosaic gray brick . 
 An open porch occupies the whole of the west frontage , facing the street , and <unk> around to cover half of the south side . The portico is supported by circular columns with <unk> capitals . At the base of the porch is brick <unk> . There is a small enclosed porch with a doorway on the east side . 
 There are three rowlock arches above all of the windows on the first floor . One of the west @-@ facing windows on the second floor has two rowlock arches above it ; the other second @-@ floor windows are rectangular . There are two circular window openings in the attic , one facing west and the other south . 
 The rectory has a sloping roof with <unk> eaves and wood <unk> . On the south wall is a <unk> , filled in with siding . 
 
 = = = = <unk> = = = = 
 
 The original rectory garage is located southeast of the rectory . It is a rectangular structure facing westward , measuring 16 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) north to south , and 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) east to west . The interior is a single room . 
 The front ( west side ) of the garage is made of the same mosaic gray brick that was used for the construction of the church and the rectory . The north and south walls are both made of two different materials : the western two @-@ thirds of them is red brick , possibly from the <unk> that once operated in Madison ; the easternmost third is plastered with a layer of cement , painted red to match the bricks . The rear ( east ) wall is also plastered with red cement . It is speculated that the garage was either lengthened to fit a longer car , or that the eastern third had to be rebuilt ; the building 's hip roof shows no signs of having been lengthened . 
 The garage has two doors and two windows . Both the doors and windows have two rowlock brick arches over them . The car entrance is on the west side ; a passage door is on the north side . A clear @-@ glass window with 16 <unk> is on the east side . On the west side , north of the car entrance , is a window with <unk> lead @-@ glass <unk> , which appear clear from the outside but red from inside the building . It has been speculated that this window was part of the parish 's first church . 
 
 
 = Portuguese ironclad Vasco da Gama = 
 
 Vasco da Gama was a central battery ironclad which entered service with the Portuguese Navy in 1876 , serving until 1935 . She was built by the Thames Iron Works in London , launched in 1876 , and completed in 1878 . She served as the flagship of the Portuguese fleet for the majority of her long and peaceful career . She was rebuilt and heavily modernized between 1901 and 1903 . Long @-@ since obsolete by the 1930s , Vasco da Gama was finally sold for scrapping in 1935 . 
 
 = = Design = = 
 
 Vasco da Gama was 200 feet ( 61 m ) long between <unk> , and she had a beam of 40 ft ( 12 m ) , though at the main battery guns , the ship was 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 17 m ) wide . She had a maximum draft of 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 384 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 346 long tons ; 2 @,@ 628 short tons ) as originally built . She was fitted with a <unk> rig and a steam engine rated at 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 3 kn ( 19 @.@ 1 km / h ; 11 @.@ 9 mph ) . She had a crew of 232 officers and men . 
 As built , Vasco da Gama was armed with a main battery of two 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) guns , placed in individual barbettes side by side amidships . She was also equipped with a single 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) gun mounted on her stern , and four 9 @-@ pounder guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . She was protected with a complete iron armored belt that was 4 inches ( 100 mm ) thick on either end and 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick amidships . The main battery guns were protected by 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) thick barbettes . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 Vasco da Gama was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London , Britain in 1875 , and was launched on 1 December 1876 . The ship was completed in 1878 . She served as part of the coastal defense force that protected Lisbon , the Portuguese capital , and the mouth of the river <unk> . On 26 June 1897 , Vasco da Gama participated in the Fleet Review at Spithead celebrating Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . At the time , the ship was commanded by Captain <unk> de <unk> . 
 In 1901 , Vasco da Gama was taken into <unk> at Orlando shipyard in <unk> , Italy , for a major reconstruction . She was cut in half and lengthened by a 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 91 m ) long section . She was fitted with new engines and more powerful water @-@ tube boilers rated at 6 @,@ 000 <unk> ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) ; this increased her speed to 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her sailing rig also was removed . Her main battery guns were replaced with new 8 in ( 200 mm ) L / 40 guns in <unk> , the short 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a new long @-@ <unk> 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch L / 45 gun , and six 3 @-@ pounders augmented her close @-@ range defense . Her iron belt armor was removed and stronger steel armor was installed in its place . The ship 's crew increased to 260 officers and men . All of the changes caused her displacement to rise to 2 @,@ 972 metric tons ( 2 @,@ <unk> long tons ; 3 @,@ 276 short tons ) . Work on Vasco da Gama was completed by 1903 . 
 On 27 August 1907 , a gas explosion aboard the ship injured several crewmen . During political unrest in April 1913 , part of the crew of Vasco da Gama had to be removed from the ship , as they had been involved in a planned ultra @-@ Radical coup d 'état against the First Portuguese Republic . On 14 May 1915 , the crew again participated in unrest ; they mutinied and killed the ship 's captain and bombarded Lisbon , killing around one hundred people . Vasco da Gama remained the flagship of the Portuguese Navy at least as late as 1914 , as the Portuguese naval budget was insufficient to fund a suitable replacement vessel . <unk> obsolete , she remained in the Portuguese fleet until 1935 , when she was sold for scrapping . 
 
 
 = Nicole Franklin = 
 
 Nicole Franklin is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Tessa James . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 18 April 2008 . Nicole was introduced by executive producer Cameron Welsh . Nicole was mentioned various times before appearing on @-@ screen , James was cast in the role and described by Welsh as an " exciting talent " . He predicted that the viewers would respond " really well " to her . Nicole was initially portrayed as a shallow " party girl " with " wild ways " . Also described as a " high maintenance " female , she has been shown to dress constantly in a stylish manner . Nicole is also become notable for her many relationships . Her first prominent romance was with Geoff Campbell . Described as " complete opposites " , Geoff is credited as a catalyst in Nicole <unk> her <unk> attitude . Their storyline allowed the actors to take part in one of the serial 's " biggest ever location shoots " , when the couple became stranded on a remote desert island . In one storyline Nicole was involved in a same sex kiss with fellow character Freya <unk> , which was branded controversial by various media sources . The plot saw Nicole question her persona , believing Geoff had transformed her into a boring person . 
 Another relationship Nicole pursued was with Aden Jefferies , her longtime closest friend . Aden had a strong fanbase from his previous relationship with Belle Taylor . This resulted in the audience being divided over their relationship . Nicole has also been featured in various other romantic storylines , such as a brief <unk> with Liam Murphy , James said that he was compatible with Nicole because he had " the edge she was after " . She also dated Trey Palmer and they became involved in sex tape storyline , many newspapers reported on the plot because it " echoed " co @-@ star Lewis ' real life sex tape scandal . Producer Welsh once stated he believed Nicole was destined to become " full circle " and Nicole began <unk> erratic and wild once more , due to her failed romances and the death of her friend Belle . She also had an affair with an older male character , Sid Walker . James liked the fact Nicole had so many romances because she got to kiss many of her co @-@ stars . 
 James announced her departure from Home and Away in March 2011 . One of her final storylines was a pregnancy plot . Nicole felt she was too young and unable to offer a child stability , so she agreed to let Marilyn Chambers adopt the baby upon its birth . James and the writing team took the storyline " very seriously " and conducted research to portray the issue <unk> . Nicole has received critical analysis from various sources , with perception being mixed to positive . TV Week were neutral to aspects of her pregnancy plot but opined James was one of the serials best actress ' . The Daily Record said that being single was good for the character . She has also been likened to celebrities because of her glamorous image . 
 
 = = Creation and casting = = 
 
 Nicole is Roman Harris ' ( Conrad Coleby ) daughter and she was often mentioned on @-@ screen before producers decided to introduce her into the serial . In January 2008 it was announced that ex @-@ <unk> star Tessa James had been cast as Nicole . Executive producer Cameron Welsh said ' She is an exciting talent and I think audiences are going to love her character and respond really well to her . " James then moved to Sydney especially for the role . Speaking of working on the serial James stated : " Working on a series like this [ Home and Away ] is the best training you can get , I look at it like an apprenticeship and never forget how lucky I am . " Fellow cast member Celeste <unk> who plays Melody Jones originally auditioned for the part of Nicole . After Coleby who plays Roman quit the serial , James ' time with the show was in doubt . 
 In March 2011 , James confirmed that she had left Home and Away . She has already filmed her final scenes and Nicole will leave on @-@ screen later in the year . Of her departure , James said " I was at Home and Away for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ years , so it 's good to be finished and get to be who I am , and do what I 've wanted to do for so long . " 
 
 = = Character development = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Nicole has been portrayed as a party girl , feisty and has had many <unk> in a short space of time . James has described Nicole stating : " I love playing Nicole because she 's feisty and fun , and doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . And she dresses <unk> – she 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " The serial 's official website describe her as : " Nicole might come off as a <unk> princess to some people , she 's not malicious . She 's simply as shallow as a puddle , and while she might cause others emotional pain , it 's totally unintentional . " They also state : " Nicole is a girl who lives to have fun , and she is fun if you accept her for who she is . And , of course , she thinks you 're worth her attention . Nicole is a girl who knows exactly who she is and where she stands : at the centre of the universe . " Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap described Nicole as " a label @-@ loving <unk> princess , armed with a sharp wardrobe and an even sharper tongue " . They also added she was a " <unk> " type character . 
 Whilst interviewed by The Daily Telegraph , James stated : " I think she 's the best character , I get to have so much fun being a princess and a <unk> <unk> . She doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . She 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " She also stated she enjoys Nicole 's " <unk> side " because she seems to have another boyfriend every week . James also enjoys the role because of this and the fact she gets so many " <unk> " scenes with other cast members . 
 Series producer Cameron Welsh branded Nicole as an " interesting character " , adding his opinion on her development stating : " She came in with really strong opinions and a kind of morality that was different to the rest of the group " . Welsh also believes that Nicole is destined to come " full circle " . Of her 2010 storylines he comments that Nicole poor <unk> make her realise and re @-@ evaluate her life . 
 
 = = = Relationship with Geoff Campbell = = = 
 
 Nicole <unk> on a relationship with Geoff Campbell , not before they are embroiled in a " <unk> love triangle " along with Melody . In one storyline Nicole and Geoff became stranded on a " deserted island " and nearly die . The episodes were filmed on Box Beach located at <unk> Bay , New South Wales as part of a two @-@ day location shoot . Nicole nearly drowns in scenes which aired for the serial 's " cliff @-@ <unk> " in 2008 . James and Lewis took <unk> diving lessons in preparation for the storyline . Filming the storyline was compromised by logistical challenges . The crew had to move camera equipment between boats and the crew walked around the <unk> of the beach in order to avoid leaving <unk> . This was to keep the authenticity of a deserted location . The storyline was also given a " big budget " , featured helicopters and a number of promotional adverts were aired on Seven . 
 The storyline began on @-@ screen when Nicole started dating Elliot <unk> ( Paul <unk> ) . He had a <unk> against Roman and kidnapped Nicole and Geoff and left them stranded out at sea . They washed up on a deserted island and were forced to survive without food and clothing . Describing the effect it had on Nicole and Geoff , James stated : " They have no food , shelter or clothing . [ ... ] They find moments to make each other laugh , though , and realise how much they mean to one another . " Geoff had strong religious views and did not believe in premarital sex . However , the environment they were in caused him to let his guard down and they slept together . Lewis told TV Week that all the pair could think of whilst trapped was being rescued and their feelings for one an other . He added that " the fact they were both pretty much naked didn 't help " . He concluded the fact they were both kids , trying to keep warm - that then " stuff happens " . Geoff was left " guilt @-@ ridden " because he gave into <unk> . He did not regret it , but acknowledged that he wanted to save his <unk> until marriage . Therefore , Geoff saw no other option but to propose to Nicole . Lewis stated , " He 's not 100 % sure about that either , but he feels that if they 're going to have sex , a wedding is the only solution . " Describing Nicole 's reaction he said that she was " <unk> " by his offer , as she had believed he was acting strange because he wanted to dump her . Nicole refused when she realised his reasons for proposing . According to James , the moment managed to ruin their passion , she also commented that : " Nicole has liked Geoff for ages and was so happy to have got together with him - but now he 's spoiled it . " James also admitted she was <unk> to learn Nicole would turn down his proposal . James later opined that Nicole was " the one " for Geoff , but did not believe that Geoff was " the one " for Nicole . 
 Nicole and Geoff 's relationship became strained . Nicole decided to plan a return trip to the island , believing it would solve their problems and bring them closer together . James said that Geoff loved the surprise , but found Nicole " very sexy and tempting " . She added that everything about Nicole forced Geoff to question his religious beliefs and he felt he " needed to back away " . Their trip soon turned disastrous when a man named Derrick <unk> ( John Atkinson ) stole their food and intimidated the couple . He admitted he were a murderer and tried to attack Geoff with a knife . James said he " put himself in harms way " to save Nicole . 
 In 2009 , James told Inside Soap that Nicole and Geoff had a strong friendship underneath their romance . She also described their compatibility stating : " They 're complete opposites , which works well for them . It 's a bit of a fiery relationship , and they 've been through a lot together . " Whilst Lewis added : " They 're also very similar in some of their strongest traits . Geoff and Nicole are both stubborn and opinionated , and in some ways they 're naive . In a weird way they show a side to each other nobody else gets to see . " James opined Nicole 's wild behaviour was often to much for Geoff to cope with . In public , Lewis initially had negative feedback from older viewers because they felt Geoff was better suited to Melody . He revealed they felt like she was a bad influence for Geoff because she often played games . However towards the end of their relationship he felt perception had changed due to viewers having a better understanding of Nicole 's persona . 
 
 = = = Other relationships = = = 
 
 In 2009 , the serial embarked on two lesbian storylines , one of which involved Nicole . It featured Freya <unk> ( Sophie <unk> ) kissing Nicole , which sparked complaints . However , for Nicole it wasn 't about sexuality , rather finding herself the center of attention . James described their dynamic , stating : " Freya 's exactly what Nicole was like when she first arrived in the bay , that is why they click . Nicole relates to the wild side of Freya , but has no idea how far Freya is going to take it . " Through her relationship with Geoff she had <unk> , however her vanity was still present . James said Nicole was " angry " because she was on Freya 's " not hot list " . Freya kissed her to prove she thinks she is hot , James opined that Nicole did not enjoy the kiss , but was just " happy to be center of attention " and happy that people were talking about her again . The incident eventually brought her to the realisation that she had become boring . Nicole denied it was to do with her involvement with Geoff , however James said Geoff was the reason she became bored . 
 Later that year the serial included a storyline which was branded " bizarre " after it mirrored a real life scandal that had occurred weeks earlier . Lewis who plays love interest Geoff had been caught up in a sex tape scandal which leaked onto the internet , the serial decided to include Nicole making a sex tape with Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) and having it leaked . Trey filmed without Nicole 's consent , when she found out the truth she ended their relationship . Trey thought she and Geoff were getting back together so aired the tape at a local film festival to gain revenge . James described Nicole 's state of mind adding , " She 's quite vulnerable at the moment , with her dad , Roman , in prison . She 's relying on Trey , so this is the last thing she needs . " 
 Nicole 's best friend during her initial storylines was Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) . After Brendan Austin ( <unk> O <unk> ) caused Roman to go blind , he took his anger out on Nicole and Aden . Subsequently they became " each other 's support network " and Lasance said it was not long afterward that they " slipped between the sheets " . One of the conditions of Aden 's <unk> was to never sleep with Nicole , this made the pair feel guilty that they had deceived Roman . Lasance felt the storyline was controversial as he had a strong fan base for his relationship with Belle Taylor ( Jessica <unk> ) - which meant he knew it would " cause a stir " and divide the audience . In January 2010 , Nicole and Aden " get up close and personal " and they decided to spend Aden 's remaining time in the Bay together . They shared a kiss and James told TV Week that there are " a lot of complications " for them . She said that no one knew what was going to happen with Liam Murphy ( <unk> Whitehead ) and that Nicole felt guilty for betraying Belle because she was her friend . James explained that Nicole 's pairing with Aden was " a bit more serious and in @-@ depth than her usual relationships . " James opined that Aden was the " <unk> guy " for Nicole , but Liam may have had " the edge she 's after . " Nicole and Aden then embarked on a relationship . James thought that Nicole and Aden 's relationship was great and said " They started out having a kind of brother @-@ sister relationship , and that developed into something more . " Nicole declared her love for Aden , however he did not <unk> . Lasance described the moment whilst interviewed by TV Week stating : " They 've always had an awesome connection and Nicole gets into a bit of a comfortable state and <unk> out that she loves Aden . " Aden appreciated her love for him , however cannot say it back until he felt the same way . It is this that made their relationship " awkward " , Nicole tried to withdraw her declaration and hide her hurt feelings . 
 
 = = = <unk> spiral = = = 
 
 In mid @-@ 2009 , producers decided to take Nicole 's storyline into a " u @-@ turn " , when she reverted to her " wild ways " . At the time Nicole had endured repetitive personal trauma including failed relationships , Roman being sent to prison and her best friend Belle was dying of cancer . James explained : " It 's all too much for her and she can 't handle it , so she <unk> to her wild ways . " Geoff notices Nicole 's erratic behaviour and attempts to help her . She tried to " lure him into bed " after he comforted her , however he turned her down . James said she no longer had romantic feelings for Geoff , but was actually in a " vulnerable state " . She then started relying on alcohol more , and <unk> with fellow " wild child " Indigo Walker ( <unk> Weaving ) at a " <unk> " venue . James explained that Nicole saw alcohol as an answer to her problems . The fact that " she 's trying to deal with too many things " saw Nicole transform into a <unk> up and depressed person . 
 Nicole became more irresponsible with the more she drank and was in the company of many men . Geoff arrived and saved her from danger , Lewis said there was a part of Geoff that still loved Nicole . However they did not start anything again , James said she understood why because of their complicated backstory . However Geoff continued to support Nicole as he realised that " a lot of people she was closest to have deserted her " . Nicole 's unpredictable behaviour continued thereafter . All that Geoff could offer was to be there for her because ultimately " Nicole is the only one that can save her from herself . " 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Nicole had a brief relationship with Penn Graham ( Christian Clark ) and after he was murdered , she discovered that she was pregnant with his child . James told Sunrise that viewers could expect a " realistic portrayal of teen pregnancy " and she explained that it was important to respect the issue . She added " We took it very seriously with the writers , and you do a lot of research and things like that . You can only do your best , I guess ! " Nicole later told Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) about the baby and she offered to adopt it . James later revealed that when she joined Home and Away she told the writers that they can do anything with her character , except make her pregnant . Of the moment she was told that Nicole was going to have a baby , James said " I went in to see our producer later and he said , ' Okay , I 'm going to <unk> in advance - we 're making Nicole pregnant ! ' " She initially did not want to portray a " typical soap teenage pregnancy " as she thought Nicole should be different . However the situation was explained to her and she became excited at the challenging storyline ahead . 
 Nicole later decided to let Marilyn and Sid Walker ( Robert <unk> ) adopt the baby upon its birth . Marilyn was desperate to mother a child and her obsession with that and her controlling behaviour became too much for Nicole . Of the situation , Symons said " Marilyn is in Nicole 's face every minute . She 's doing it out of love , but she doesn 't realise she 's becoming obsessed with the baby . " Nicole was still questioning whether she is making the right decision about her <unk> baby 's future and she argued with Marilyn . Nicole began dating a student from university , Angus <unk> ( Tim <unk> ) , they got along well on their first dates . Marilyn was left worried about their agreement and she felt " distanced . " Symons explained , " Marilyn is scared of being replaced . She 's scared of losing the baby , which could happen because there isn 't a legal agreement . " Roo Stewart ( <unk> Parker ) helped Nicole by convincing Marilyn to re @-@ evaluate the situation . Symons added that there is " still a long way to go " with the arrangement , but thereafter she was supportive and offered constructive help to Nicole . 
 During the final few weeks of her pregnancy Nicole began to receive increasing support from Angelo <unk> ( Luke <unk> ) . James said it was clear to see that " the lines of friendship could be <unk> into something more " for the pair . Whilst <unk> opined " They 've been spending time together and have realised how comfortable they are together . " 
 Angelo was forced to help Nicole give birth to a baby boy , George , and she handed him over to Marilyn immediately as agreed . She then tried to stay away , however it became obvious he needed her when he struggled without her . Marilyn then became obsessed with Nicole having the power to take her new son back . It was then revealed that Nicole would struggle to switch off her <unk> instinct after giving George away . Nicole came to visit the baby and Marilyn caught her <unk> George , while she was alone with him . Symons called the scenes " volatile . " Nicole was unaware that Marilyn has reservations about her spending time with the baby . Of the <unk> scene , Symons stated : " Marilyn is shocked and offended , and this cuts to the very core of her worries - that she doesn 't have the same natural <unk> instincts as George 's birth mother . Without a doubt , Marilyn thinks Nicole is <unk> the mark . She feels that a boundary has been <unk> and it could put a big strain on their relationship . " After the incident , Nicole is asked by Marylin , to stay away from the baby . James defended Nicole stating : " I think it 's hard to not bond , but this is Marilyn 's baby , and Nicole is so young and wants very much to give Marilyn and Sid this gift . " 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Nicole 's biological parents were the teenage Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) and Natalie Franklin ( <unk> Pickering ) , but she was raised by her maternal grandparents and considered her mother , Natalie , as an older sister . She did not meet her father until her early teenage years . Nicole arrives in Summer Bay in a <unk> car . She initially makes herself unpopular with her <unk> care @-@ free nature . She tries to sleep with Aden but he <unk> her . She makes a bet with Aden that she can sleep with Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) within two weeks , but Geoff and Belle publicly <unk> her when they find out . Nicole starts dating Roman 's old SAS friend Mark 's brother Elliot <unk> , despite Roman 's disapproval . After breaking up with Elliot , he takes her diving where he tries to kill her , Geoff and later Roman . Geoff tries to save Nicole , but Elliot leaves the pair stranded at sea . They wash up on a remote island and Geoff and Nicole grow close to each other . Geoff , who has strong religious views , sleeps with Nicole as they cannot fight <unk> . When rescued Geoff proposes to Nicole out of guilt , she turns him down . She later has a pregnancy scare but is happy to discover it was a false alarm . Nicole later decides she and Geoff should return to the island to repair their relationship . They chased through woodland by a murderer , Derrick who tries to kill them both . However they manage to escape . Nicole decides to try her best to make their relationship work . However , after Freya kisses her they enter a few rocky periods and later break up . 
 She starts a relationship with troublesome Trey . He films them having sex , which is later leaked at the town 's movie festival . She has a brief relationship with Liam . After the death of good friend Belle , Nicole goes on a downward spiral . She starts <unk> and binge drinking along with Indigo . Geoff notices her behaviour and attempts to help her . After pushing him away she sleeps with drug addict Liam . She then pursues older man Sid . She kisses him and Indigo sees them , which ruins their friendship . She later moves in with Miles <unk> ( Josh <unk> <unk> ) who agrees to look after her . 
 Nicole starts dating Penn who manipulates her . He makes her believe she has accidentally stepped on a needle and she has tests for HIV . She later finds out she has the all clear . Nicole reveals to Marilyn that she is pregnant with Penn 's child . She initially chooses to have an abortion , but changes her mind and decides to give the baby to Marilyn . Nicole goes on a date with Angelo and she takes him to her <unk> class . When he learns that Nicole is giving her baby away , Angelo ends their relationship . Nicole become friends with Roo and asks her to be at the birth , but Roo turns her down . Marilyn <unk> to Nicole when she starts to take over and begins leaving her out of her plans for the baby . Nicole becomes fed up when the baby is late and Angelo tries to help her start labour . They go for a walk on the beach and Nicole 's water breaks . Angelo is then forced to deliver the baby . Nicole later decides that she wants her baby back and tells Marilyn , who is devastated . Marilyn takes the baby , but later returns him . Nicole then leaves Summer bay with Angelo and George . She later contacts Marilyn and they meet in the city . Nicole and Marilyn talk things through and Angelo shows up with George . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 Holy Soap said that Nicole 's most memorable moment was when she " returned to the desert island with Geoff to rekindle their love " and she was held hostage by Derek the murderer , before her father came to the rescue . When Nicole began dating Liam , Caroline <unk> writing for the Daily Mail said " I think this reforming wild child – a kind of less moody <unk> <unk> – has struck lucky " . Inside Soap opined that Nicole was a " <unk> <unk> from the city who prays at the altar of Paris Hilton " . The Sunday Mail said it seemed like no one could stop her downward spiral . The Daily Record said that Nicole and Geoff 's relationship ending was good for her character . They later branded her a " fiery favourite " and when she started dating Penn , they said " <unk> Nicole looks set to fall for the wrong man all over again " . When Nicole had her HIV scare Holy Soap said " As if defending her man against the Bay 's critics wasn 't enough for one girl to take , poor Nic " . Inside Soap said " Nicole Franklin isn 't exactly backward in coming forward " . <unk> Stephen of the Daily Mail opined that Nicole seemed incapable of decision making when it came to deciding on a <unk> partner . TV Week chose James as one of the serial 's most promising actresses opining she was ready for roles in Hollywood . 
 TV Week often commented on her pregnancy storyline . After the plot was half way through Erin Miller of TV Week said that Nicole had changed her mind about adopting her baby " more times that Julia <unk> has uttered the phrase ' moving forward ' " . Upon watching Nicole 's beach birth scenes , the magazine website editor <unk> " Who knew sand had <unk> properties ? ! Well , maybe not ... but you could forgive pregnant teen Nicole for thinking that after a casual <unk> along the Bay 's beach ends with Angelo delivering her newborn son ! " Commenting on the realism of the storyline they added : " Only in the Bay would a baby be born on the beach ! " Miller thought it was odd she had then " <unk> lost any signs that she even had a baby . " She <unk> " already the teen is back to wearing skin @-@ tight dresses ! " . They later described Nicole and Marilyn 's argument over George as " the mother of all rifts " and said " It 's exhausting just thinking about it ! " Miller later criticised Nicole 's career in fashion , after John told her he hated her designs for the Surf Club . She said " I had to agree with him - putting <unk> in pink <unk> @-@ neck swimmers is a terrible idea . " 
 
 
 = Livin ' the Dream = 
 
 " Livin ' the Dream " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the <unk> episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on May 2 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Michael Imperioli as <unk> Billy , and was initially scheduled to air in its half @-@ hour timeslot , before being expanded to a full hour . 
 The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to pursue a career as a professional actor , and <unk> his job at Dunder Mifflin . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finally receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Imperioli ) and , on the recommendation of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , is promoted to Regional Manager of the Scranton branch . Jim <unk> with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , and makes it clear that he will choose her over Philadelphia . 
 The episode was viewed by an estimated and received a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot and fourth in its second , marking a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode . " Livin ' the Dream " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Critical praise mainly went towards the dynamic between Jim , Pam and Dwight , particularly for the former two 's reconciliation and the latter 's promotion . Andy 's subplot , meanwhile , received more mixed reviews . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) plans on firing Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) due to his missing work for acting gigs . However , Andy tells David he is resigning to pursue his dreams of stardom full time , and David is relieved to not have to fire him . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Michael Imperioli ) . Seeing Dwight 's tenacity and devotion , David is inspired to make Dwight Andy 's replacement . 
 Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has returned to Scranton full time , saying he has realized that he can 't devote himself to both his family and his new job , and has decided to go " all in " on his family since that is what makes him most happy . David asks Jim his opinion on promoting Dwight , and Jim says that Dwight deserves the job and will be a great manager . Dwight then appoints Jim the new assistant to the regional manager . Darryl <unk> ( Craig Robinson ) informs Jim that <unk> has found a buyer and wants them to do a promotional tour around the country for three months . With <unk> regret , Jim says he will not do the tour because he cannot put his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) through that , unaware that Pam is listening in . 
 Everyone in the office tells Andy that quitting is a foolish move and that he has no chance of achieving stardom . Andy eventually goes back on his decision , and David allows him to stay on in a sales position . However , mere hours later Andy feels that he is only sticking with his <unk> @-@ Mifflin job because it is safe and that he has to take a shot at achieving fame . Fearing his conviction will <unk> a second time , he decides he cannot simply quit , but get fired . This proves difficult as he is unable to make himself go through with any offense more serious than <unk> on David 's car . Andy bids farewell to his <unk> with an unexpectedly moving rendition of " I Will Remember You " , prompting them to comment to the documentary crew that he may have star potential after all . 
 Meanwhile , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) is evicted from her studio apartment after her cats were taken away by Animal Control . She considers living in a tent in the woods , prompting Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) to offer her to stay with him until she gets back on her feet . She finally accepts with gratitude . As they set off to take Angela 's things to Oscar 's place , Oscar mentions her marriage to Robert <unk> and she breaks down into tears , saying " I love him . " However , she denies she still has feelings for Robert and claims she was talking about Dwight . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 " Livin ' the Dream " was written by story editor <unk> <unk> @-@ Wright , marking her second writing credit for the series , after the earlier season episode " <unk> " . It was directed by regular Office director Jeffrey Blitz , who last directed season eight 's " <unk> " . The episode was originally scheduled to air in its regular half @-@ hour time slot , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot beginning a half hour early , although it still counts as one official episode , similar to the earlier season episode " Moving On " . Rogers noted that " we knew the last two episodes would be hour @-@ longs , and The <unk> might even end up running longer , but we still had a lot of great storytelling to do leading up to them , and ' Livin ' the Dream ' was one that ultimately deserved to be an hour long episode as well ! " 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Ratings = = = 
 
 " Livin ' the Dream " originally aired on May 2 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " Livin ' the Dream " was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Paper <unk> " . The episode ranked third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 rating and an entry of the Fox reality series American Idol which scored a 2 @.@ 6 / 9 rating . The second half @-@ hour ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which scored a 3 @.@ 0 / 9 rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which garnered a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating , and installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating . 
 
 = = = Reviews = = = 
 
 " Livin ' the Dream " received positive reviews from television critics . Roth Cornet of IGN wrote that " it <unk> me greatly that at the conclusion of this super @-@ sized episode I was left , once again , truly looking forward to seeing what these next few weeks , and that final hour of The Office , will bring . " Cornet praised the full @-@ use of the ensemble , particularly the " <unk> and Stanley Lil ' Romeo mini @-@ debate " and Creed 's confused <unk> of Dwight 's declaration . Cornet also called the Dwight storyline " perfectly executed " , as well as the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Dwight dynamic featured throughout the episode , calling their companionship to be " entirely earned " . She also praised Kinsey 's performance during her character 's storyline , and said her final scenes with Oscar " [ <unk> ] at my heart @-@ string " . She gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " Great " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " and wrote that " almost everybody is having their best day in a long time , in the best episode of The Office in an even longer time " . 
 Nick Campbell of TV.com complimented the sentimental storylines in the episode , specifically between Jim , Pam and Dwight . He was positive towards Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , but felt " something hollow about their reunion " . He also noted that the Jim @-@ Pam storyline caused the Dwight @-@ Angela relationship to go " darker " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a slightly more mixed review writing that " the non @-@ Andy parts of " Livin ' the Dream " were fairly interesting " . He appreciated the drama coming from Angela 's <unk> , despite <unk> with the logic in the situation . Sepinwall praised the Jim @-@ Dwight dynamic in the episode , considering it an enjoyable payoff , and also praised Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , particularly them annoying their co @-@ workers with their flirting . Joshua Alton of The A.V. Club was more negative towards the episode , saying it felt " padded @-@ out " to fill the full hour timeslot , and that " this episode might be the nadir for the show ’ s hour @-@ long installments " . He was complimentary towards the Jim @-@ Pam storyline , but felt " there wasn ’ t much happening " beyond Pam <unk> Jim 's talk with Darryl . Alton praised the Dwight storyline and his dynamic with Jim and Pam , calling it " the true fan service " . Alton gave the episode a " C – " . 
 
 
 = Toniná = 
 
 <unk> ( or Toniná in Spanish <unk> ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo . 
 The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-@ pyramids set on terraces rising some 71 metres ( 233 ft ) above a plaza , a large court for playing the <unk> <unk> , and over 100 carved monuments , most dating from the 6th century through the 9th centuries AD , during the Classic period . Toniná is distinguished by its well preserved stucco sculptures and particularly by its in @-@ the @-@ round carved monuments , produced to an extent not seen in <unk> since the end of the much earlier <unk> civilization . 
 Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic , using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom . For much of its history , Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque , its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region , although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west . 
 The city is notable for having the last known Long Count date on any Maya monument , marking the end of the Classic Maya period in AD 909 . 
 
 = = Etymology = = 
 
 Toniná means house of stone in the <unk> language of the local Maya inhabitants , an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honour time . However , this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo , appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used for the kings of Toniná , k <unk> po ' <unk> ( Divine Lord of Po ) . A Maya rebellion in Colonial times , in 1558 , featured a group called the po ' <unk> ' ( People of Po ) . Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records . Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts , Popo may represent the original name of the city . 
 
 = = Location = = 
 
 Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 000 ft ) above mean sea level in the Chiapas <unk> of southern Mexico , some 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque , Toniná 's greatest rival throughout its recorded history . Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the <unk> <unk> , one of the two rivers forming the Ocosingo Valley . 
 
 = = Rulers = = 
 
 Rulers of Toniná recorded in the Maya script on Toniná monuments include : 
 The last known recorded date at the site is featured on Monument 101 as 15 January 909 CE . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Early Classic = = = 
 
 Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence , although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction . Due to this , early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site . An 8th @-@ century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217 , although it only mentions his title , not his name . 
 Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments , the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to <unk> . A ruler known as Jaguar Bird <unk> is represented on a 6th @-@ century stela , which describes him <unk> to the throne in 568 . 
 The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of <unk> , located 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River , the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in <unk> . 
 
 = = = Late Classic = = = 
 
 
 = = = = K 'inich Hix Chapat = = = = 
 
 Toniná 's history comes into focus in the Late Classic , when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts . In <unk> K 'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign , although he was probably enthroned in 595 . The last mention of K 'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to <unk> that appears to be a memorial stone . 
 
 = = = = Ruler 2 = = = = 
 
 Ruler 2 acceded to the throne of Toniná in <unk> . His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments . Ruler 2 established the use of in @-@ the @-@ round <unk> style that came to <unk> the stelae of Toniná . A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound , one of them is identified as a lord from <unk> ' , an as yet unidentified site . His reign may have ended with his defeat and capture by K 'inich Kan <unk> II of Palenque in September <unk> , as described in a <unk> text from Temple 17 in the rival city , an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice . 
 
 = = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak = = = = 
 
 K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak was enthroned in <unk> , twenty years after Ruler 2 , and reigned for twenty @-@ seven years . During his reign he restored Toniná 's power with a number of military victories over Palenque , and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power . Ballcourt 1 , the larger of Toniná 's two <unk> , was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city 's arch @-@ rival . The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives , all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region . The date of the king 's death is unknown . 
 
 = = = = Ruler 4 = = = = 
 
 Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age . Three years later , in 711 , while Ruler 4 was still a child , Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque . The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy <unk> II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region . The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten @-@ year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city , during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage . Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and <unk> . A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of <unk> , one of the two Maya " <unk> " . 
 
 = = = = K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat = = = = 
 
 Ruler 4 was succeeded by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in <unk> . Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala . A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between <unk> and 729 and in 730 he <unk> the tomb of his predecessor K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . The mother of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is named as Lady <unk> <unk> K 'awiil and his father may well have been K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak himself . The reign of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives , although the reason for this is unknown . 
 
 = = = = Later rulers = = = = 
 
 Little is known of the next two rulers , Ruler 6 is named as K 'inich <unk> Chapat , he celebrated the period ending of <unk> and may have died 762 . A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign , however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals . He was succeeded by Ruler 7 , about whom even less is known . Around <unk> Toniná defeated Palenque in battle . 
 In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord <unk> Chan K <unk> ' , a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power . 
 Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná . He celebrated a series of events between 789 and <unk> , including the defeat of <unk> in 789 , and the capture of the ruler <unk> 'an Aj <unk> , who appears to have been the vassal of B <unk> K 'awiil of <unk> . In 799 he <unk> the tomb of Ruler 1 . Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive <unk> of the upper levels of the Acropolis . Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title <unk> b <unk> b 'aak , " He of Many <unk> " . However , the lesser extent of Toniná 's power is evident from its victory over the site of <unk> <unk> 'i ' ( White Dog ) , an important city in the <unk> region , an area which had once been dominated by Toniná . 
 By the time of Ruler 8 's successor , Uh Chapat , Toniná was clearly in decline . Only a single event , in <unk> , can be dated to his reign , although a stucco mural depicting captives with <unk> at their <unk> may belong to his period of rule . 
 The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen , perhaps aided by the site 's relative isolation . Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to <unk> in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived . <unk> fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more . 
 
 = = = Modern history = = = 
 
 The first published account of the ruins was made by <unk> Jacinto <unk> at the end of the 17th century . A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Toniná in the 19th century , the first being an expedition led by Guillaume <unk> in 1808 . John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick <unk> visited in 1840 , and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site . Eduard <unk> and <unk> <unk> @-@ Sachs investigated the monuments at Toniná , publishing their reports at the turn of the 20th century . Karl Sapper visited the site in 1895 and 1896 . <unk> <unk> and Oliver La <unk> investigated the site in 1920s for Tulane University , publishing their reports in 1926 — 1927 . 
 The French Toniná Project began excavations in 1972 which continued through 1975 , then resumed in 1979 to 1980 , under the direction of Pierre <unk> and Claude <unk> . The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico ( <unk> , the <unk> <unk> de <unk> e Historia ) began their own excavations at Toniná the following year . 
 The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000 . 
 
 = = Site description = = 
 
 The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The principal architecture is located in the <unk> , which occupies seven south @-@ facing terraces on the northern side of the platform , rising 71 metres ( 233 ft ) over the plaza below . It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites , with a right @-@ angle relationship between most structures . 
 Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies . A 16 by 4 metres ( 52 by 13 ft ) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand . A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná 's most distinguished victims , dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below . This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque , suggesting that captured artists carried out the work . 
 After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period , many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces . 
 
 = = = Structures = = = 
 
 Ballcourt 1 ( the Sunken Ballcourt ) was dedicated in 699 by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K 'inich Kan <unk> II of Palenque . <unk> of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers . One of these vassals is named as <unk> Ahk ( Green Turtle ) , who was the lord of <unk> Te ' , a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and <unk> . 
 Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two <unk> and lies in the north of the plaza , at the foot of the Acropolis . 
 The Palace of the <unk> is entered via three step @-@ vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace of the Acropolis . 
 The Palace of <unk> is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis . The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets . On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco . One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones . 
 
 = = = Monuments and sculptures = = = 
 
 The monuments of Toniná tend to be smaller than those at other Maya sites , with most of the stelae measuring less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The most important difference from monuments at other Maya sites is that they are carved in the round like statues , often with hieroglyphic text running down the spine . On the fifth terrace , in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of Toniná 's rulers dominated two @-@ dimensional representations of defeated enemies . 
 The dated monuments at Toniná span the period from AD 495 to 909 , covering most of the Classic Period . 
 Monument 3 is broken into various fragments , five of which were recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which were reunited in the Toniná site museum . Aside from being broken , the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded , it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K 'inich <unk> Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch <unk> <unk> . 
 Monument 5 was recovered from a school in Ocosingo and moved to the site museum of Toniná . It is a badly eroded life @-@ size human statue with the head missing . 
 Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and has suffered only minor damage . It is a stela base with well @-@ preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in <unk> . It is currently in the <unk> Regional in <unk> Gutiérrez . 
 Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2 . It marks the period ending of 682 and shows the presentation of three war captives . 
 Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round , representing Ruler 2 . It dates to AD <unk> . 
 Monument 27 is a carved step depicting K 'awiil Mo ' , a lord from Palenque , as an elderly prisoner , bound and lying on his back with his profile positioned in such a way as to be <unk> on time and again . 
 Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depicts a female captive , which is rare in Maya art . 
 Monument 101 has the last Long Count date from any Maya monument , it marks the K <unk> ending of AD 909 . 
 Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site , dating to AD 593 . It depicts Ruler 1 . 
 Monument 113 depicts Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual . 
 Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8 . It commemorates the death of an important noble , apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8 's predecessor <unk> Chapat . 
 Monument 122 is a low relief sculpture marking the defeat of Palenque by Ruler 4 in 711 and the capture of Kan Joy <unk> II , who is depicted as a bound captive . 
 Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine <unk> white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact . It describes the dedication of a ballcourt by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . 
 Monument 154 dates to the reign of K 'inich Hix Chapat and records his installing of two subordinate lords in <unk> . 
 Monument 158 has a very late date , in AD <unk> , at the very end of the Classic Period . It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10 . 
 The Frieze of the Dream Lords ( also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four <unk> ) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992 . It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace . It represents a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather @-@ covered <unk> from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims . Among the <unk> <unk> are depicted the <unk> ( spirit companions ) of the Maya elite . The most well @-@ preserved section of the sculpture depicts a skeletal supernatural way named <unk> <unk> Kimi ( " Turtle Foot Death " ) wearing <unk> on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand , interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of <unk> ' . The frieze was once brightly painted in red , blue and yellow . This frieze has strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of <unk> in the distant Valley of Mexico . 
 
 = = = The site museum = = = 
 
 The site museum is located 300 metres ( 980 ft ) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone . It possesses 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room . The first room explains the pyramidal form of the <unk> and how it relates to Maya mythology , while the main room contains sculptures of the city 's rulers . 
 <unk> in the collection include stone sculptures , ceramics and artefacts sculpted from bone , shell , <unk> and flint . The pieces in the museum <unk> depict the two sides of the power exercised by Toniná , on the one hand with sculptures of the city 's rulers and on the other with its depictions of bound prisoners of war . 
 
 
 = Central Area Command ( RAAF ) = 
 
 Central Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in March 1940 , and covered the central portion of New South Wales . Headquartered at Sydney , Central Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . It was disbanded in August 1941 and control of its units taken over by other RAAF formations . <unk> in 1943 – 44 to raise a new Central Area Command did not come to fruition . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to implement a <unk> form of command , <unk> with expected increases in manpower and units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary . 
 No. 2 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Central Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Sydney , Central Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in New South Wales except those in the southern <unk> and the north of the state . Units in Queensland were also temporarily assigned to its control , pending the formation of Northern Area . Central Area 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , who had also led No. 2 Group . His senior air staff officer was Wing Commander Alan <unk> . 
 In May 1940 it was reported that the area 's headquarters building would change from " Mont <unk> " in Point Piper to the mansion " <unk> " nearby . Cole handed over command of Central Area to Air Commodore Bill Anderson in December 1940 . By August 1941 , the RAAF 's expanding instructional program necessitated the establishment of overarching training organisations on a semi @-@ functional , semi @-@ geographical basis . Accordingly , No. 2 ( Training ) Group was formed in Sydney , taking responsibility for the training units then under Central Area , which was disbanded . Control of other Central Area units was " divided as convenient " , according to the official history of the war , between Northern and Southern Area <unk> . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 The RAAF 's area command structure was revised in 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War : Northern Area was split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and a new command covering New South Wales and southern Queensland , Eastern Area , was created , making a total of five commands . In October 1943 , the Air Board proposed carving a new Central Area Command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore <unk> for <unk> . This Central Area Command would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland . The War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time the new Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland . Once again , nothing came of the proposal . 
 
 
 = Corn crake = 
 
 The corn crake , corncrake or <unk> ( Crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family . It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China , and <unk> to Africa for the northern hemisphere 's winter . It is a medium @-@ sized crake with <unk> or grey @-@ streaked brownish @-@ black upperparts , chestnut markings on the wings , and blue @-@ grey underparts with rust @-@ coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail . The strong bill is flesh @-@ toned , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults , and <unk> chicks are black , as with all rails . There are no subspecies , although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts . The male 's call is a loud krek krek , from which the scientific name is derived . The corn crake is larger than its closest relative , the African crake , which shares its wintering range ; that species is also darker @-@ <unk> , and has a <unk> face . 
 The corn crake 's breeding habitat is grassland , particularly <unk> , and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds . This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6 – 14 cream @-@ coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches . These hatch in 19 – 20 days , and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks . This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed . The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates , the occasional small frog or mammal , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Natural threats include introduced and feral mammals , large birds , various parasites and diseases . 
 Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe , this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large , apparently stable , populations in Russia and Kazakhstan . Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought , and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses . Despite its elusive nature , the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature , and garnered a range of local and dialect names . 
 
 = = Taxonomy = = 
 
 The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World , suggesting this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. <unk> , which has sometimes been given its own genus , <unk> , but is now more usually placed in Crex . Both species are short @-@ billed brown birds with a preference for grassland rather than wetland habitats typical of rails . <unk> crakes , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake ( <unk> <unk> ) are near relatives of the Crex genus . 
 Corn crakes were first described by Linnaeus in his Systema <unk> in 1758 as <unk> crex , but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex , created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann <unk> <unk> in 1803 , and named Crex <unk> . The earlier use of crex gives it priority over <unk> 's specific name <unk> , and leads to the current name of Crex crex . The binomial name , Crex crex , from the Ancient Greek " <unk> " , is <unk> , referring to the crake 's repetitive grating call . The common name was formerly spelt as a single word , " corncrake " , but the official version is now " corn crake " . The English names refer to the species habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields , rather than marshes used by most members of this family . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 The corn crake is a medium @-@ sized rail , 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) . Males weigh 165 g ( 5 @.@ 8 oz ) on average and females 145 g ( 5 @.@ 1 oz ) . The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown @-@ black in colour , streaked with buff or grey . The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars . The face , neck and breast are blue @-@ grey , apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye , the belly is white , and the flanks , and undertail are barred with chestnut and white . The strong bill is flesh @-@ coloured , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Compared to the male , the female has warmer @-@ toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak . Outside the breeding season , the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey . The juvenile is like the adult in appearance , but has a yellow tone to its upperparts , and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff @-@ brown . The chicks have black down , as with all rails . While there are no subspecies , all populations show great individual variation in colouring , and the birds gradually become paler and <unk> towards the east of the range . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding , which is normally finished by late August or early September , before migration to south eastern Africa . There is a pre @-@ breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa , mainly involving the plumage of the head , body and tail . Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching . 
 The corn crake is <unk> with the African crake on the wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , tawny <unk> and different underparts pattern . In flight , it has longer , less rounded wings , and shallower <unk> than its African relative , and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing . In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails , since <unk> species are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . A flying corn crake can resemble a <unk> , but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic . 
 
 = = = Voice = = = 
 
 On the breeding grounds , the male corn crake 's advertising call is a loud , repetitive , grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird 's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open . The call can be heard from 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) away , and serves to establish the breeding territory , attract females , and challenge <unk> males . <unk> differences in <unk> mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls . Early in the season , the call is given almost continuously at night , and often during the day , too . It may be repeated more than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am . The call has evolved to make a singing male 's location clear , as this species hides in vegetation . The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season . To attract males , mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by <unk> a credit card against a comb or <unk> @-@ <unk> . The male also has a growling call , given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions . 
 The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male ; it also has a distinctive <unk> sound , similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality . The female also has a high @-@ pitched <unk> call , and a oo @-@ oo @-@ oo sound to call the chick . The chicks make a quiet <unk> @-@ <unk> contact call , and a <unk> used to beg for food . Because of the difficulty in seeing this species , it is usually <unk> by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am ; the birds do not move much at night , whereas they may wander up to 600 m ( 660 yd ) during the day , which could lead to double @-@ counting if monitored then . <unk> individual males suggests that just counting calling birds <unk> the true count by nearly 30 % , and the discrepancy is likely to be greater , since only 80 % of males may call at all on a given night . The corn crake is silent in Africa . 
 
 = = Distribution and habitat = = 
 
 The corn crake breeds from Britain and Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia . Although it has vanished from much of its historic range , this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41 ° N and 62 ° N. There is also a sizable population in western China , but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey . Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect , and result from <unk> of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail . 
 The corn crake winters mainly in Africa , from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa . North of this area , it is mainly seen on migration , but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa . Most of the South African population of about 2 @,@ 000 birds occurs in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former <unk> Province , and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain . There are several nineteenth @-@ century records , when populations were much higher than now , of birds being seen in western Europe , mainly Britain and Ireland , between December and February . 
 This crake <unk> to Africa along two main routes : a western route through Morocco and Algeria , and a more important <unk> through Egypt . On passage , it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of West Africa . Birds from <unk> following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south , and again on the return flight , when they also rested in Spain or North Africa . Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , the corn crake has been recorded as a <unk> to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the <unk> , Bermuda , Canada , the US , Greenland , Iceland , the <unk> , the Azores , Madeira , and the Canary Islands . 
 The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breeds up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the <unk> , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises . It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use . It also <unk> other <unk> grasslands in mountains or <unk> , on coasts , or where created by fire . <unk> areas like wetland edges may be used , but very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense to walk through . The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post . <unk> which is not <unk> or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting , but locally crops such as <unk> , <unk> , rape , <unk> or potatoes may be used . After breeding , adults move to taller vegetation such as common <unk> , iris , or <unk> to moult , returning to the hay and <unk> meadows for the second brood . In China , flax is also used for nest sites . Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops , successful breeding is uncommon , and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed . 
 When wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and <unk> habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or <unk> beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occurs at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 metres ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Each bird stays within a fairly small area . Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake , that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in <unk> and around golf courses . 
 
 = = Behaviour = = 
 
 The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation , but will sometimes emerge into the open . Occasionally , individuals may become very trusting ; for five consecutive summers , an individual crake on the Scottish island of <unk> entered a kitchen to feed on scraps , and , in 1999 , a wintering Barra bird would come for <unk> feed once the chickens had finished . In Africa , it is more secretive than the African crake , and , unlike its relative , it is rarely seen in the open , although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides . The corn crake is most active early and late in the day , after heavy rain and during light rain . Its typical flight is weak and <unk> , although less so than that of the African crake . For longer flights , such as migration , it has a <unk> , stronger action with legs drawn up . It walks with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened . It will swim if essential . When flushed by a dog , it will fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then crouch on landing . If disturbed in the open , this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance , with its neck stretched forward , then stand upright to watch the intruder . When captured it may <unk> death , recovering at once if it sees a way out . 
 The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds , where each bird occupies 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 ha ( 10 – 12 acres ) at one time , although the total area used may be double that , since an individual may move locally due to flooding , plant growth , or grass cutting . Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration , sometimes associating with common <unk> . Migration takes place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults . Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young . 
 
 = = = Breeding = = = 
 
 Until 1995 , it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous , but it <unk> that a male may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The male 's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 to 126 @.@ 0 acres ) , but averages 15 @.@ 7 ha ( 39 acres ) . The female has a much smaller range , averaging only 5 @.@ 5 ha ( 14 acres ) . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings <unk> and his head pointing forward . Usually the stranger moves off ; if it stays , the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground . They then run around giving the growling call and <unk> at each other . A real fight may ensue , with the birds leaping at each other and pecking , and sometimes kicking . Females play no part in defending the territory . 
 The female may be offered food by the male during courtship . He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down , the tail is fanned , and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground . He will then attempt to approach the female from behind , and then leap on her back to <unk> . The nest is typically in grassland , sometimes in safer sites along a hedge , or near an isolated tree or bush , or in overgrown vegetation . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in <unk> or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill . The nest , well hidden in the grass , is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground . It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants , and lined with finer grasses . Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female , a recent <unk> study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest . 
 The nest is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The clutch is 6 – 14 , usually 8 – 12 eggs ; these are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or <unk> with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . The eggs are laid at daily intervals , but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day . Incubation is by the female only ; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed , or wait until the last moment to flee , leads to many deaths during hay @-@ cutting and harvesting . The eggs hatch together after 19 – 20 days , and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two . They are fed by the female for three or four days , but can find their own food thereafter . The juveniles fledge after 34 – 38 days . The second brood is started about 42 days after the first , and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16 – 18 days . The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa . 
 Nest success in undisturbed sites is high , at 80 – 90 % , but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land . The method and timing of mowing is crucial ; mechanized mowing can kill 38 – 95 % of chicks in a given site , and losses average 50 % of first brood chicks and somewhat less than 40 % of second brood chicks . The influence of weather on chick survival is limited ; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather , the effects are relatively small . Unlike many precocial species , chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent , and this may cushion them from adverse conditions . The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather , with lower survival in large broods . The annual adult survival rate is under 30 % , although some individuals may live for 5 – 7 years . 
 
 = = = Feeding = = = 
 
 The corn crake is omnivorous , but mainly feeds on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , <unk> , grasshoppers and other insects . In the breeding areas , it is a predator of <unk> <unk> , which infest <unk> <unk> and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests , <unk> and <unk> . This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar , but includes locally available items such as <unk> , cockroaches and dung beetles . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass <unk> ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . Hunting is normally in cover , but , particularly in the wintering areas , it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . <unk> material is regurgitated as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) <unk> . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food , and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to visit supplementary feeding areas . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach . 
 
 = = Predators and parasites = = 
 
 Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common <unk> and hooded <unk> . In Lithuania , the introduced <unk> dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , <unk> and other birds of prey , <unk> and <unk> . At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked , as reflected in a high breeding success . There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black <unk> . 
 The widespread <unk> <unk> <unk> , which lives in the <unk> of birds , has been recorded in the corn crake , as have the parasitic worm <unk> elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , and hard ticks of the genera <unk> and <unk> . 
 During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , <unk> and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic <unk> species . Subsequently , <unk> tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment . 
 
 = = Status = = 
 
 Until 2010 , despite a breeding range estimated at 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased . It is therefore now classed as least concern , since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term . There are an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . In much of the western half of its range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including a five @-@ fold increase in Finland , and a doubling in the UK . In the Netherlands , there were 33 breeding territories in 1996 , but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998 . 
 The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . <unk> dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of <unk> , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using <unk> to mechanical <unk> , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by <unk> . <unk> also means that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , gives little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the <unk> , although some <unk> females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results . 
 Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised <unk> fields compared to traditional hay meadows , in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms . This bird is good eating ; when they were common in England , Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a <unk> . More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds , up to 14 @,@ 000 a year , in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable . 
 Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing . <unk> these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . <unk> of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . <unk> of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries . Where breeding sites <unk> on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from <unk> , which creates more open habitats . 
 
 = = In culture = = 
 
 Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression , but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers , the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature . 
 
 = = = Names = = = 
 
 The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years , with " <unk> " and variants of " corncrake " being preferred at various times . " <unk> <unk> " also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813 . The originally Older Scots " <unk> " was popularised by Thomas <unk> , who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds . Other Scots names include " corn <unk> " and " <unk> " ; the latter term , like " king of the quail " , " grass quail " , the French " <unk> de <unk> " , and the German " <unk> " refer to the association with the small <unk> . Another name , " <unk> " , has been variously interpreted as <unk> , or derived from the Old Norse <unk> @-@ <unk> , meaning " cock of the field " ; variants include " drake " , " drake Hen " and " gorse drake " . 
 
 = = = In literature = = = 
 
 Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew <unk> 's " Upon <unk> House " , written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax . The narrator depicts the scene of a <unk> cutting the grass , before his " whistling <unk> " unknowingly " <unk> the Rail " . The <unk> draws out the <unk> " all bloody from its breast " and " does the stroke <unk> " . It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake 's nesting habits : 
 John Clare , the nineteenth @-@ century English poet based in <unk> , wrote " The <unk> " , a semi @-@ comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them . In the fourth verse he <unk> : " Tis like a fancy everywhere / A sort of living doubt " . Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too , and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now . 
 The Finnish poet <unk> <unk> also wrote about the bird in his poem " <unk> " . 
 The <unk> use of the corn crake 's call to describe someone with a grating or <unk> voice is illustrated in the quotation " thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel " . This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century , and continues through to the present . 
 
 
 = Acute myeloid leukemia = 
 
 Acute myeloid leukemia ( AML ) , also known as acute <unk> leukemia or acute <unk> leukemia ( <unk> ) , is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells , characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells . AML is the most common acute leukemia affecting adults , and its incidence increases with age . Although AML is a relatively rare disease , accounting for roughly 1 @.@ 2 % of cancer deaths in the United States , its incidence is expected to increase as the population ages . 
 The symptoms of AML are caused by replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemic cells , which causes a drop in red blood cells , platelets , and normal white blood cells . These symptoms include fatigue , shortness of breath , easy bruising and bleeding , and increased risk of infection . Several risk factors and chromosomal abnormalities have been identified , but the specific cause is not clear . As an acute leukemia , AML progresses rapidly and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated . 
 AML has several subtypes ; treatment and prognosis vary among subtypes . AML is cured in 35 – 40 % of people less than 60 years old and 5 – 15 % more than 60 years old . Older people who are not able to withstand intensive chemotherapy have an average survival of 5 – 10 months . 
 AML is treated initially with chemotherapy aimed at inducing a remission ; people may go on to receive additional chemotherapy or a <unk> stem cell transplant . Recent research into the genetics of AML has resulted in the availability of tests that can predict which drug or drugs may work best for a particular person , as well as how long that person is likely to survive . The treatment and prognosis of AML differ from those of chronic <unk> leukemia ( <unk> ) in part because the cellular differentiation is not the same ; AML involves higher percentages of <unk> and undifferentiated cells , including more blasts ( <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> ) . 
 
 = = Signs and symptoms = = 
 
 Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells with leukemic cells . A lack of normal white blood cell production makes people more susceptible to infections ; while the leukemic cells themselves are derived from white blood cell precursors , they have no infection @-@ fighting capacity . A drop in red blood cell count ( anemia ) can cause fatigue , <unk> , and shortness of breath . A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising or bleeding with minor trauma . 
 The early signs of AML are often vague and nonspecific , and may be similar to those of influenza or other common illnesses . Some <unk> symptoms include fever , fatigue , weight loss or loss of appetite , shortness of breath , anemia , easy bruising or bleeding , <unk> ( flat , pin @-@ head sized spots under the skin caused by bleeding ) , bone and joint pain , and persistent or frequent infections . 
 <unk> of the spleen may occur in AML , but it is typically mild and <unk> . <unk> node swelling is rare in AML , in contrast to acute <unk> leukemia . The skin is involved about 10 % of the time in the form of leukemia <unk> . Rarely , Sweet 's syndrome , a <unk> inflammation of the skin , can occur with AML . 
 Some people with AML may experience swelling of the <unk> because of infiltration of leukemic cells into the gum tissue . Rarely , the first sign of leukemia may be the development of a solid leukemic mass or tumor outside of the bone marrow , called a <unk> . Occasionally , a person may show no symptoms , and the leukemia may be discovered incidentally during a routine blood test . 
 
 = = Risk factors = = 
 
 A number of risk factors for developing AML have been identified , including : other blood disorders , chemical exposures , ionizing radiation , and genetics . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 " <unk> " blood disorders , such as myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( <unk> ) , can evolve into AML ; the exact risk depends on the type of MDS / <unk> . 
 
 = = = Chemical exposure = = = 
 
 Exposure to <unk> chemotherapy , in particular <unk> agents , can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML . The risk is highest about three to five years after chemotherapy . Other chemotherapy agents , specifically <unk> and <unk> , have also been associated with treatment @-@ related leukemias , which are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells . 
 Occupational chemical exposure to benzene and other <unk> organic <unk> is controversial as a cause of AML . <unk> and many of its derivatives are known to be carcinogenic in vitro . While some studies have suggested a link between occupational exposure to benzene and increased risk of AML , others have suggested the attributable risk , if any , is slight . 
 
 = = = Radiation = = = 
 
 High amounts of ionizing radiation exposure can increase the risk of AML . <unk> of the atomic bombings of <unk> and <unk> had an increased rate of AML , as did <unk> exposed to high levels of X @-@ rays prior to the adoption of modern radiation safety practices . People treated with ionizing radiation after treatment for prostate cancer , non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , lung cancer and breast cancer have the highest chance of acquiring AML , but this increased risk returns to the background risk observed in the general population after 12 years . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 A hereditary risk for AML appears to exist . Multiple cases of AML developing in a family at a rate higher than predicted by chance alone have been reported . Several congenital conditions may increase the risk of leukemia ; the most common is probably Down syndrome , which is associated with a <unk> to 18 @-@ fold increase in the risk of AML . 
 
 = = Diagnosis = = 
 
 The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count . While an excess of abnormal white blood cells ( <unk> ) is a common finding , and leukemic blasts are sometimes seen , AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets , red blood cells , or even with a low white blood cell count ( <unk> ) . While a <unk> diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts , a definitive diagnosis usually requires an adequate bone marrow aspiration and <unk> . 
 <unk> or blood is examined under light microscopy , as well as flow <unk> , to <unk> the presence of leukemia , to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia ( e.g. acute <unk> leukemia - ALL ) , and to classify the subtype of disease . A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent in situ <unk> . Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as FLT3 , <unk> , and KIT , which may influence the outcome of the disease . 
 <unk> stains on blood and bone marrow <unk> are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL , and in <unk> of AML . The combination of a <unk> or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases . The <unk> or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL . The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a <unk> component in <unk> and to distinguish a poorly differentiated <unk> leukemia from ALL . 
 The diagnosis and classification of AML can be challenging , and should be performed by a qualified <unk> or <unk> . In straightforward cases , the presence of certain <unk> features ( such as <unk> rods ) or specific flow <unk> results can distinguish AML from other leukemias ; however , in the absence of such features , diagnosis may be more difficult . 
 The two most commonly used classification <unk> for AML are the older French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) system and the newer World Health Organization ( WHO ) system . According to the widely used WHO criteria , the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20 % of the blood and / or bone marrow by leukemic <unk> , except in the three best prognosis forms of AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities ( t ( 8 ; 21 ) , <unk> ( 16 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) in which the presence of the genetic <unk> is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent . The French – American – British ( FAB ) classification is a bit more stringent , requiring a blast percentage of at least 30 % in bone marrow ( <unk> ) or peripheral blood ( <unk> ) for the diagnosis of AML . AML must be carefully differentiated from " <unk> " conditions such as myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative <unk> , which are treated differently . 
 Because acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) has the highest <unk> and requires a unique form of treatment , it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia . <unk> in situ <unk> performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose , as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [ t ( 15 ; 17 ) ( <unk> ; <unk> ) ; ] that <unk> APL . There is also a need to <unk> detect the presence of PML / <unk> fusion protein , which is an <unk> product of that translocation . 
 
 = = = World Health Organization = = = 
 
 The WHO 2008 classification of acute myeloid leukemia attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria . Each of the WHO categories contains numerous descriptive <unk> of interest to the <unk> and <unk> ; however , most of the clinically significant information in the WHO <unk> is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below . 
 The WHO subtypes of AML are : 
 Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage ( also known as mixed phenotype or <unk> acute leukemia ) occur when the leukemic cells can not be classified as either myeloid or <unk> cells , or where both types of cells are present . 
 
 = = = French @-@ American @-@ British = = = 
 
 The French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) classification system divides AML into eight subtypes , <unk> through to <unk> , based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity . This is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and / or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities . The subtypes have varying <unk> and responses to therapy . Although the WHO classification ( see above ) may be more useful , the FAB system is still widely used . 
 Eight FAB subtypes were proposed in 1976 . 
 The <unk> subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system , such as acute <unk> leukemia , which was proposed as a ninth subtype , M8 , in 1999 . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast . In normal <unk> , the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells ; a normal myeloblast will gradually mature into a mature white blood cell . In AML , though , a single myeloblast <unk> genetic changes which " freeze " the cell in its immature state and prevent differentiation . Such a <unk> alone does not cause leukemia ; however , when such a " differentiation arrest " is combined with other mutations which disrupt genes controlling proliferation , the result is the uncontrolled growth of an immature clone of cells , leading to the clinical entity of AML . 
 Much of the diversity and <unk> of AML stems is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway . Modern classification schemes for AML recognize the characteristics and behavior of the leukemic cell ( and the leukemia ) may depend on the stage at which differentiation was halted . 
 Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML ; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance . The chromosomal <unk> encode abnormal fusion proteins , usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the " differentiation arrest " . For example , in acute promyelocytic leukemia , the t ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation produces a PML @-@ <unk> fusion protein which binds to the <unk> acid receptor element in the <unk> of several myeloid @-@ specific genes and inhibits myeloid differentiation . 
 The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells , which tends to displace or interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow . This leads to <unk> , anemia , and <unk> . The symptoms of AML are , in turn , often due to the low numbers of these normal blood elements . In rare cases , people with AML can develop a <unk> , or solid tumor of leukemic cells outside the bone marrow , which can cause various symptoms depending on its location . 
 An important <unk> mechanism of <unk> in AML is the epigenetic induction of <unk> by genetic mutations that alter the function of epigenetic enzymes , such as the DNA <unk> <unk> and the metabolic enzymes <unk> and <unk> , which lead to the generation of a novel <unk> , D @-@ 2 @-@ <unk> , which inhibits the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as <unk> . The hypothesis is that such epigenetic mutations lead to the <unk> of tumor <unk> genes and / or the activation of proto @-@ <unk> . 
 
 = = Treatment = = 
 
 First @-@ line treatment of AML consists primarily of chemotherapy , and is divided into two phases : induction and postremission ( or consolidation ) therapy . The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level ; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure . <unk> stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fails or after a person <unk> , although transplantation is also sometimes used as front @-@ line therapy for people with high @-@ risk disease . Efforts to use <unk> kinase inhibitors in AML continue . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 All FAB subtypes except M3 are usually given induction chemotherapy with cytarabine ( ara @-@ C ) and an anthracycline ( most often <unk> ) . This induction chemotherapy regimen is known as " 7 + 3 " ( or " 3 + 7 " ) , because the cytarabine is given as a continuous IV infusion for seven consecutive days while the anthracycline is given for three consecutive days as an IV push . Up to 70 % of people with AML will achieve a remission with this protocol . Other alternative induction <unk> , including high @-@ dose cytarabine alone , <unk> @-@ like <unk> or <unk> agents , may also be used . Because of the toxic effects of therapy , including <unk> and an increased risk of infection , induction chemotherapy may not be offered to the very elderly , and the options may include less intense chemotherapy or <unk> care . 
 The M3 subtype of AML , also known as acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , is almost universally treated with the drug all @-@ trans @-@ <unk> acid ( <unk> ) in addition to induction chemotherapy , usually an anthracycline . Care must be taken to prevent disseminated <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , complicating the treatment of APL when the <unk> release the contents of their granules into the peripheral circulation . APL is eminently <unk> , with well @-@ documented treatment protocols . 
 The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission . Complete remission does not mean the disease has been cured ; rather , it signifies no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods . Complete remission is obtained in about 50 % – 75 % of newly diagnosed adults , although this may vary based on the prognostic factors described above . The length of remission depends on the prognostic features of the original leukemia . In general , all <unk> will fail without additional consolidation therapy . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Even after complete remission is achieved , leukemic cells likely remain in numbers too small to be detected with current diagnostic techniques . If no further postremission or consolidation therapy is given , almost all people with AML will eventually relapse . Therefore , more therapy is necessary to eliminate <unk> disease and prevent relapse — that is , to achieve a cure . 
 The specific type of postremission therapy is <unk> based on a person 's prognostic factors ( see above ) and general health . For good @-@ prognosis leukemias ( i.e. <unk> ( 16 ) , t ( 8 ; 21 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) , people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy , known as consolidation chemotherapy . For people at high risk of relapse ( e.g. those with high @-@ risk cytogenetics , underlying MDS , or therapy @-@ related AML ) , <unk> stem cell transplantation is usually recommended if the person is able to tolerate a transplant and has a suitable donor . The best postremission therapy for intermediate @-@ risk AML ( normal cytogenetics or cytogenetic changes not falling into good @-@ risk or high @-@ risk groups ) is less clear and depends on the specific situation , including the age and overall health of the person , the person 's values , and whether a suitable stem cell donor is available . 
 For people who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant , <unk> with a combination of <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) and <unk> 2 ( <unk> ) after the completion of consolidation has been shown to reduce the absolute relapse risk by 14 % , translating to a 50 % increase in the likelihood of maintained remission . 
 
 = = = <unk> AML = = = 
 
 For people with relapsed AML , the only proven potentially <unk> therapy is a <unk> stem cell transplant , if one has not already been performed . In 2000 , the <unk> antibody @-@ linked <unk> agent <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) was approved in the United States for people aged more than 60 years with relapsed AML who are not candidates for high @-@ dose chemotherapy . This drug was voluntarily withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer , <unk> in 2010 . 
 Since treatment options for relapsed AML are so limited , <unk> care or enrolment in a clinical trial may be offered . 
 For relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , arsenic trioxide is approved by the US FDA . Like <unk> , arsenic trioxide does not work with other subtypes of AML . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Acute myeloid leukemia is a <unk> disease ; the chance of cure for a specific person depends on a number of prognostic factors . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The single most important prognostic factor in AML is cytogenetics , or the chromosomal structure of the leukemic cell . Certain cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with very good outcomes ( for example , the ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation in acute promyelocytic leukemia ) . About half of people with AML have " normal " cytogenetics ; they fall into an intermediate risk group . A number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are known to associate with a poor prognosis and a high risk of relapse after treatment . 
 The first publication to address cytogenetics and prognosis was the <unk> trial of 1998 : 
 Later , the Southwest <unk> Group and Eastern Cooperative <unk> Group and , later still , Cancer and Leukemia Group B published other , mostly overlapping lists of cytogenetics <unk> in leukemia . 
 
 = = = <unk> syndrome = = = 
 
 AML which arises from a pre @-@ existing myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( so @-@ called secondary AML ) has a worse prognosis , as does treatment @-@ related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous <unk> . Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable cytogenetic abnormalities . 
 
 = = = Other prognostic markers = = = 
 
 In some studies , age > 60 years and elevated <unk> <unk> level were also associated with poorer outcomes . As with most forms of cancer , performance status ( i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person ) plays a major role in prognosis as well . 
 
 = = = = <unk> = = = = 
 
 A large number of molecular alterations are under study for their prognostic impact in AML . However , only FLT3 @-@ <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and c @-@ KIT are currently included in <unk> international risk <unk> <unk> . These are expected to increase rapidly in the near future . FLT3 internal tandem <unk> ( <unk> ) have been shown to confer a poorer prognosis in AML with normal cytogenetics . Several FLT3 inhibitors have undergone clinical trials , with mixed results . Two other mutations - <unk> and <unk> <unk> are associated with improved outcomes , especially in people with normal cytogenetics and are used in current risk <unk> algorithms . 
 Researchers are investigating the clinical significance of c @-@ KIT mutations in AML . These are prevalent , and potentially clinically relevant because of the availability of <unk> kinase inhibitors , such as <unk> and <unk> that can block the activity of c @-@ KIT <unk> . It is expected that additional markers ( e.g. , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> ) that have consistently been associated with an inferior outcome will soon be included in these recommendations . The prognostic importance of other <unk> genes ( e.g. , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> ) is less clear . 
 
 = = = <unk> of cure = = = 
 
 Cure rates in clinical trials have ranged from 20 – 45 % ; although clinical trials often include only younger people and those able to tolerate aggressive <unk> . The overall cure rate for all people with AML ( including the elderly and those unable to tolerate aggressive therapy ) is likely lower . Cure rates for promyelocytic leukemia can be as high as 98 % . 
 
 = = Epidemiology = = 
 
 Acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare cancer . There are approximately 10 @,@ 500 new cases each year in the United States , and the incidence rate has remained stable from 1995 through 2005 . AML accounts for 1 @.@ 2 % of all cancer deaths in the United States . 
 The incidence of AML increases with age ; the median age at diagnosis is 63 years . AML accounts for about 90 % of all acute leukemias in adults , but is rare in children . The rate of therapy @-@ related AML ( that is , AML caused by previous chemotherapy ) is rising ; therapy @-@ related disease currently accounts for about 10 – 20 % of all cases of AML . AML is slightly more common in men , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 3 : 1 . 
 There is some geographic variation in the incidence of AML . In adults , the highest rates are seen in North America , Europe , and Oceania , while adult AML is rarer in Asia and Latin America . In contrast , childhood AML is less common in North America and India than in other parts of Asia . These differences may be due to population genetics , environmental factors , or a combination of the two . 
 
 = = = UK = = = 
 
 AML accounts for 34 % of all leukaemia cases in the UK , and around 2 @,@ 900 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The first published description of a case of leukemia in medical literature dates to 1827 , when French physician Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau described a 63 @-@ year @-@ old <unk> who developed an illness characterized by fever , weakness , urinary stones , and substantial enlargement of the liver and spleen . Velpeau noted the blood of this person had a consistency " like <unk> " , and speculated the appearance of the blood was due to white <unk> . In 1845 , a series of people who died with enlarged <unk> and changes in the " colors and <unk> of their blood " was reported by the Edinburgh @-@ based pathologist <unk> Bennett ; he used the term " <unk> " to describe this <unk> condition . 
 The term " leukemia " was coined by Rudolf Virchow , the renowned German pathologist , in 1856 . As a pioneer in the use of the light microscope in pathology , Virchow was the first to describe the abnormal excess of white blood cells in people with the clinical syndrome described by Velpeau and Bennett . As Virchow was uncertain of the <unk> of the white blood cell excess , he used the purely descriptive term " leukemia " ( Greek : " white blood " ) to refer to the condition . 
 Further advances in the understanding of acute myeloid leukemia occurred rapidly with the development of new technology . In 1877 , Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells . Wilhelm <unk> introduced the term " acute leukemia " in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more <unk> chronic leukemias . The term " myeloid " was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869 , as he was the first to recognize white blood cells were made in the bone marrow ( Greek : <unk> , <unk> = ( bone ) marrow ) as opposed to the spleen . The technique of bone marrow examination to <unk> leukemia was first described in 1879 by <unk> . Finally , in 1900 , the myeloblast , which is the malignant cell in AML , was characterized by Otto <unk> , who divided the leukemias into myeloid and <unk> . 
 In 2008 , AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced . DNA extracted from leukemic cells were compared to unaffected skin . The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy , affecting only about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 pregnant women . How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia . Acute leukemias normally require prompt , aggressive treatment , despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects , especially if chemotherapy is given during the <unk> sensitive first <unk> . 
 
 
 = Love Me Like You = 
 
 " Love Me Like You " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . The song was released on 25 September 2015 , as the second single from the album . Produced by Steve Mac , he co @-@ wrote the song with Iain James , Camille Purcell and James Newman . Backed by an instrumental of pianos , bells , <unk> and percussion , the song is a down @-@ tempo retro homage to doo @-@ wop , with lyrics about <unk> love . Its composition was compared by several critics to Motown artists of the 1950s and 1960s , namely The <unk> , The <unk> and Shadow Morton . 
 Critical response to " Love Me Like You " was positive : critics praised its vintage style and highlighted it as an album standout . It reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and has been certified gold by the BPI . The accompanying music video for the song was set at a high school dance . Unbeknownst to each member of the group , they had been invited to attend by the same date after previously meeting him in different situations . He arrives with another girl near the end of the night , and they realise that he had all been invited by the same guy , and end up <unk> . Little Mix have performed the track on both the Australian and British versions of The X Factor and on Good Morning America in the United States . 
 
 = = Background and release = = 
 
 " Love Me Like You " was written by Steve Mac , Camille Purcell , Iain James and James Newman for Little Mix 's third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . It was published by <unk> Music Ltd. under exclusive licence to BMG Rights Management ( UK ) Ltd ; <unk> Music Group ; Sony / ATV Music Publishing ; Black <unk> Music Publishing and BMG Rights Management . The song was produced by Mac and mixed by <unk> <unk> at <unk> Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . It was engineered for mixing by John <unk> and engineered by Chris Laws and <unk> <unk> , and mastered by Tom Coyne and Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York . The track was recorded at <unk> Studios in London . Purcell also provided background vocals . The keyboards were performed by Mac , and the guitars were played by Paul <unk> . Laws and <unk> performed the drums and the percussion , respectively . 
 The group announced on 9 September 2015 that " Love Me Like You " would be the second single to be released from the album , and that it would be made available to pre @-@ order on 11 September , and be released on 25 September . It was released by Syco and Columbia in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 25 September 2015 . The single 's artwork was released on the same day . In their review , MTV News joked that the group were suggesting that it would be number @-@ one due to each of the band members <unk> , writing " We can 't help but get the hint they 're on the hunt for <unk> chart topping trophy . Leigh @-@ Anne clearly thinks she can see it in the distance , Jesy is just imagining it with her brain , Jade definitely thinks she can hear the noise of records being sold and Perrie is convinced it 's on the floor . " M magazine writer Heather Thompson described the artwork as " vibrant " . A collection of alternate versions called " Love Me Like You ( The Collection ) " was also released in Australia and New Zealand in addition to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 16 October 2015 . It consists of a Christmas mix , several remixes and an instrumental version of " Love Me Like You " and another album track called " Lightning " . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 " Love Me Like You " has been described as a down @-@ tempo " ode to ' 60s doo @-@ wop " retro style pop song , which lasts for a duration of three minutes , seventeen seconds . The song is composed in the key of G major using common time and a tempo of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by " vintage " pianos , bells and a " pumping " tenor <unk> . The use of percussion gives the a track a more modern style . During the track , the band members vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of <unk> to the high note of <unk> . 
 The song opens with the group <unk> " Sha la la la " over pianos . The lyrics are about <unk> love , as they <unk> sing " Last night I lay in bed so blue / Cause ' I realized the truth / They can 't love me like you / I tried to find somebody new / Baby they ain 't got a clue / Can 't love me like you . " Fuse writer Jeff Benjamin described the song as being reminiscent of 1960s girl group The <unk> but with a more modern feel for 2015 radio , highlighting the line " They try to romance me but you got that nasty and that 's what I want " as an example . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner thought that the line " He might got the biggest ca @-@ aa @-@ <unk> " does not fool listeners into thinking that " they 're not actually talking about his <unk> 500 . " Several music critics compared the song to recordings from the Motown era in the 1950s and 1960s , with Andy Gill of The Independent likening it to material composed by Shadow Morton . <unk> <unk> of MTV News likened the production to material composed by Phil Spector . The Christmas mix version features added church bells and <unk> . 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 Andy Gill of The Independent described the track as having a " nice " retro sound , and singled it out as being one of his top three songs from the album to download , along with " Black Magic " and " <unk> " . Writing for NME , Nick Levine thought that " Love Me Like You " was reminiscent of songs recorded by <unk> , but added that Little Mix performed the Motown style " without the forced sense of fun . " Similarly , Billboard writer <unk> <unk> and Digital Spy critic Jack <unk> likened the retro style to songs performed by <unk> <unk> and The <unk> , respectively . Music Times writer Carolyn <unk> praised its composition for being " charming " and described the track as " totally charming . " A reviewer for Press Play OK commented that the song was " less club night and more <unk> night . " <unk> Stephen Fry criticised the track when interviewed by <unk> about his review of a selection of songs released in 2015 . He described it as " horrible " and a modern @-@ day " hideous , toxic compound " take on a Phil Spector song . 
 
 = = Chart performance = = 
 
 In the United Kingdom , " Love Me Like You " debuted at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart on 8 October 2015 . It later peaked at number 11 on 7 January 2016 . It also peaked at number nine on the UK Singles <unk> Chart . The track has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Scotland , the song reached number five . It achieved success in Ireland , reaching number 8 on 31 December 2015 . It peaked at number 66 on the Belgium Ultratip Flanders chart on 31 October 2015 . It also peaked at number 64 in <unk> , number 81 in the Czech Republic , and number 140 in France . Outside of Europe , " Love Me Like You " reached number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 , number 27 in Australia , and number one on the New Zealand Heatseekers chart . 
 
 = = Music video = = 
 
 The accompanying music video for " Love Me Like You " was released on 10 October 2015 . The video takes place at a school dance , where a professor in the hall ( the same man who appeared in their previous single 's video " Black Magic " ) tells everyone that it is the last dance . Jade , Leigh @-@ Anne , Jesy and Perrie are waiting for their dates to arrive . Scenes of the girls waiting for their date are intercut throughout the video of them sitting at a table while all of the other couples are dancing . Unbeknownst to them , the man , played by Hector David Junior , has invited each of them to go to the dance after meeting them in different situations prior to that night . He asked Jade by picking her up in his car to go on a date . As she gets in , he invites her to be his date at the dance and presents her with a corsage to wear on her wrist on the night . He <unk> Leigh @-@ Anne at a high school basketball game , where she and her girlfriends were watching him and some other boys play on the court . He sees that she is infatuated by how good he is at the sport , walks up to her , and asks her to be his date by giving her a corsage . He asked Jesy to be his date while they were at the cinema as they shared a bucket of popcorn . As he gives her the corsage , she throws the bucket over her shoulder and eagerly jumps on his lap , causing them to fall off the chair . 
 Finally , he invited Perrie to be his date after she fell off her bike while staring at him work out on a field and pouring water over his torso to cool down . He helps her up , and gives her a corsage . Toward the end of the video , they sit on a bench next to the entrance , and see their date walk in with another girl wearing the same corsage as the ones that he had given each of them . They realise that they have all been two @-@ timed by the same guy , and are all <unk> . It ends with the girls being each other 's date and solemnly dancing whilst everyone else has a good time . Metro writer Rebecca Lewis noted that the man in the video strongly resembled Perrie 's former fiancé <unk> <unk> of One Direction . She also wrote that fans had noticed that she was still wearing her engagement ring in the video , meaning that the video was filmed before they split up in August 2015 . 
 
 = = Live performances = = 
 
 " Little Mix " performed " Love Me Like You " live on the seventh season of The X Factor in Australia on 13 October 2015 . Capital praised their performed , writing that it set an " amazing example " for the contestants on the show and that their vocals were " pitch perfect " . On 1 November , the group performed a " Love Me Like You " / " Black Magic " medley on the twelfth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom . It featured the group wearing <unk> dresses for their performance of " Love Me Like You " , which were then torn off to reveal <unk> to sing " Black Magic " . Little Mix " sang the track live on Good Morning America in the United States on 5 November . They returned to the UK to perform " Love Me Like You " at the Radio 1 Teen Awards at Wembley Arena on 8 November , and again the following morning on breakfast show Lorraine . " Love Me Like You " was included on the set @-@ list of their segment at Capital 's annual <unk> Bell Ball on 6 December , along with the other singles to be released Get Weird " Black Magic " and " Secret Love Song " , as well as previous singles " <unk> " , " <unk> " and " Wings " . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 Digital download 
 " Love Me Like You " – 3 : 17 
 Digital download — The Collection 
 " Love Me Like You " ( Christmas Mix ) – 3 : 29 
 " Lightning " – 5 : 09 
 " Love Me Like You " ( J @-@ Vibe <unk> Remix ) – 3 : 04 
 " Love Me Like You " ( <unk> Jones Remix ) – 3 : 07 
 " Love Me Like You " ( 7th Heaven Remix ) – 3 : 10 
 " Love Me Like You " ( <unk> Interview ) – 3 : 16 
 " Love Me Like You " ( <unk> ) – 3 : 15 
 
 = = Charts and certifications = = 
 
 
 
 = Shaoguan incident = 
 
 The Shaoguan incident was a civil disturbance which took place overnight on 25 / 26 June 2009 in Guangdong province , China . A violent dispute erupted between migrant Uyghurs and Han workers at a toy factory in Shaoguan as a result of allegations of the sexual assault of a Han female . Groups of Han set upon Uyghur co @-@ workers , leading to at least two Uyghurs being killed , ( Uyghur workers who witnessed the incident report at least 100 dead and 400 wounded ) and some 118 people injured . 
 The event was widely cited as the trigger event for July 2009 Ürümqi riots , which ostensibly started as a peaceful street protest demanding official action over the two Uyghurs who died in Shaoguan . Following trials in October 2009 , one person was executed and several others sentenced to terms between life imprisonment and five to seven years . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 The factory where the incident took place is the <unk> ( " Early Light " ) Toy Factory ( <unk> ) , owned by Hong Kong @-@ based Early Light International ( Holdings ) Ltd . , the largest toy manufacturer in the world . The company 's Shaoguan factory in the <unk> district employs some 16 @,@ 000 workers . At the behest of the Guangdong authorities , it hired 800 workers from Kashgar , in Xinjiang as part of an ethnic program which relocated 200 @,@ 000 young Uyghurs since the start of 2008 . According to The Guardian , most workers sign a <unk> to three @-@ year contract then travel to factory dormitories in the south ; in addition to their salaries ranging from 1 @,@ 000 yuan to 1 @,@ 400 yuan a month , many get free board and lodging . Most of these <unk> are away from home to work for the first time . The Far Eastern Economic Review said Guangdong authorities initiated a controversial plan to ship [ Uyghur ] workers to Guangdong factories amid continuing labour shortages . The young workers , whose families have charged that they were forced to send their children south , often lack even basic Chinese language skills and find it difficult to fit in with the dominant Han culture . " The New York Times quoted Xinjiang Daily saying in May that 70 percent of the young Uyghurs had " signed up for employment voluntarily . " However , Kashgar residents say the families of those who refuse to go are threatened with fines of up to six months ' worth of a <unk> 's income . 
 An official in charge of ethnic and religious affairs in Guangdong said that the province had hired <unk> , aged from 18 to 29 , in May . A small group of Uyghurs arrived on 2 May , and workers at the factory remarked that relations between the two groups deteriorated as the number of Uyghurs increased . State media confirmed that all the workers were from <unk> County . China Labor Watch reported that workers at the Shaoguan factory , where the Uyghurs were employed , earned 28 yuan per day compared with 41 @.@ 3 yuan in its factory in <unk> . They noted that rights of workers , Han and Uyghur alike , were frequently violated by verbal abuse from factory supervisors , unpaid overtime , poor dormitory conditions and illegal labour contracts . Li <unk> , executive director of China Labor Watch said that low pay , long hours and poor working conditions combined with the inability to communicate with their colleagues exacerbated deeply held <unk> between the Han and Uyghurs . 
 
 = = Causes and events = = 
 
 <unk> on 25 – 26 June , tensions flared at the factory , leading to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Han . As a result of the fighting , 2 Uyghurs died and 118 people were injured , 16 of them seriously . Of the injured , 79 were Uyghurs and 39 were Hans . 400 police and 50 anti @-@ riot vehicles were mobilised . 
 Official sources state that the rioting began at around 2 a.m. , and there were reports that they lasted until at least 4 @.@ 30 a.m. , when police arrived . An initial disturbance was reported at around 11 p.m. when security guards responded to a call for help by a female worker who felt intimidated by several chanting male Uyghurs . Two dozen Han workers armed with <unk> and metal rods then responded ; they called for backup using their phones . 
 Uyghurs maintained that the attacks started after the night shift at around 12 @.@ 30 a.m. , when Han <unk> stormed into Uyghur dormitories and started indiscriminate and <unk> <unk> . Amateur videos posted online showed brutal attacks , and Han chasing Uyghurs through the <unk> floors . One man said that he saw that security had been overwhelmed by the arrival of outside gangs ; he said it was common knowledge that the outsiders brought in <unk> . Han and Uyghur witnesses interviewed by the foreign press thought the casualties had been understated by the authorities : a Han claimed to have killed seven or eight Uyghurs ; Uyghurs cited " merciless " assaults on those already in ambulances . The rioting stopped soon after the police arrived . A policeman explained their delay in arriving at the scene due to difficulties in assembling enough officers . The two dead men were later named as <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> , both from Xinjiang . 
 
 = = = <unk> rumours = = = 
 
 The rioting was sparked by allegations of sexual assault on Han women by Uyghurs , and rumours of an incident in which two female Han workers were sexually assaulted by six Uyghur co @-@ workers at the factory , according to Voice of America . The authorities said that the rumours were false , and had been initiated by a <unk> former co @-@ worker . Xinhua said that a man <unk> Zhu " <unk> the information to express his discontent " over failing to find new work after quitting his job at the factory . 
 
 = = Responses = = 
 
 Police said that their investigations found no evidence that a rape had taken place . Shaoguan government spokesman Wang <unk> , called it " a very ordinary incident " , which he said had been exaggerated to foment <unk> Guardian reported that video of the riots and photographs of the victims were quickly circulated on the internet by <unk> exile groups , along with claims that the death toll was under @-@ reported and the police were slow to act ; protests in Ürümqi were assembled by email . Xinhua reported that Guangdong authorities had arrested two people who are suspected of having spread rumours online which alleged sexual assault of Han women had taken place . In addition , it reported on 7 July 2009 that 13 suspects had been taken into custody following the incident , of which 3 were Uyghurs from Xinjiang . Xinhua quoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Huang <unk> saying that he was angry at being turned down for a job in June at the toy factory , and thus posted an article at a forum on <unk> on 16 June which alleged six Xinjiang boys had raped two innocent girls at the <unk> Toy Factory ; Huang <unk> , 19 , was detained for writing on his online chat space on 28 June that eight Xinjiang people had died in the factory fight . Kang <unk> , vice director with the Shaoguan Public Security Bureau , said that the offenders would face up to 15 days in administrative detention . 
 On 8 July 2009 , Xinhua released an interview with Huang <unk> , the " Han girl " whose alleged rape triggered the disturbances . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old trainee from rural Guangdong , who had worked at the factory less than two months , said : " I was lost and entered the wrong dormitory and <unk> when I saw those Uyghur young men in the room ... I just felt they were <unk> so I turned and ran . " She recounted how one of them stood up and stamped his feet as if to chase her . " I later realized that he was just making fun of me . " She said she only found out hours later that she was the cause of the violence . 
 Shaoguan authorities moved the Uyghur workers to temporary accommodation , and the workers were transferred on 7 July to another facility belonging to Early Light , 30 km away in <unk> town . The <unk> factory is now reported to be an Uyghur <unk> , with , sporting facilities , canteen serving Xinjiang food , a round @-@ the @-@ clock staff clinic , and plain @-@ clothed police officers in their midst . According to the South China Morning Post , the Kashgar staff were apparently unable to mix with colleagues in their previous location because of the language barrier – a local shop worker estimated that less than one in three spoke Mandarin . Two months on , the South China Morning Post found few willing to talk about the events of the <unk> night . The authorities ' claims that 50 Uyghur workers were granted their repatriation requests following the violence are contested by Uyghur workers . 
 <unk> <unk> , deputy secretary of Xinjiang <unk> <unk> Committee of the Communist Party , led a working team to Shaoguan on 27 June . Zhou <unk> , Politburo Standing Committee member responsible for security , reportedly visited Shaoguan in early September 2009 . On 5 August , Xinhua reported that Chinese police had arrested <unk> <unk> , a chef at an Arabic restaurant in <unk> who they claimed confessed to being an agent for the World <unk> Congress ( <unk> ) and who allegedly spread rumours that were later used as a pretext to trigger the Ürümqi riots of 5 July . Xinhua alleged that he had fabricated a report that " the factory brawl had caused the death of 17 to 18 people , including three females , " which he sent in an e @-@ mail to <unk> <unk> . 
 At a trial on 10 October at Shaoguan Intermediate People 's Court , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) was sentenced to death for being the " principal instigator " of the violence and Xu <unk> ( <unk> ) was given a life sentence for <unk> ; three other people were sentenced to seven to eight years for assault . On the same day , the People 's Court of <unk> District , Shaoguan , jailed three more Han workers and three Uyghurs for participating in the brawl ; they were sentenced to five to seven years ' imprisonment . 
 
 
 = Galveston , Texas = 
 
 Galveston / <unk> / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas . The community of 208 @.@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ largest municipality of Galveston County . It is located within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area . 
 Named after Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez ( born in <unk> , Spain ) , Galveston 's first European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by French pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury to help the fledgling Republic of Mexico fight Spain . The Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its successful independence from Spain . The city served as the main port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution , and later served as the capital of the Republic of Texas . 
 During the 19th century , Galveston became a major U.S. commercial center and one of the largest ports in the United States . It was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane , whose effects included flooding and a storm surge . The natural disaster on the exposed barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history , with an estimated toll of 8 @,@ 000 people . 
 Much of Galveston 's modern economy is centered in the tourism , health care , shipping , and financial industries . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students is a major economic force of the city . Galveston is home to six historic districts containing one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States , with over 60 structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Exploration and 19th century development = = = 
 
 Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and <unk> tribes who called the island <unk> . The Spanish explorer <unk> de <unk> and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November <unk> , calling it " <unk> de <unk> " ( " Isle of Bad Fate " ) . They began their years @-@ long trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City . During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785 , the Spanish explorer José de <unk> named the island Gálvez @-@ town or <unk> in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez . 
 The first permanent European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury as a base of operations to support Mexico 's rebellion against Spain . In 1817 , Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte organized Galveston into a pirate " kingdom " he called " Campeche " , <unk> himself the island 's " head of government . " Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821 , when he and his raiders were forced off the island by the United States Navy . 
 In 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house . Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. <unk> relocated his government there . In 1836 , the French @-@ Canadian Michel <unk> <unk> and several associates purchased 4 @,@ 605 acres ( 18 @.@ 64 km2 ) of land for $ 50 @,@ 000 to found the town that would become the modern city of Galveston . As Anglo @-@ Americans migrated to the city , they brought along or purchased enslaved African @-@ Americans , some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront , including on <unk> . 
 In 1839 the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas . The city was by then a burgeoning port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas , including Jewish merchants . Together with ethnic Mexican residents , these groups tended to oppose slavery , support the Union during the Civil War , and join the Republican Party after the war . 
 During this expansion , the city had many " firsts " in the state , with the founding of institutions and adoption of inventions : post office ( 1836 ) , naval base ( 1836 ) , Texas chapter of a <unk> order ( 1840 ) ; cotton <unk> ( 1842 ) , Catholic parochial school ( <unk> Academy ) ( 1847 ) , insurance company ( 1854 ) , and gas lights ( 1856 ) . 
 During the American Civil War , Confederate forces under Major General John B. <unk> attacked and expelled occupying Union troops from the city in January 1863 in the Battle of Galveston . In 1867 Galveston suffered a yellow fever epidemic ; 1800 people died in the city . These occurred in waterfront and river cities throughout the 19th century , as did cholera <unk> . 
 The city 's progress continued through the Reconstruction era with numerous " firsts " : construction of the opera house ( 1870 ) , and orphanage ( 1876 ) , and installation of telephone lines ( 1878 ) and electric lights ( 1883 ) . Having attracted freedmen from rural areas , in 1870 the city had a black population that totaled 3 @,@ 000 , made up mostly of former slaves but also by numerous persons who were free men of color and educated before the war . The " blacks " comprised nearly 25 % of the city 's population of 13 @,@ <unk> that year . 
 During the post @-@ Civil @-@ War period , leaders such as George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney , who headed the Texas Republican Party and promoted civil rights for freedmen , helped to dramatically improve educational and employment opportunities for blacks in Galveston and in Texas . Cuney established his own business of <unk> and a union of black <unk> to break the white monopoly on dock jobs . Galveston was a cosmopolitan city and one of the more successful during Reconstruction ; the <unk> 's Bureau was headquartered here . German families sheltered teachers from the North , and hundreds of freedmen were taught to read . Its business community promoted progress , and immigrants continued to stay after arriving at this port of entry . 
 By the end of the 19th century , the city of Galveston had a population of 37 @,@ 000 . Its position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas . It was one of the largest cotton ports in the nation , in competition with New Orleans . Throughout the 19th century , the port city of Galveston grew rapidly and the Strand was considered the region 's primary business center . For a time , the Strand was known as the " Wall Street of the South " . In the late 1890s , the government constructed Fort <unk> defenses and coastal artillery batteries in Galveston and along the Bolivar Roads . In February 1897 , Galveston was officially visited by the USS Texas ( nicknamed Old <unk> ) , the first commissioned battleship of the United States Navy . During the festivities , the ship 's officers were presented with a $ 5 @,@ 000 silver service , adorned with various Texas motifs , as a gift from the citizens of the state . 
 
 = = = Hurricane of 1900 and recovery = = = 
 
 On September 8 , 1900 , the island was struck by a devastating hurricane . This event holds the record as the United States ' deadliest natural disaster . The city was devastated , and an estimated 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people on the island were killed . Following the storm , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long , 17 foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high seawall was constructed to protect the city from floods and hurricane storm surge . A team of engineers including Henry Martyn Robert ( Robert 's Rules of Order ) designed the plan to raise much of the existing city to a sufficient elevation behind a seawall so that confidence in the city could be maintained . 
 The city developed the city commission form of city government , known as the " Galveston Plan " , to help expedite recovery . 
 Despite attempts to draw new investment to the city after the hurricane , Galveston never fully returned to its previous levels of national importance or prosperity . Development was also hindered by the construction of the Houston Ship Channel , which brought the Port of Houston into direct competition with the natural harbor of the Port of Galveston for sea traffic . To further her recovery , and rebuild her population , Galveston actively solicited immigration . Through the efforts of Rabbi Henry Cohen and Congregation B <unk> Israel , Galveston became the focus of an immigration plan called the Galveston Movement that , between 1907 and 1914 , diverted roughly 10 @,@ 000 Eastern European Jewish immigrants from the usual destinations of the crowded cities of the Northeastern United States . Additionally numerous other immigrant groups , including Greeks , Italians and Russian Jews , came to the city during this period . This immigration trend substantially altered the ethnic makeup of the island , as well as many other areas of Texas and the western U.S. 
 Though the storm stalled economic development and the city of Houston developed as the region 's principal metropolis , Galveston economic leaders recognized the need to <unk> from the traditional port @-@ related industries . In 1905 William Lewis Moody , Jr. and Isaac H. <unk> , members of two of Galveston 's leading families , founded the American National Insurance Company . Two years later , Moody established the City National Bank , which would later become the Moody National Bank . 
 During the 1920s and 1930s , the city re @-@ emerged as a major tourist destination . Under the influence of Sam Maceo and <unk> Maceo , the city exploited the prohibition of liquor and gambling in clubs like the <unk> Room , which offered entertainment to wealthy <unk> and other out @-@ of @-@ <unk> . Combined with prostitution , which had existed in the city since the Civil War , Galveston became known as the " sin city " of the Gulf . <unk> accepted and supported the illegal activities , often referring to their island as the " Free State of Galveston " . The island had entered what would later become known as the " open era " . 
 The 1930s and 1940s brought much change to the Island City . During World War II , the Galveston Municipal Airport , predecessor to <unk> International Airport , was re @-@ designated a U.S. Army Air Corps base and named " Galveston Army Air Field " . In January 1943 , Galveston Army Air Field was officially activated with the 46th <unk> Group serving an anti @-@ submarine role in the Gulf of Mexico . In 1942 , William Lewis Moody , Jr . , along with his wife <unk> <unk> Rice Moody , established the Moody Foundation , to benefit " present and future generations of <unk> . " The foundation , one of the largest in the United States , would play a prominent role in Galveston during later decades , helping to fund numerous civic and health @-@ oriented programs . 
 
 = = = Post – World War II = = = 
 
 The end of the war drastically reduced military investment in the island . Increasing enforcement of gambling laws and the growth of Las Vegas , Nevada as a competitive center of gambling and entertainment put pressure on the gaming industry on the island . Finally in 1957 , Texas Attorney General Will Wilson and the Texas Rangers began a massive campaign of raids which disrupted gambling and prostitution in the city . As these vice industries crashed , so did tourism , taking the rest of the Galveston economy with it . Neither the economy nor the culture of the city was the same afterward . 
 The economy of the island entered a long stagnant period . Many businesses relocated off the island during this period ; however , health care , insurance and financial industries continue to be strong contributors to the economy . By 1959 , the city of Houston had long out @-@ paced Galveston in population and economic growth . Beginning in 1957 , the Galveston Historical Foundation began its efforts to preserve historic buildings . The 1966 book The Galveston That Was helped encourage the preservation movement . Restoration efforts financed by motivated investors , notably Houston businessman George P. Mitchell , gradually developed the Strand Historic District and <unk> other areas . A new , family @-@ oriented tourism emerged in the city over many years . 
 With the 1960s came the expansion of higher education in Galveston . Already home to the University of Texas Medical Branch , the city got a boost in 1962 with the creation of the Texas Maritime Academy , predecessor of Texas A & M University at Galveston ; and by 1967 a community college , Galveston College , had been established . 
 In the 2000s , property values rose after expensive projects were completed and demand for second homes by the wealthy increased . It has made it difficult for middle @-@ class workers to find affordable housing on the island . 
 Hurricane Ike made landfall on Galveston Island in the early morning of September 13 , 2008 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 miles per hour . Damage was extensive to buildings along the seawall . 
 After the storm , the island was rebuilt with further investments into tourism , shipping , and continued emphasis on higher education and health care . Notably the addition of the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier and the replacement of the bascule @-@ type drawbridge on the railroad causeway with a vertical @-@ lift @-@ type drawbridge to allow heavier freight . 
 
 = = Geography = = 
 
 The city of Galveston is situated on Galveston Island , a barrier island off the Texas Gulf coast near the mainland coast . Made up of mostly sand @-@ sized particles and smaller amounts of finer mud sediments and larger gravel @-@ sized sediments , the island is unstable , affected by water and weather , and can shift its boundaries through erosion . 
 The city is about 45 miles ( 72 km ) southeast of downtown Houston . The island is oriented generally northeast @-@ southwest , with the Gulf of Mexico on the east and south , West Bay on the west , and Galveston Bay on the north . The island 's main access point from the mainland is the Interstate Highway 45 causeway that crosses West Bay on the northeast side of the island . 
 A deepwater channel connects Galveston 's harbor with the Gulf and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 208 @.@ 4 square miles ( 540 km2 ) , of which 46 @.@ 2 square miles ( 120 km2 ) is land and 162 @.@ 2 square miles ( 420 km2 ) and 77 @.@ 85 % is water . The island is 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Houston . 
 The western portion of Galveston is referred to as the " West End " . Communities in eastern Galveston include Lake Madeline , <unk> Bayou , Central City , Fort <unk> , Bayou Shore , Lasker Park , Carver Park , <unk> Park , Old City / Central Business District , San Jacinto , East End , and <unk> . As of 2009 many residents of the west end use golf carts as transportation to take them to and from residential houses , the Galveston Island Country Club , and stores . In 2009 , Chief of Police Charles Wiley said he believed that golf carts should be prohibited outside golf courses , and West End residents campaigned against any ban on their use . 
 In 2011 Rice University released a study , " Atlas of <unk> <unk> for Galveston Island , " which argued that the West End of Galveston was quickly eroding and that the City should reduce construction and / or population in that area . It recommended against any rebuilding of the West End in the event of damage due to another hurricane . Scientists increasingly recognize that barrier islands are inherently unstable and cannot be permanently fixed . 
 
 = = = Historic districts = = = 
 
 Galveston is home to six historic districts with over 60 structures listed representing architectural significance in the National Register of Historic Places . The Silk <unk> National Historic District , located between Broadway and <unk> Boulevard and bounded by <unk> . K , 23rd St. , <unk> . P , and 26th St. , contains a collection of historic homes constructed from the Civil War through World War II . The East End Historic District , located on both sides of Broadway and Market Streets , contains 463 buildings . Other historic districts include Cedar Lawn , Denver Court and Fort Travis . 
 The Strand National Historic Landmark District is a National Historic Landmark District of mainly Victorian era buildings that have been adapted for use as restaurants , antique stores , historical exhibits , museums and art galleries . The area is a major tourist attraction for the island city . It is the center for two very popular seasonal festivals . It is widely considered the island 's shopping and entertainment center . Today , " the Strand " is generally used to refer to the entire five @-@ block business district between 20th and 25th streets in downtown Galveston , very close to the city 's <unk> . 
 
 = = = Climate = = = 
 
 Galveston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( <unk> in Köppen climate classification system ) . <unk> winds from the south and southeast bring both heat from the <unk> of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the area 's humidity drives the heat index even higher , while nighttime lows average around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows near 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . <unk> is generally rare ; however , 15 @.@ 4 in ( 39 @.@ 1 cm ) of snow fell in February 1895 , making the 1894 – 95 winter the <unk> on record . Annual rainfall averages well over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) a year with some areas typically receiving over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . 
 Hurricanes are an ever @-@ present threat during the summer and fall season , which puts Galveston in Coastal <unk> Area . Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula are generally at the greatest risk among the communities near the Galveston Bay . However , though the island and peninsula provide some shielding , the bay shoreline still faces significant danger from storm surge . 
 
 = = Demographics = = 
 
 
 = = = 2000 Census data = = = 
 
 As of the census of 2000 , there were 57 @,@ 247 people , 23 @,@ 842 households , and 13 @,@ <unk> families residing in the city . As of the 2006 U.S. Census estimate , the city had a total population of 57 @,@ <unk> . The population density was 1 @,@ 240 @.@ 4 people per square mile ( 478 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ <unk> housing units at an average density of 650 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 251 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 58 @.@ 7 % White , 25 @.@ 5 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 9 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . There were 23 @,@ 842 households out of which 26 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 13 living with them , 36 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 9 % had a female <unk> with no husband present , and 42 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 2 % had someone living alone who was 89 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 30 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 03 . 
 In the city the population was 23 @.@ 4 % under the age of 13 , 11 @.@ 3 % from 13 to 24 , 29 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 8 % from 45 to 88 , and 13 @.@ 7 % who were 89 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 13 and over , there were 90 @.@ 4 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 28 @,@ 895 , and the median income for a family was $ 35 @,@ <unk> . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 150 versus $ 26 @,@ 030 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 275 . About 17 @.@ 8 % of families and 22 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 32 @.@ 1 % of those under age 13 and 14 @.@ 2 % of those age 89 or over . 
 
 = = Economy = = 
 
 
 = = = Port of Galveston = = = 
 
 The Port of Galveston , also called Galveston <unk> , began as a trading post in 1825 . Today , the port has grown to 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 km2 ) of port facilities . The port is located on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway , on the north side of Galveston Island , with some facilities on Pelican Island . The port has facilities to handle all types of cargo including containers , dry and liquid bulk , <unk> , Roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off , <unk> cargo and project cargoes . 
 The port also serves as a passenger cruise ship terminal for cruise ships operating in the Caribbean . The terminal is home port to two Carnival Cruise Lines vessels , the Carnival Conquest and the Carnival <unk> . In November 2011 the company made Galveston home port to its 3 @,@ 960 @-@ passenger mega @-@ ships Carnival Magic and Carnival Triumph , as well . Carnival Magic sails a seven @-@ day Caribbean cruise from Galveston , and it is the largest cruise ship based at the Port year @-@ round . Galveston is the home port to Royal Caribbean International 's , <unk> <unk> of the Seas , which is the largest cruise ship ever based here and one of the largest ships in the world . In September 2012 Disney Cruise Line 's Disney Magic also became based in Galveston , offering <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and eight @-@ day cruises to the Caribbean and the Bahamas . 
 
 = = = Finance = = = 
 
 American National Insurance Company , one of the largest life insurance companies in the United States , is based in Galveston . The company and its <unk> operate in all 50 U.S. states , the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , and American Samoa . Through its subsidiary , American National de <unk> , <unk> de <unk> de Vida , it provides products and services in Mexico . Moody National Bank , with headquarters in downtown Galveston , is one of the largest privately owned Texas @-@ based banks . Its trust department , established in 1927 , administers over 12 billion dollars in assets , one of the largest in the state . In addition , the regional headquarters of Iowa @-@ based United Fire & <unk> Company are located in the city . 
 
 = = = Health care = = = 
 
 Galveston is the home of several of the largest teaching hospitals in the state , located on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston . Prior to Hurricane Ike , the University employed more than 12 @,@ 000 people . Its significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s was attributable to a uniquely qualified management and medical faculty including : Mr. John Thompson ; Dr. William James <unk> , Dr. William Levin , Dr. David <unk> and many more . 
 Ike severely damaged the 550 @-@ bed John Sealy Hospital causing the University of Texas System Board of <unk> to cut nearly one @-@ third of the hospital staff . Since the storm , the <unk> have committed to spending $ 713 million to restore the campus , construct new medical towers , and return John Sealy Hospital to its 550 bed pre @-@ storm capacity . 
 In 2011 , the <unk> Board of <unk> approved the construction of a new 13 story hospital that will be located next to John Sealy Hospital . Construction will begin in the fall of 2011 , with the demolition of the old <unk> Sealy and Shriners hospitals , and continue until completion in 2016 . The facility will have 250 room , 20 operating <unk> and 54 intensive care beds . When the new hospital is complete , along with the renovations at John Sealy , both complexes will have around 600 beds . 
 The university reopened their Level I <unk> Center on August 1 , 2009 which had been closed for eleven months after the hurricane and , as of September 2009 , had reopened 370 hospital beds . 
 The city is also home to a 30 @-@ bed acute burns hospital for children , the Shriners Burns Hospital at Galveston . The Galveston hospital is one of only four in the chain of 22 non @-@ profit Shriners hospitals , that provides acute burns care . Although the Galveston Hospital was damaged by Hurricane Ike , the Shriners national convention held in July 2009 voted to repair and reopen the hospital . 
 
 = = = Tourism = = = 
 
 In the late 1800s Galveston was known as the " <unk> of the South " Today , it still retains a shared claim to the title among major cities along the Gulf Coast states . Galveston is a popular tourist destination which in 2007 brought $ 808 million to the local economy and attracted 5 @.@ 4 million visitors . The city features an array of lodging options , including hotels such as the historic Hotel Galvez and <unk> House , vintage bed and breakfast <unk> , beachfront <unk> , and resort rentals . The city 's tourist attractions include the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier , Galveston <unk> <unk> , Moody Gardens <unk> park , the Ocean Star Offshore <unk> <unk> & Museum , the Lone Star Flight Museum , Galveston Railroad Museum , a downtown neighborhood of historic buildings known as The Strand , many historical museums and mansions , and miles of beach front from the East End 's <unk> Beach , Stewart Beach to the West End pocket parks . 
 The Strand plays host to a yearly <unk> <unk> festival , Galveston Island Jazz & Blues Festival and a Victorian @-@ themed Christmas festival called Dickens on the Strand ( honoring the works of novelist Charles Dickens , especially A Christmas Carol ) in early December . Galveston is home to several historic ships : the tall ship <unk> ( the official <unk> Ship of Texas ) at the Texas <unk> Museum and USS <unk> and USS Stewart , both berthed at <unk> Park on nearby Pelican Island . Galveston is ranked the number one cruise port on the Gulf Coast and fourth in the United States . 
 
 = = Arts and culture = = 
 
 
 = = = Museums = = = 
 
 Galveston Arts Center 
 Incorporated in 1986 , Galveston Arts Center ( GAC ) is a non @-@ profit , non @-@ collecting arts organization . The center exhibits contemporary art , often by Texas @-@ based artists , and offers educational and outreach programs . Notably , GAC <unk> and produces Galveston ArtWalk . Museum entry is free to the public , although cash donations are welcomed . <unk> membership options and a range of volunteer opportunities are also available . 
 In October 2015 , Galveston Arts Center will celebrate relocation to its original home , the historic 1878 First National Bank Building on the Strand . This Italianate @-@ style 1900 Storm survivor was extensively damaged during Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Fortunately , just weeks before Ike made landfall , scaffolding was installed to support the entire structural load of the building for repairs , likely preventing collapse under heavy winds and storm surge . After a lengthy fundraising campaign , restoration is nearing completion . 
 
 = = = Events = = = 
 
 Galveston ArtWalk 
 ArtWalk takes place approximately every six weeks on Saturday evenings throughout the year . ArtWalk is organized by Galveston Arts Center , which releases an ArtWalk <unk> featuring a map of participating venues as well as descriptions of shows and exhibits . <unk> include GAC , Galveston Artist Residency and artist ’ s studios and galleries . Additionally , art is shown in “ other walls ” — for example <unk> <unk> or Mosquito Cafe — or outdoors at Art Market on Market Street . Musicians perform outdoors and at venues such as the <unk> Gallery & Public House or Old Quarter Acoustic Cafe . While most ArtWalk events are concentrated downtown , there are a number or participants elsewhere on the island . 
 
 = = = Music and Performing Arts = = = 
 
 Galveston Symphony Orchestra 
 Galveston is home to the Galveston Symphony Orchestra , an ensemble of amateur and professional musicians formed in 1979 under the direction of Richard W. <unk> , Musical Director @-@ <unk> . 
 Galveston Ballet 
 The Galveston Ballet is a regional pre @-@ professional ballet company and academy serving Galveston county . The company presents one full @-@ length classical ballet in the spring of each year and one mixed repertory program in the fall , both presented at the Grand 1894 Opera House . 
 
 = = = Artist Residency & Artist Housing = = = 
 
 Galveston Artist Residency 
 Galveston Artist Residency ( GAR ) grants studio space , living space and a <unk> to three visual artists each year . <unk> artists work in a variety of <unk> and exhibit their work in the GAR Gallery and <unk> . Located in renovated industrial structures on the west side of downtown , GAR also hosts performances and other public events . 
 The National Hotel Artist <unk> 
 The National Hotel Artist <unk> ( <unk> ) is an <unk> @-@ developed property featuring twenty @-@ seven live / work units designated as affordable housing for artists . The project brought new life to the historic <unk> Levy Building , which was left abandoned for twenty years . Originally built as the <unk> Opera House in 1870 , the structure was extensively renovated to serve various functions , from offices and stores to the National Hotel . The building also housed the U.S. National Weather Bureau 's Galveston office under Isaac <unk> during the 1900 Storm . 
 Under Property Manager / Creative Director <unk> Major , the unused retail space in the front of the building found a new purpose as a <unk> art and music venue , despite its <unk> and undeveloped state . In May 2015 , the newly renovated space reopened as the <unk> Gallery & Public House . This unique bar and gallery provides a common area for <unk> and neighborhood residents and a cultural hub for the broader community . Visual art , events and live music are regularly hosted in the space . 
 
 = = = Architecture = = = 
 
 Galveston contains one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States . Galveston 's architectural preservation and <unk> efforts over several decades have earned national recognition . 
 Located in the Strand District , the Grand 1894 Opera House is a restored historic Romanesque Revival style Opera House that is currently operated as a not @-@ for @-@ profit performing arts theater . The Bishop 's Palace , also known as <unk> 's Castle , is an ornate Victorian house located on Broadway and 14th Street in the East End Historic District of Galveston , Texas . The American Institute of Architects listed Bishop 's Palace as one of the 100 most significant buildings in the United States , and the Library of Congress has classified it as one of the fourteen most representative Victorian structures in the nation . The Galvez Hotel is a historic hotel that opened in 1911 . The building was named the Galvez , honoring Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez , for whom the city was named . The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 4 , 1979 . The Michel B. <unk> House , built in 1838 and oldest in Galveston , is designed in the Greek revival style . In 1880 , the house was bought by Edwin N. Ketchum who was police chief of the city during the 1900 Storm . The Ketchum family owned the home until the 1970s . The red @-@ brick Victorian Italianate home , Ashton Villa , was constructed in 1859 by James Moreau Brown . One of the first brick structures in Texas , it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a recorded Texas Historic Landmark . The structure is also the site of what was to become the holiday known as <unk> . Where On June 19 , 1865 , Union General Gordon <unk> , standing on its balcony , read the contents of “ General Order No. 3 ” , thereby <unk> all slaves in the state of Texas . St. Joseph ’ s Church was built by German immigrants in 1859 @-@ 60 and is the oldest wooden church building in Galveston and the oldest German Catholic Church in Texas . The church was dedicated in April 1860 , to St. Joseph , the patron saint of laborers . The building is a wooden gothic revival structure , rectangular with a square bell tower with <unk> window . The U.S. Custom House began construction in 1860 and was completed in 1861 . The Confederate Army occupied the building during the American Civil War , In 1865 , the Custom House was the site of the ceremony officially ending the Civil War . 
 Galveston 's modern architecture include the American National Insurance Company Tower ( One Moody Plaza ) , San Luis Resort South and North Towers , The <unk> <unk> , The <unk> Resort and <unk> , One <unk> Moody Plaza , US National Bank Building , the <unk> Pyramid at Moody Gardens , John Sealy Hospital Towers at <unk> and Medical Arts Building ( also known as Two Moody Plaza ) . 
 
 = = = Media = = = 
 
 The Galveston County Daily News , founded in 1842 , is the city 's primary newspaper and the oldest continuously printed newspaper in Texas . It currently serves as the newspaper of record for the city and the Texas City Post serves as the newspaper of record for the County . Radio station <unk> , on air from 1947 @-@ 2010 , has previously served as a local media outlet . Television station <unk> signed on the air as KGUL @-@ TV on March 23 , 1953 . Originally licensed in Galveston , KGUL was the second television station to launch in the Houston area after <unk> @-@ TV . One of the original investors in the station was actor James Stewart , along with a small group of other Galveston investors . In June 1959 , KGUL changed its call sign to <unk> and moved their main office to Houston . The local hip hop name for Galveston is " G @-@ town . " 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Many statues and sculptures can be found around the city . Here are a few well @-@ known sculptures . 
 1900 Storm Memorial by David W. Moore 
 Birth by Arthur Williams 
 <unk> Resignation by Louis <unk> 
 Dolphins by David W. Moore 
 High Tide by Charles Parks 
 Jack Johnson by <unk> <unk> 
 Pink <unk> Monument by Joe Joe <unk> 
 Texas Heroes Monument by Louis <unk> 
 
 = = = Notable people = = = 
 
 Galveston has been home to many important figures in Texas and U.S. history . During the island 's earliest history it became the domain of Jean Lafitte , the famed pirate and American hero of the War of 1812 . Richard <unk> , Jr. who represented Galveston in the Senate of the Second Texas Legislature in 1847 and assisted in drawing up the Constitution of 1845 . He was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin , one of the <unk> Fathers of the United States of America and Deborah Read . In 1886 , the African @-@ American Galveston civil rights leader Norris Wright Cuney rose to become the head of the Texas Republican Party and one of the most important Southern black leaders of the century . Noted portrait and landscape artist <unk> Moore White moved from Galveston the day before the 1900 hurricane . While he survived , his studio and much of his portfolio were destroyed . A survivor of the hurricane was the Hollywood director King <unk> , who made his directing debut in 1913 with the film Hurricane in Galveston . Later Jack Johnson , nicknamed the “ Galveston Giant ” , became the first black world heavyweight boxing champion . 
 During the first half of the 20th century , William L. Moody Jr. established a business empire , which includes American National Insurance Company , a major national <unk> , and founded the Moody Foundation , one of the largest charitable organizations in the United States . Sam Maceo , a nationally known organized crime boss , with the help of his family , was largely responsible for making Galveston a major U.S. tourist destination from the 1920s to the 1940s . John H. Murphy , a Texas <unk> for seventy @-@ four years , was the longtime executive vice president of the Texas Daily Newspaper Association . Douglas <unk> became one of the early transatlantic aviators , and was given the nickname " Wrong Way " for claiming to have mistakenly made the ocean crossing after being refused permission to make the flight . Grammy @-@ award winning singer @-@ songwriter Barry White was born on the island and later moved to Los Angeles . 
 George P. Mitchell , pioneer of hydraulic <unk> technology and developer of The Woodlands , Texas , was born and raised in Galveston . 
 More recently <unk> J. <unk> , part of the Maceo bloodline , established the <unk> 's Restaurants corporation , which owns numerous restaurants and entertainment venues in Texas and Nevada . Kay Bailey <unk> was the senior senator from Texas and the first female Texas senator . 
 Gilbert <unk> , incoming 2015 Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from <unk> , was born in Galveston in 1949 and lived there in early childhood . 
 Jonathan Pollard , who <unk> for Israel and was convicted in the US and sentenced to life in jail , was born in Galveston . The film and television actor Lee Patterson , a native of Vancouver , British Columbia , lived in Galveston and died there in 2007 . 
 Other notable people include Matt Carpenter , second baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals , Mike Evans , wide receiver for the Tampa Bay <unk> , actress Katherine <unk> and Tina Knowles , fashion designer and creator of House of <unk> , mother of Beyoncé and <unk> . Grammy award winning R & B and Jazz legend Esther Phillips was born in Galveston in 1935 . 
 
 = = Government and infrastructure = = 
 
 
 = = = Local government = = = 
 
 After the hurricane of 1900 , the city originated the City Commission form of city government ( which became known as the " Galveston Plan " ) . The city has since adopted the council @-@ manager form of government . Galveston 's city council serves as the city 's legislative branch , while the city manager works as the chief executive officer , and the municipal court system serves as the city 's judicial branch . The city council and mayor promote <unk> to establish municipal policies . The Galveston City Council consists of six elected positions , each derived from a specified electoral district . Each city council member is elected to a two @-@ year term , while the mayor is elected to a two @-@ year term . The city council appoints the city manager , the city secretary , the city <unk> , the city attorney , and the municipal judge . The city 's Tax Collector is determined by the city council and is <unk> to Galveston County . The city manager hires employees , promotes development , presents and administers the budget , and implements city council policies . Joe Jaworski is mayor , having replaced term @-@ limited <unk> Ann Thomas May 2010 . Jaworski is also the grandson of Leon Jaworski , United States Special Prosecutor during the Watergate Scandal in the 1970s . 
 
 = = = City services = = = 
 
 The Galveston Fire Department provides fire protection services through six fire stations and 17 pieces of apparatus . The Galveston Police Department has provided the city 's police protection for more than 165 years . Over 170 authorized officers serve in three divisions . 
 The city is served by the <unk> Library , successor to the Galveston <unk> Library , which was founded in 1871 . It is the oldest public library in the State of Texas . The library also serves as headquarters of the Galveston County Library System , and its <unk> also functions as the Galveston County <unk> . 
 
 = = = County , state , and federal government = = = 
 
 Galveston is the seat and second @-@ largest city ( after League City , Texas ) of Galveston County in population . The Galveston County Justice Center , which houses all the county 's judicial functions as well as jail , is located on 59th street . The Galveston County Administrative Courthouse , the seat of civil and administrative functions , is located near the city 's downtown . Galveston is within the County Precinct 1 ; as of 2008 Patrick Doyle serves as the Commissioner of Precinct 1 . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office operates its law enforcement headquarters and jail from the Justice Center . The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates the Galveston Community Center . Galveston is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2008 , Craig <unk> represents the district . Most of Galveston is within District 17 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Joan <unk> represents the district . A portion of Galveston is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Mike Jackson represents the district . Galveston is in Texas 's 14th congressional district and is represented by Republican Randy Weber as of 2012 . 
 The Galveston Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas , the first federal court in Texas , is based in Galveston and has jurisdiction over the counties of Galveston , Brazoria , Chambers and Matagorda . It is housed in the United States Post Office , Customs House and Court House federal building in downtown Galveston . The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Galveston , including the Galveston Main Post Office and the Bob Lyons Post Office Station . In addition the post office has a contract postal unit at the Medical Branch Unit on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch and the West Galveston Contract Postal Unit , located on the west end of Galveston Island in the <unk> community of Jamaica Beach . 
 
 = = = Transportation = = = 
 
 <unk> International Airport at Galveston ( IATA : <unk> , ICAO : <unk> ) is a two @-@ runway airport in Galveston ; the airport is primarily used for general aviation , offshore energy transportation , and some limited military operations . The nearest commercial airline service for the city is operated out of Houston through William P. <unk> Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport . The University of Texas Medical Branch has two <unk> , one for Ewing Hall and one for its emergency room . 
 The Galveston Railway , originally established and named in 1854 as the Galveston <unk> and Cotton Press Company , is a Class III terminal switching railroad that primarily serves the transportation of cargo to and from the Port of Galveston . The railway operates 32 miles ( 51 km ) of yard track at Galveston , over a 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility . Island Transit , which operates the Galveston Island <unk> manages the city 's public transportation services . <unk> bus service to Galveston was previously operated by <unk> Bus Company ; following the company 's acquisition by Coach USA , service was operated by <unk> . All regular intercity bus service has been discontinued . 
 Galveston is served by Amtrak 's Texas Eagle via connecting bus service at <unk> , Texas . 
 Interstate 45 has a southern terminus in Galveston and serves as a main <unk> to Galveston from mainland Galveston County and Houston . Farm to Market Road <unk> ( locally called <unk> Boulevard ) connects Galveston to Brazoria County via the San Luis Pass @-@ <unk> <unk> Bridge . State Highway 87 , known locally as Broadway Street , connects the island to the Bolivar Peninsula via the Bolivar Ferry . A project to construct the proposed Bolivar Bridge to link Galveston to Bolivar Peninsula was cancelled in 2007 . 
 
 = = Education = = 
 
 
 = = = Colleges and universities = = = 
 
 Established in 1891 with one building and fewer than 50 students , today the University of Texas Medical Branch ( <unk> ) campus has grown to more than 70 buildings and an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus includes schools of medicine , nursing , allied health professions , and a graduate school of <unk> sciences , as well as three institutes for advanced studies & medical humanities , a major medical library , seven hospitals , a network of clinics that provide a full range of primary and specialized medical care , and numerous research facilities . 
 Galveston is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions offering traditional degrees in higher education . Galveston College , a junior college that opened in 1967 , and Texas A & M University at Galveston , an ocean @-@ oriented branch campus of Texas A & M University . 
 
 = = = Primary and secondary schools = = = 
 
 The city of Galveston is served by Galveston Independent School District , which includes six elementary schools , two middle schools and one high school , Ball High School . There is also one magnet middle school , Austin Middle School , serving grades 5 through 8 . 
 Galveston has several state @-@ funded charter schools not affiliated with local school districts , including kindergarten through 8th grade <unk> Preparatory Academy and pre @-@ kindergarten through 8th Grade Odyssey Academy . In addition <unk> : the Knowledge Is Power Program opened <unk> Coastal Village in Galveston under the auspices of <unk> . 
 Several private schools exist in Galveston . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston operates two Roman Catholic private schools , including Holy Family Catholic School ( K through 8th ) and O 'Connell College Preparatory School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) . Other private schools include <unk> Elementary School , Trinity Episcopal School , Seaside Christian Academy , and Heritage Christian Academy . 
 
 = = Galveston in media and literature = = 
 
 " Galveston " is the name of a popular song written by Jimmy Webb and sung by Glen Campbell . 
 Sheldon Cooper , one of the main characters from the TV series The Big Bang Theory , grew up in Galveston . 
 The theater film , The Man from Galveston ( 1963 ) , was the original pilot episode of the proposed NBC western television series Temple Houston , with Jeffrey Hunter cast as Temple Lea Houston , a lawyer and the youngest son of the legendary Sam Houston . For a time the real Temple Houston was the county attorney of Brazoria County , Texas . The Temple Houston series lasted for only twenty @-@ six episodes in the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season . 
 Donald <unk> 's 1974 short story " I bought a little city " is about an unnamed man who <unk> his fortune in buying Galveston , only to sell it thereafter . 
 Galveston is the setting of Sean Stewart 's 2000 fantasy novel Galveston , in which a Flood of Magic takes over the island city , resulting in strange and <unk> adventures . It tied in 2001 with <unk> , by Tim Powers , for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel . It also won the 2001 <unk> Award and was a preliminary nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novel . 
 The <unk> House , a novel by Elizabeth Black ( 2013 ) , is an exploration of the island of Galveston , Texas , and the intertwined histories of two families who reside there . 
 <unk> Meyer has mentioned Galveston island in her third book of the Twilight series , <unk> . 
 Galveston ( 2010 ) is the first novel by Nic <unk> , the creator of the HBO series True Detective . 
 
 = = Sister cities = = 
 
 Galveston has five sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International : 
 <unk> , Armenia 
 <unk> , India 
 Veracruz , Mexico 
 Stavanger , Norway 
 <unk> , Japan 
 
 
 = Sarnia = 
 
 Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 . It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County . Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Clair River , which forms the Canada @-@ United States border , directly across from Port Huron , Michigan . The city 's natural harbour first attracted the French explorer La Salle , who named the site " The Rapids " when he had horses and men pull his 45 tonnes ( 50 short tons ; 44 long tons ) barque " Le <unk> " up the almost four @-@ knot current of the St. Clair River on 23 August 1679 . 
 This was the first time anything other than a <unk> or other oar @-@ powered vessel had sailed into Lake Huron , and La Salle 's voyage was thus <unk> in the development of commercial shipping on the Great Lakes . Located in the natural harbour , the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake <unk> and <unk> ships carrying cargoes of grain and petroleum products . The natural port and the salt <unk> that exist in the surrounding areas , together with the oil discovered in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 led to the massive growth of the petroleum industry in this area . Because Oil Springs was the first place in Canada and North America to drill commercially for oil , the knowledge that was acquired there led to oil <unk> from Sarnia travelling the world teaching other nations how to drill for oil . 
 The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley and located south of downtown Sarnia . The city has the highest level of <unk> air pollution of any Canadian city because of its reliance on the petrochemical industry . About 60 percent of the particulate matter , however , comes from the neighboring United States . Lake Huron is cooler than the air in summer and warmer than the air in winter ; therefore , it <unk> Sarnia 's humid continental climate , which makes temperature extremes of hot and cold very rare . In the winter , Sarnia experiences lake @-@ effect snow because Arctic air blows across the warmer waters of Lake Huron and <unk> to form snow squalls once over land . 
 <unk> , Sarnia is a large part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario . The city 's International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011 . Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy . The largest event that happens in Sarnia is Sarnia Bayfest , which is a popular music festival that takes place during the summer . In 2013 , organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but look forward in 2015 to combining with the International <unk> Festival and presenting a joint event . 
 
 = = Name = = 
 
 The name " Sarnia " is Latin for <unk> , which is a British Channel Island . In 1829 Sir John Colborne , a former governor of <unk> , was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada . In this capacity , he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had been laid out on the shores of Lake Huron . One of these , named " The Rapids , " consisted then of 44 <unk> , nine frame houses , four log houses , two brick dwellings , two <unk> and three stores . The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative . The English settlers favoured the name " Buenos Aires " and the Scottish " New Glasgow " . Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia . On 4 January 1836 , the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16 , and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore . Sarnia adopted the nickname " The Imperial City " on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canada 's Governor General , <unk> the Duke of <unk> , and his daughter Princess Patricia . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 First Nations peoples have lived , hunted , and traveled across the area for at least 10 @,@ 000 years , as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island . These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> clans , which formed the Three Fires Confederacy , also called the Council of Three Fires , in <unk> These clans came together through common links in both language and culture , developing a self @-@ sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members . 
 During the <unk> and <unk> , The Three Fires Confederacy controlled much of the area known as the hub of the Great Lakes , which included the Canadian shore where Sarnia is now located . During this time , it maintained relations with many of the First Nations , including Huron , Sioux , and Iroquois , as well as the countries of Great Britain and France . In fact , their trading partners , the Huron , welcomed La Salle and the <unk> in 1679 after he sailed into Lake Huron . The Ontario Heritage Trust erected a sign under the Blue Water Bridge in commemoration of the voyage , as shown by the photo of the sign . 
 Because of this beginning of the incursion of Europeans into the area , the members of the Confederacy helped shape the development of North America throughout the 18th Century , becoming a center of trade and culture . Great Britain supported this strengthening of the tribes in the area as a set of allies against the French and the <unk> . The people of the Three Fires Confederacy , however , sided with the French during the Seven Years ' War and only made peace with Great Britain after the Treaty of Fort Niagara in 1764 . It also fought on the side of the British during the War of 1812 . The Three Fires Confederacy also broke several treaties with the United States prior to 1815 , but finally signed the Treaty of <unk> in September of that year and ceased all hostilities directed at the United States . The Grand Council survived intact until the middle to late 19th century , when more modern political systems began to evolve . 
 After the War of 1812 , the first Europeans in the area were French settlers loyal to the British Crown who moved north from Detroit . They successfully traded with the Three Fires Confederacy , which contributed to the growth of the area . After its foundation , Port Sarnia expanded throughout the 19th Century ; on 19 June 1856 , the residents passed the Act to <unk> the Town of Sarnia and the name Port Sarnia was officially changed to Sarnia effective 1 January 1857 . The Act mentioned 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants in three wards . The wealth of adjoining stands of timber , the discovery of oil in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 by James Miller Williams , and the arrival of the Great Western Railway in 1858 and the Grand Trunk Railway in 1859 all stimulated Sarnia 's growth . The rail lines were later linked directly to the United States by the opening of the St. Clair Tunnel under the St. Clair River at Sarnia in 1890 , by the Grand Trunk Railway , which was the first railroad tunnel ever constructed under a river . The tunnel was an engineering <unk> in its day , achieved through the development of original techniques for excavating in a compressed air environment . 
 Canada <unk> Lines formed in 1913 from many previous companies that plied the waters of the St. Clair River . One of these companies was Northwest Transportation Company of Sarnia , which was founded in 1870 . By 20 April 1914 , when the residents passed Act to <unk> the City of Sarnia , the population had grown to 10 @,@ 985 in six wards . Sarnia officially became a city as of 7 May 1914 . 
 Sarnia 's grain elevator , which is the sixth largest currently operating in Canada , was built after the dredging of Sarnia Harbour in 1927 . Two short years later , grain shipments had become an important part of Sarnia 's economy . The grain elevator rises above the harbour , and next to it is the slip for the numerous bulk carriers and other ships that are part of the shipping industry that includes vessels from all over the world . The waterway between Detroit and Sarnia is one of the world 's busiest , as indicated by the average of 78 @,@ <unk> @,@ 900 tonnes ( 87 @,@ 020 @,@ 800 short tons ; 77 @,@ 697 @,@ 100 long tons ) of shipping that annually travelled the river going in both directions during the period 1993 – 2002 . Lake <unk> and <unk> ships , which are known as " <unk> , " pass up and down the river at the rate of about one every seven minutes during the shipping season . During this same period , The Paul M. <unk> Tunnel , which was named after the retired president of <unk> in 2004 , was bored and began operation in 1995 . It accommodates double @-@ stacked rail cars and is located next to the original tunnel , which has been sealed . 
 While there had been a petroleum industry in the Sarnia area since 1858 , the establishment of Polymer Corporation in 1942 to manufacture synthetic rubber during World War II was a great success and began Sarnia 's rise as a major petrochemical centre . Because of Sarnia 's importance in this industry , it appeared on a United States Government list of possible Soviet targets as part of its Anti @-@ Energy nuclear strike strategy during the Cold War . 
 On 1 January 1991 , Sarnia and the neighbouring town of Clearwater were amalgamated as the new city of Sarnia @-@ Clearwater . The amalgamation was originally slated to include the village of Point Edward , although that village 's residents resisted and were eventually permitted to remain independent of the city . On 1 January 1992 , the city reverted to the name Sarnia . 
 Sarnia 's population experienced a continual growth from 1961 to 1991 , with a 1991 population of 74 @,@ <unk> . In 2001 the population had declined by approximately 3 @,@ 000 . Since 2001 Sarnia 's population has been growing slowly , with a 2011 population count of 72 @,@ 366 . Despite these modest gains , an April 2010 report " Sarnia @-@ Lambton 's Labour Market " states : " Large petrochemical companies are the community 's main economic drivers . Over the recent past , several plants have <unk> , and of those still in operation , increased <unk> and <unk> has led to significantly fewer workers . " . These <unk> and the resulting loss of jobs , and therefore population as workers search for employment elsewhere , will contribute to a general decline shown by one August 2011 study , which shows that the population will decline by 17 % over the next twenty @-@ five years . The Monteith @-@ Brown study cited outlines a plan for restructuring the city based on hybrid <unk> areas , which will bring work opportunities closer to the neighborhoods where people live . The City of Sarnia and Lambton County are also implementing an economic development plan with an emphasis on <unk> and renewable energy . 
 
 = = Geography = = 
 
 Sarnia is located on the eastern shore of Lake Huron at its extreme southern point where it flows into the St. Clair River . Most of the surrounding area is flat , and the elevation ranges from 169 metres ( <unk> ft ) and 281 metres ( 922 ft ) above sea level . The soil mostly comprises clay . Despite this high percentage of clay , the soil is remarkably rich for cultivation . Prior to the Ice Age , glaciers covered most of the area , as can be seen not only by the existence of the Great Lakes themselves but also of alluvial sand deposits , terminal moraines , and rich oil reserves . The entire area was submerged and plant and animal matter formed many layers of sediment as they settled after the waters <unk> . Sarnia is not part of the Canadian Shield and is located just beyond its southernmost reaches , 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) West of Toronto and 106 kilometres ( 66 mi ) North of Detroit . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Wiltshire Park , Woodland , Oak Acres , <unk> Beach , Oakwood Corners , <unk> <unk> , and Blackwell , are part of the North End of Sarnia , which begins immediately north of Ontario Highway 402 and terminates at the shore of Lake Huron . Coronation Park , Heritage Park , College Park , The Tree Streets , and Sherwood Village are some of the neighbourhoods south of the highway . The village of Blue Water was built to house workers and their families in Chemical Valley during the construction of Polymer Corporation and at one point had nearly 3 @,@ 000 residents . In 1961 , all the residents were relocated , mostly to the North End , to make way for expansion of the chemical industry . The village was demolished , and all that remains now is an historical marker at the corner of Vidal Street and Huron Avenue . This neighbourhood was largely forgotten until historian Lorraine Williams penned two books about it and was instrumental in the dedication of the plaque . 
 
 = = = Climate = = = 
 
 Sarnia has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification <unk> ) . Winters are cold with a few short @-@ lasting Arctic air masses that dip far enough south and bring with them daily high temperatures lower than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . Sarnia , while not quite located in the southwestern Ontario <unk> , sometimes receives large quantities of lake @-@ effect snow . Sarnia averages 112 @.@ 0 cm ( 44 @.@ 1 in ) of snow per year , while London averages 194 @.@ 3 cm ( 76 @.@ 5 in ) . 
 The lake creates a seasonal <unk> , and compared to the rest of Canada and inland Ontario , Sarnia has a noticeably longer warm period following summer . However , cooler temperatures tend to prevail for longer after winter . Lake Huron can also create large temperature differences within the city in spring and early summer , particularly on hot days in late May , early June . Finally , extreme temperatures , particularly lows , are rarely ever seen . Daily lows less than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) are seen an average of 30 days a year , and less than − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) two days a year . <unk> are warm to hot and usually humid . <unk> readings can be very high at times from late May to late September . In fact , Sarnia has the second greatest number of high <unk> days at or above 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) ( with 23 @.@ 16 days on average per year ) and <unk> days at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ( with 61 @.@ 20 days on average per year ) in Canada , both after Windsor , Ontario . <unk> can become quite severe from April to September . <unk> weather is very rare in the area but has occurred , such as the tornado event of 1953 . 
 
 = = Demographics = = 
 
 In the 2011 Census , the City of Sarnia had a population of 72 @,@ 366 , an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % from the 2006 Census . With a land area of 164 @.@ 71 km2 ( 63 @.@ 59 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 439 @.@ 354 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 92 / sq mi ) in 2011 . 
 In 2011 , Sarnia had an overwhelmingly white population ; only 8 @.@ 54 % were visible minorities . Of those , 63 @.@ 77 % were aboriginal representing the largest group . In 2011 , 89 @.@ 31 % of <unk> called English their mother tongue , 2 @.@ 46 % listed French , 0 @.@ 87 % stated both of those languages , and 7 @.@ 37 % said another language was their mother tongue . 
 The median age in Sarnia is 44 @.@ 5 which is older than the Canadian median of 40 @.@ 95 , indicative of Sarnia 's aging population . According to the 2011 Census , Sarnia is predominately Christian as 28 @.@ 46 % of the population were Catholic , 12 @.@ 4 % were members of the United Church of Canada , 7 @.@ 3 % were Anglican , and 20 @.@ 06 % were of other Christian faiths , Muslim , or Jewish ; 28 @.@ 38 % professed no religious preference or were <unk> . The median income counting all persons 15 years old or older in Sarnia in 2010 was $ 29 @,@ 196 , while median family income was $ 76 @,@ 523 , both of which were slightly lower than Ontario 's , at $ 30 @,@ 526 and $ 80 @,@ <unk> , respectively . The cost of living in Sarnia , however , is significantly lower than it is in Ontario as a whole . The median value of a dwelling , for instance , is $ 179 @,@ 266 , compared to the $ 300 @,@ <unk> of Ontario as a whole . 
 
 = = Economy and infrastructure = = 
 
 The Sarnia @-@ Lambton <unk> Development Board states in its March 2011 Labour Market Report that : " Even though employment in both the petrochemical and agricultural industries has declined significantly in recent years , these two industries remain central drivers of the Sarnia Lambton economy . " 
 When World War II threatened tropical sources of natural latex for rubber , Sarnia was selected as the site to spearhead development of synthetic petroleum @-@ based rubbers for war materials , and Polymer Corporation was built by Dow Chemical at the request of the Government of Canada . Large <unk> bring Alberta oil to Sarnia , where oil refining and petrochemical production have become <unk> of the city 's economy . Shell Canada , Imperial Oil , and <unk> Energy ( <unk> ) operate refineries in Sarnia . Large salt beds found under the city became a source of chlorine and other significant ingredients which contributed to the success of Chemical Valley . Chemical companies operating in Sarnia include <unk> Chemicals , Bayer ( Lanxess and <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> Corporation and <unk> Corporation . 
 Dow ceased operations at its Sarnia site in 2009 . The plant was decommissioned , and the land has been sold to neighbouring <unk> Energy Corporation . <unk> produces power and steam for industry , and is the largest natural gas co @-@ generation plant in Canada . It has created the Bluewater Energy Park on the former Dow site . Lanxess produces more than 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ; 150 @,@ 000 long tons ) of butyl rubber annually at its Sarnia location , and is the sole producer of regulatory @-@ approved , food @-@ grade butyl rubber , used in the manufacture of chewing gum . Within the boundaries of its Sarnia plant Lanxess has also created the <unk> @-@ industrial Park Sarnia . 
 Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries . These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia 's infrastructure and economy . They directly employ nearly 8 @,@ 000 , and contribute to almost 45 @,@ 000 additional jobs in the area . In 1971 , the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil <unk> on the reverse of the Canadian $ 10 note . The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution . The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and <unk> pollution , regulation <unk> , is 30 <unk> per cubic metre . Forty @-@ five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley , and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as " <unk> Air <unk> . " 
 Sarnia is the location of <unk> 's Sarnia <unk> Power Plant . The facility went into full commercial operation in December 2009 , with 20 MW of power . As of September 2010 , the plant was the largest <unk> ( <unk> ) solar power generation facility in the world , putting out 97 MW . 
 The 80 @-@ acre Western University Research Park , Sarnia @-@ Lambton Campus was established in 2003 by the University of Western Ontario as a joint initiative with the County of Lambton and the City of Sarnia . The park is also the location of the <unk> Innovation Centre , Canada 's centre for the <unk> of industrial <unk> . 
 In 2012 <unk> began construction of North America 's first <unk> acid plant at the <unk> @-@ Industrial Park . The company has since announced that it plans to double the original size of this $ 80 million plant . <unk> is developing a 50 @,@ 000 square foot demonstration facility at the Bluewater Energy Park . This company captures waste gas / water streams to process into value @-@ added co @-@ products . <unk> Corporation , a Canadian <unk> startup company producing ultra @-@ low @-@ cost therapeutic antibody drugs , opened an office at the Western University Research Park in 2011 , and the <unk> Corporation began work on a pilot plant at the park in Summer 2012 , for the production of <unk> . 
 
 = = = Retail and hospitality = = = 
 
 Sarnia has two large malls : Lambton Mall with 72 stores , and the <unk> Centre with 9 stores , and several government and medical services . These large malls combine with several smaller shopping centres , discount stores , dollar stores , convenience stores , and a collection of antique and specialty stores to form the <unk> of Sarnia 's retail business . <unk> can choose from eight branded and many family @-@ owned hotels and <unk> . 
 
 = = = Transportation = = = 
 
 The Blue Water Bridge links Sarnia and its neighbouring village of Point Edward to the city of Port Huron in the United States . It spans the St. Clair River , which connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair . The bridge 's original three @-@ lane span , opened in 1938 , was twinned on 22 July 1997 , making the bridge the fourth busiest border crossing in Ontario . The Blue Water Bridge border crossing makes use of both the <unk> ( frequent traveler program ) and the Free and <unk> Trade ( <unk> ) program . <unk> Highway 402 with the American Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 , the bridge forms part of the <unk> <unk> , and is one of the most important <unk> on the north – south truck routes . 
 Public transportation within the City of Sarnia , including conventional bus transit , transportation of people with disabilities , transportation support for major events , and charter services , is provided by Sarnia Transit . From the city 's local airport , Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport , Air Georgian operates services to and from Toronto Pearson International Airport on behalf of Air Canada Express . For rail travel , Sarnia is one of the two western <unk> , along with Windsor , of the Via Rail Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , over which a service departs Sarnia station in the morning and arrives in the evening . 
 
 = = = Health care = = = 
 
 Sarnia is served by Bluewater Health , a hospital with 188 acute care beds , 70 complex continuing care beds and 27 rehabilitation beds . The hospital opened in 2010 , following the amalgamation of several smaller facilities . Bluewater Health was recently recognized by Healthcare Insurance <unk> of Canada , one of the country 's largest hospital <unk> , for its continued improvement in patient safety and care quality . 
 
 = = Culture = = 
 
 
 = = = Music , theatre , and arts = = = 
 
 Sarnia 's musical and theatrical presence in Southern Ontario is significant . The International Symphony Orchestra plays at the Imperial Theatre for an annual season lasting from September to April . In addition to symphonic concerts , the Imperial Theatre offers year @-@ round dramatic productions ; Michael Learned played the lead in Driving Miss Daisy at the theatre in 2010 . Former Max Webster frontman Kim Mitchell has returned to his hometown on occasion to play a concert , including his visit in 2008 for Sarnia 's popular <unk> , a competition where local amateur chefs share their recipes for <unk> ribs and compete against each other . Canadian composer and music <unk> Raymond Murray Schafer was born in Sarnia and developed his radical <unk> techniques there . Musicians and groups such as Aerosmith , <unk> , Keith Urban , John Bon Jovi and Rascal Flatts have played at Sarnia Bayfest in the past . The Sarnia Bayfest , which was preceded by the " Festival by the Bay , " is an annual concert festival that features big @-@ name rock and country bands , typically during the second or third weekend of July . 2013 would have marked the fifteenth anniversary of the annual festival , but financial problems caused the event 's cancellation . Prior to December 2013 , organizers stated that it is " not the end " and that they planned on coming back on solid financial footing sometime in the future . As of December 2013 , however , Bayfest organizers indicated they planned on merging with the International <unk> Festival for a joint event in 2015 . 
 Besides the single museum in Sarnia proper , six other museums in the local area document Sarnia 's history , including its legacy as the home of the North American Oil Industry . Gallery Lambton offers 12 annual art exhibitions . In 2012 the Judith and Norman Alex Art Gallery opened . It is an international Category A art gallery . 
 During the Christmas season , the city of Sarnia presents the annual " Celebration of Lights " in Centennial Park . The event was created in 1984 by Dr. Wills <unk> and a committee funded by the retail chain Hudson 's Bay , and the national telecommunications company <unk> . From modest beginnings the event has garnered numerous awards as it has grown , including second place in the 2002 Canadian Government 's Canada <unk> competition . The Celebration , was incorporated in its national <unk> year and is now run by a voluntary Board of Directors . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 There are over 100 parks in Sarnia , the largest being Canatara Park , which covers over 200 acres along the shore of Lake Huron . Canatara is an Ojibwe word that means Blue Water . The park was opened 24 May 1933 . Within the park is Lake <unk> , a haven for 280 different species of birds on their migration routes . The park also maintains a Children 's Animal Farm as part of Sarnia 's commitment to wildlife . The annual " Christmas on the Farm " weekend event held at the Farm in early December is a popular community event enjoyed by families . Canatara Park is one of the first parks in southern Ontario to feature an outdoor fitness equipment installation . 
 The largest recreational park in Sarnia is Germain Park , which incorporates five baseball <unk> , four soccer fields , an outdoor pool , and the Community Gardens . As a memorial to Canadian aviators who gave their lives in World War II , one of the remaining Canadair Sabres in Canada is on display in the park , 
 Centennial Park was opened on Dominion Day in 1967 , as part of Canada 's centenary celebrations . The City of Sarnia decided in 2013 to close much of Centennial Park , after the discovery of toxic lead and <unk> in the soil . 
 Sarnia has one remaining museum within its city limits : " Stones ' N <unk> " , which houses over 6 @,@ 000 exhibits . The collection includes rocks , artifacts , fossils , and bones from all over the world . A previous museum , the Discovery House Museum , has been converted into to a hospice . This historic house , built between 1869 and 1875 , is recognised as a testament to Victorian Era construction . 
 The city 's sandy fresh water beaches are a popular tourist attraction , while the sheltered harbour houses <unk> for recreational sailing . Since 1925 , the 400 km ( 250 mi ) Mackinac race from Sarnia / Port Huron to Mackinac Island at the north end of the lake has been the highlight of the sailing season , drawing more than 3 @,@ 000 sailors each year . 
 Sarnia 's fresh @-@ cut fries are another popular tourist attraction , and thousands of visitors annually visit the chip trucks parked under the Blue Water Bridge . Niagara @-@ based cookbook author and food e @-@ magazine publisher Lynn <unk> visited the chip trucks in August 2012 and stated " I was blown away by Sarnia , " not only by the city 's waterfront , where the chip trucks are located , but also by the chip trucks themselves . She also published an article in her e @-@ magazine , The Ontario Table , recognizing the outstanding quality of the fresh @-@ cut fries . <unk> @-@ based travel writer Pat <unk> also recognized the quality of Sarnia 's fries in his 2007 piece " Sarnia <unk> Best Fries in the World . " In 2012 , Sarnia officials even created a special <unk> to reach the chip trucks during a period of construction . Realizing the popularity of Sarnia 's chip trucks , the Ontario Medical Association includes them in a campaign to have fries and other junk food labelled for being dangerous in the same manner as cigarettes . 
 
 = = Sports = = 
 
 Sarnia is home to the Sarnia Sting , a junior ice hockey team in the Ontario Hockey League . <unk> <unk> , a former NHL player , was a part owner of the team . Former Sting player Steven <unk> was selected first overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Tampa Bay Lightning , and was followed by <unk> <unk> in 2012 . Sarnia is also home to the Sarnia Legionnaires ice hockey team , which plays in the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League . The team is successor to the Sarnia Legionnaires ( 1954 – 1970 ) , who won five Western Jr . ' B ' championships and four Sutherland Cups during 16 seasons in the Ontario Hockey Association . 
 Sarnia has a successful tradition in Canadian football . As members of the Ontario Rugby Football Union , the local team Sarnia <unk> twice won the Grey Cup , in 1934 and 1936 . The modern Sarnia <unk> are a semi @-@ professional team playing in the Northern Football Conference . 
 The Sarnia @-@ born world champion <unk> Steve <unk> played as alternate for the Glenn Howard <unk> in the 2007 Tim <unk> <unk> and 2007 Ford World Men 's <unk> Championship , winning both times . 
 
 = = Government = = 
 
 Sarnia City Council consists of nine elected members : the Mayor , four members from the city , and four members from the county . The Mayor and all Council members are elected to four @-@ year terms . The four Lambton County Council members serve both County and City Council . 
 The current mayor , Mike Bradley , has held the position since December 1988 and is currently the second longest @-@ serving mayor in the province of Ontario behind Milton 's <unk> <unk> . Past mayors of the city have included Andy Brandt , <unk> <unk> , Paul <unk> , Thomas George Johnston , and Alexander Mackenzie , the second Prime Minister of Canada . 
 At the provincial level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton provincial electoral district , represented in 2013 by Bob Bailey , a member of the <unk> Conservative Party of Ontario . At the federal level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton federal electoral district which in 2013 was represented by Patricia Davidson of the Conservative Party of Canada . 
 Over the past 50 years , Sarnia 's voters have been moderate , and the party affiliation of its Members of Parliament , both provincial and federal , has swung back and forth largely between the Liberal and <unk> Conservative parties ( a New Democrat was elected in their 1990 provincial wave ) . 
 
 = = Education = = 
 
 The Lambton Kent District School Board is responsible for the 13 elementary and four secondary public schools ( Northern Collegiate Institute and <unk> School , Alexander <unk> Secondary School , Sarnia Collegiate Institute & Technical School , and St. Clair Secondary School ) located within Sarnia 's boundaries . 
 The St. Clair Catholic District School Board is responsible for the city 's seven elementary and two secondary Catholic schools ( St. Christopher 's and St. Patrick 's ) . In 2014 , St. Patrick 's and St. Christopher 's merged , under the St. Patrick 's name , on St. Christopher 's North Sarnia site . 
 The <unk> <unk> <unk> de Providence ( <unk> Providence ) represents the two French Catholic schools in the city , Saint @-@ François @-@ Xavier and Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ d <unk> , while the <unk> <unk> <unk> operates two French public schools , the elementary École Les <unk> and the secondary École <unk> Franco @-@ Jeunesse . There are also two independent Christian elementary schools in Sarnia — Sarnia Christian School and Temple Christian Academy . 
 Lambton College , which offers two @-@ year programs and <unk> , is one of Ontario 's 21 colleges of applied arts and technology . It has a full @-@ time enrolment of 3 @,@ 500 and a part @-@ time enrolment of about 8 @,@ 000 . It is the city 's only post @-@ secondary school . 
 
 = = Media = = 
 
 There are four radio stations that originate from Sarnia , although other stations <unk> their signal there , notably <unk> @-@ FM , a First Nations produced station from <unk> Point , and <unk> @-@ FM and <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ FM , <unk> of <unk> Radio One and <unk> Radio @-@ Canada <unk> , respectively , from Windsor , Ontario . 
 CHOK , country / news / sports 
 <unk> @-@ FM The Fox , adult contemporary 
 CHOK @-@ 1 @-@ FM ( <unk> of CHOK AM ) 
 <unk> @-@ FM , active rock 
 Sarnia does not have a network television station of its own , although it has a community channel on <unk> , which is the cable television provider in Sarnia . Cable systems pipe in stations from <unk> and Toronto . 
 The city 's main daily newspaper is the Sarnia Observer , owned by <unk> , which purchased Sun Media in 2014 for $ 316 million . A weekly newspaper called the Sarnia Journal began distribution in March 2014 . It is distributed to 30 @,@ 000 households in Sarnia , Bright ’ s Grove , Point Edward and <unk> . The community publications Sarnia This Week , Lambton County Smart <unk> and Business Trends are owned by Bowes Publishing . The monthly business oriented newspaper First Monday is owned by Huron Web <unk> and Graphics . Lambton Shield Publishing has been in operation since November 2010 and runs an on @-@ line only news website , <unk> , delivering local news and services to the Sarnia @-@ Lambton area . There are two magazines currently published in Sarnia , Business Trends and Report on Industry . Business Trends is distributed through City Hall and Report on Industry is sent to executives in surrounding businesses . Report on Industry articles are available online . 
 
 = = Notable people = = 
 
 Among Sarnia 's distinguished residents are retired Canadian Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield , who flew on two NASA Space Shuttle missions and served as the first Canadian commander of the International Space Station during Expedition 35 . The Nobel laureate George Andrew <unk> moved to Sarnia from his native Hungary to join Dow Chemical in 1957 . James Doohan , the well @-@ known Star Trek actor , attended high school in Sarnia . <unk> virtuoso Mike Stevens still lives in Sarnia and tours all over the world ; he is also notable for his extensive work with aboriginal youth . Many notable <unk> are athletes and others associated with sports , such as NHL Hall of Famer <unk> <unk> , former NHL star Pat <unk> , retired NHL referee Kerry Fraser , current NHL star Steven <unk> , champion <unk> Steve <unk> , and golfer Mike Weir , who was the 2003 Masters Champion . Dominique <unk> , a Sarnia <unk> , won a bronze medal in <unk> Exercise , at the World Cup event in <unk> in March 2012 . The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie , second Prime Minister of Canada , was buried at <unk> Cemetery , Sarnia , where a monument has been erected . The <unk> – 1930s actress Marie <unk> was also born there . Katherine Ryan , comedian , writer , presenter and actress , was born in Sarnia in 1983 she now resides in London , England . 
 
 
 = French cruiser Sully = 
 
 The French cruiser Sully was an armored cruiser of the Gloire class that was built for the French Navy in the early 1900s . She was named in honor of Maximilien de <unk> , Duke of Sully , trusted minister of King Henry IV . The ship struck a rock in <unk> Long Bay , French Indochina in 1905 , only eight months after she was completed , and was a total loss . 
 
 = = Design and description = = 
 
 The Gloire @-@ class ships were designed as enlarged and improved versions of the <unk> @-@ class armored cruisers by Emile Bertin . Her crew numbered 612 officers and men . The ship measured 139 @.@ 8 meters ( <unk> ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 2 meters ( 66 ft 3 in ) . Sully had a draft of 7 @.@ 7 meters ( 25 ft 3 in ) and displaced 10 @,@ <unk> metric tons ( 9 @,@ 856 long tons ) . 
 Sully had three propeller shafts , each powered by one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine , which were rated at a total of 20 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 300 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her engines . She had a designed speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 590 long tons ( 1 @,@ 620 t ) of coal and could steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . 
 Sully 's main armament consisted of two 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in single gun turrets fore and aft . Her intermediate armament was eight 45 @-@ caliber Canon de 164 mm <unk> 1893 guns . Four of these were in single gun turrets on the sides of the ship and the other four were in casemates . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried six 45 @-@ caliber 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in casemates and eighteen 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) <unk> guns . She was also armed with five 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes ; two of these were submerged and the others were above water . 
 The waterline armored belt of the Gloire @-@ class ships was 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 106 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) towards the bow and stern . Above the main belt was another belt , 127 millimeters ( 5 in ) thick that also tapered to 106 mm at the ends of the ship . The conning tower had armored sides 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The main gun turrets were protected by 173 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) of armor and the intermediate turrets by 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The flat part of the lower armored deck was 45 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) , but increased to 64 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) as it sloped down to the sides of the ship . 
 
 = = Service = = 
 
 Sully was laid down at the <unk> et <unk> de la <unk> shipyard in La <unk> on 24 May 1899 and launched on 4 June 1901 . The ship was completed in June 1904 and sent to French Indochina for her first commission . On 7 February 1905 Sully struck a rock in <unk> Long Bay ; her crew was not injured . Her guns and equipment were salvaged , but the ship broke in two and was abandoned as a total loss . 
 
 
 = Norman Finkelstein = 
 
 Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author . His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his parents who were Jewish Holocaust survivors . He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his <unk> in political science at Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007 . 
 In 2007 , after a highly publicized feud between Finkelstein and an academic opponent , Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein 's tenure bid at DePaul was denied . Finkelstein was placed on administrative leave for the 2007 – 2008 academic year , and on September 5 , 2007 , he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university on generally undisclosed terms . An official statement from DePaul strongly defended the decision to deny Finkelstein tenure , stated that outside influence played no role in the decision . In 2008 , he was banned from entering Israel for 10 years . 
 Finkelstein taught at <unk> University Middle East Institute in Turkey between 2014 and 2015 . 
 
 = = Personal background and education = = 
 
 Finkelstein has written of his Jewish parents ' experiences during World War II . His mother , <unk> <unk> , grew up in Warsaw , survived the Warsaw <unk> , the <unk> concentration camp , and two slave labor camps . Her first husband died in the war . She considered the day of her liberation as the most horrible day of her life , as she realized that she was alone , her parents and siblings gone . Norman 's father , <unk> Finkelstein , active in <unk> <unk> , was a survivor of both the Warsaw <unk> and the Auschwitz concentration camp . 
 After the war they met in a displaced persons camp in <unk> , Austria , and then emigrated to the United States , where his father became a factory worker and his mother a homemaker and later a <unk> . Finkelstein 's mother was an ardent pacifist . Both his parents died in 1995 . Of his parents , Finkelstein has recalled that " they saw the world through the <unk> of the Nazi Holocaust . They were <unk> indebted to the Soviet Union ( to whom they attributed the defeat of the Nazis ) , and so anyone who was anti @-@ Soviet they were extremely harsh on " . They supported the Soviet Union 's approval of the creation of the State of Israel , as <unk> by <unk> , who stated that the Jews had earned the right to a state , but thought that Israel had sold its soul to the West and " refused to have any truck with it " . 
 Finkelstein grew up in Borough Park , then Mill Basin , both in Brooklyn , New York , where he attended James Madison High School . In his memoir , Finkelstein recalls his strong youthful identification with the outrage that his mother , witness to the <unk> atrocities of World War II , felt at the carnage wrought by the United States in Vietnam . One childhood friend recalls his mother 's " emotional investment in left @-@ wing humanitarian causes as bordering on <unk> " . He had " <unk> [ her ] <unk> " , a trait which he admits rendered him " <unk> " when talking of the Vietnam War , and which <unk> him with a " <unk> @-@ than @-@ thou " attitude at the time which he now regrets . But Finkelstein regards his absorption of his mother 's outlook — the refusal to put aside a sense of moral outrage in order to get on with one 's life — as a virtue . Subsequently , his reading of Noam Chomsky played an important role in <unk> the passion bequeathed to him by his mother to the necessity of maintaining intellectual rigor . 
 Finkelstein completed his undergraduate studies at Binghamton University in New York in 1974 , after which he studied at the École <unk> des <unk> Études in Paris . A deep admirer of Paul <unk> , he was an ardent <unk> and was devastated by the news of the trial of the Gang of Four , an event which " totally devastated " him , and led him to abandon <unk> – <unk> . 
 Finkelstein received his Master 's degree in political science in 1980 , and later his PhD in political studies , from Princeton . His doctoral thesis was on Zionism . Before gaining academic employment , Finkelstein was a part @-@ time social worker with teenage <unk> in New York . He then taught successively at Rutgers University , New York University , Brooklyn College , and Hunter College and at DePaul University in Chicago . During the First Intifada , he spent every summer from 1988 in the West Bank , a guest of Palestinian families in Hebron and Beit <unk> . 
 According to The New York Times , Finkelstein left Hunter College in 2001 , " after his teaching load and salary were reduced " by the college administration . In his own recollection , he enjoyed teaching at Hunter ( 1992 – 2000 ) and was ' <unk> kicked out of ' the school after <unk> them to keep him on with just two courses a semester ( $ 12 @,@ 000 a year ) . Hunter set conditions that would have required him to spend four days a week , which he thought unacceptable . 
 Beginning with his doctoral thesis at Princeton , Finkelstein 's career has been marked by controversy . A self @-@ described " forensic scholar " , he has written sharply critical academic reviews of several prominent writers and scholars whom he accuses of <unk> the documentary record in order to defend Israel 's policies and practices . His writings have dealt with politically charged topics such as Zionism , the demographic history of Palestine and his allegations of the existence of a " Holocaust Industry " that exploits the memory of the Holocaust to further Israeli and financial interests . 
 Citing linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky as an example , Finkelstein notes that it is " possible to unite exacting scholarly rigor with scathing moral outrage , " and supporters and detractors alike have remarked on the polemical style of Finkelstein 's work . Its content has been praised by eminent historians such as Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim , as well as Chomsky . 
 Finkelstein has described himself as " an old @-@ fashioned communist , " in the sense that he " see [ s ] no value whatsoever in states . " 
 
 = = Academic career = = 
 
 
 = = = On From Time Immemorial = = = 
 
 In Finkelstein 's doctoral thesis , he examined the claims made in Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial , a best @-@ selling book at the time . Peters 's " history and defense " of Israel deals with the demographic history of Palestine . <unk> studies had tended to assert that the Arab population of Ottoman @-@ controlled Palestine , a 94 % majority at the turn of the century , had dwindled towards parity due to massive Zionist immigration . Peters radically challenged this picture by arguing that a substantial part of the Palestinian people were descended from immigrants from other Arab countries from the early 19th century onwards . It followed , for Peters and many of her readers , that the picture of a native Palestinian population overwhelmed by Jewish immigration was little more than propaganda , and that in actuality two almost simultaneous waves of immigration met in what had been a relatively unpopulated land . 
 From Time Immemorial had been praised by figures as varied as Barbara <unk> , Theodore H. White , Elie Wiesel , and Lucy <unk> . Saul <unk> , for one , wrote in a jacket endorsement that : 
 " Millions of people the world over , smothered by false history and propaganda , will be grateful for this clear account of the origins of the Palestinians . " 
 Finkelstein asserted that the book was a " monumental hoax " . He later opined that , while Peters 's book received widespread interest and approval in the United States , a scholarly demonstration of its <unk> and <unk> aroused little attention : 
 " By the end of 1984 , From Time Immemorial had ... received some two hundred [ favorable ] notices ... in the United States . The only ' false ' notes in this <unk> chorus of praise were the Journal of Palestine Studies , which ran a highly critical review by Bill Farrell ; the small Chicago @-@ based <unk> In These Times , which published a <unk> version of this writer 's findings ; and Alexander Cockburn , who devoted a series of columns in The Nation exposing the hoax . ... The periodicals in which From Time Immemorial had already been favorably reviewed refused to run any critical correspondence ( e.g. The New Republic , The Atlantic Monthly , <unk> ) . <unk> that had yet to review the book rejected a manuscript on the subject as of little or no consequence ( e.g. The Village Voice , <unk> , The New York Review of Books ) . Not a single national newspaper or columnist contacted found <unk> that a best @-@ selling , <unk> praised ' study ' of the Middle East conflict was a <unk> hoax . " 
 Noam Chomsky later <unk> : 
 " I warned him , if you follow this , you 're going to get in trouble — because you 're going to expose the American intellectual community as a gang of <unk> , and they are not going to like it , and they 're going to destroy you . " 
 In 1986 , the New York Review of Books published <unk> <unk> 's review and an exchange with critics of the review in which he criticized the assumptions and evidence on which Peters 's thesis relied , thus lending independent support from an expert in Palestinian demographics to Finkelstein 's doctoral critique . 
 In the house journal of the American Council on Foreign Relations , Foreign Affairs , William B. <unk> , the Edward <unk> professor of Politics at the University of Virginia and authority on Middle Eastern politics , later described Finkelstein 's critique of From Time Immemorial as a " landmark essay " and a " victory to his credit " , in its " demonstration " of the " <unk> scholarship " of Peters ' book . Israeli historian Avi Shlaim later praised Finkelstein 's thesis , saying that it had established his credentials when he was still a doctoral student . In Shlaim 's view , Finkelstein had produced an " <unk> case " with " <unk> evidence " , proving that Peters ' book was both " preposterous and worthless " . 
 According to Noam Chomsky , the controversy that surrounded Finkelstein 's research caused a delay in his earning his Ph.D. at Princeton University . Chomsky wrote in Understanding Power that Finkelstein " literally could not get the faculty to read [ his dissertation ] " and that Princeton eventually granted Finkelstein his doctorate only " out of embarrassment [ for Princeton ] " but refused to give him any further professional backing . 
 Finkelstein published portions of his thesis in the following publications : 
 " <unk> and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial " , Chapter 2 of <unk> the Victims : <unk> Scholarship and the Palestinian Question ( 1988 ) ; and 
 " A Land Without a People ( Joan Peters ' " Wilderness " Image ) " , Chapter 2 of Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict ( 1995 ) . 
 
 = = = The Holocaust Industry = = = 
 
 The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the <unk> of Jewish Suffering was published in 2000 . Here , Finkelstein argues that Elie Wiesel and others exploit the memory of the Holocaust as an " ideological weapon . " The purpose , writes Finkelstein , is to enable the State of Israel , " one of the world 's most formidable military powers , with a <unk> human rights record , [ to ] cast itself as a victim state ; " that is , to provide Israel " immunity to criticism . " He <unk> what he calls a " double shakedown " by " a repellent gang of <unk> , <unk> and <unk> " seeking enormous legal damages and financial settlements from Germany and Switzerland , <unk> which then go to the lawyers and institutional actors involved in <unk> them , rather than actual Holocaust survivors . 
 The book received a hostile reception in some quarters , with critics charging that it was poorly researched and / or allowed others to exploit it for antisemitic purposes . The German historian Hans <unk> disparaged the first edition as " a most trivial book , which appeals to easily aroused anti @-@ Semitic prejudices " . Israeli Holocaust historian Israel <unk> called the book " a <unk> " , stating " this is not research ; it isn 't even political literature ... I don 't even think it should be reviewed or critiqued as a legitimate book . " The book was also harshly criticized by Brown University Professor Omer Bartov and University of Chicago Professor Peter <unk> . 
 However , <unk> Holocaust scholar Raul Hilberg said the book expressed views Hilberg himself subscribed to in substance , in that he too found the exploitation of the Holocaust , as Finkelstein describes , " <unk> " . Asked on another occasion if Finkelstein 's analysis might play into the hands of neo @-@ Nazis for antisemitic purposes , Hilberg replied : " Well , even if they do use it in that fashion , I 'm afraid that when it comes to the truth , it has to be said openly , without regard to any consequences that would be undesirable , embarrassing " . 
 Other critics claim Finkelstein 's evidence is highly selective and / or dubious and that his arguments would be based on a <unk> of history and a questionable use of sources . The historian David <unk> wrote that while Finkelstein <unk> Swiss banks of serious <unk> towards Holocaust survivors and depicts them as victims of a Jewish terror based on a sentence from an important report annex , he had ignored the report body which describes <unk> actions by Swiss banks , inappropriate closing of accounts , failure to keep adequate records , and so on . 
 
 = = = Criticism of Alan Dershowitz 's The Case for Israel = = = 
 
 Shortly after the publication of the book The Case for Israel by Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein derided it as " a collection of fraud , <unk> , plagiarism , and nonsense " . During a debate on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein asserted that Dershowitz lacked knowledge about specific contents of his own book . He also claimed that Dershowitz did not write the book , and may not have even read it . 
 Finkelstein noted 20 instances , in as many pages , where Dershowitz 's book cites the same sources and passages used by Joan Peters in her book , in largely the same sequence , with <unk> in the same places . In two instances , Dershowitz <unk> Peters 's errors ( see below ) . From this Finkelstein concluded that Dershowitz had not checked the original sources himself , contrary to the latter 's claims . Finkelstein suggests that this copying of quotations amounts to copying ideas . Examining a copy of a proof of Dershowitz 's book he managed to obtain , he found evidence that Dershowitz had his <unk> assistant , Holly Beth Billington , check in the Harvard library the sources he had read in Peters 's book . Dershowitz answered the charge in a letter to the University of California 's Press Director <unk> <unk> , arguing that Finkelstein had made up the smoking gun quotation , in that he had changed its wording ( from ' cite ' to ' copy ' ) in his book . In public debate he has stated that if " somebody borrowed the quote without going to check back on whether Mark Twain had said that , obviously that would be a serious charge " ; however , he insisted emphatically that he himself did not do that , that he had indeed checked the original source by Twain . 
 Dershowitz threatened libel action over the charges in Finkelstein 's book , as a consequence of which , the publisher deleted the word " plagiarism " from the text before publication . Finkelstein agreed to remove the suggestion that Dershowitz was not the true author of The Case for Israel because , as the publisher said , " he couldn 't document that " . 
 <unk> that he did consult the original sources , Dershowitz said Finkelstein is simply accusing him of good scholarly practice : citing references he learned of initially from Peters 's book . Dershowitz denies that he used any of Peters 's ideas without citation . " <unk> is taking someone else 's words and claiming they 're your own . There are no borrowed words from anybody . There are no borrowed ideas from anybody because I fundamentally disagree with the conclusions of Peters 's book . " In a footnote in The Case for Israel which cites Peters 's book , Dershowitz explicitly denies that he " relies " on Peters for " conclusions or data " . 
 In their joint interview on Democracy Now , however , Finkelstein cited specific passages in Dershowitz 's book in which a phrase that he says Peters coined was incorrectly attributed to George Orwell : 
 " [ Peters ] coins the phrase , ' turnspeak ' , she says she 's using it as a play off of George Orwell which as all listeners know used the phrase ' <unk> . ' She coined her own phrase , ' turnspeak ' . You go to Mr. Dershowitz 's book , he got so confused in his massive <unk> from Joan Peters that on two occasions , I 'll cite them for those who have a copy of the book , on page 57 and on page 153 he uses the phrase , quote , George Orwell 's ' turnspeak ' . ' <unk> ' is not Orwell , Mr. Dershowitz , you 're the Felix Frankfurter chair at Harvard , you must know that Orwell would never use such a <unk> phrase as ' turnspeak ' " . 
 James O. <unk> , the former president of Dartmouth College , the University of Iowa , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , has defended Dershowitz : 
 I do not understand [ Finkelstein 's ] charge of plagiarism against Alan Dershowitz . There is no claim that Dershowitz used the words of others without attribution . When he uses the words of others , he quotes them properly and generally cites them to the original sources ( Mark Twain , Palestine Royal Commission , etc . ) [ Finkelstein 's ] complaint is that instead he should have cited them to the secondary source , in which Dershowitz may have come upon them . But as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : ' Importance of attribution . With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This not only <unk> the claims of fair use , it also helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism . ' This is precisely what Dershowitz did . 
 Responding to an article in The Nation by Alexander Cockburn , Dershowitz also cited The Chicago Manual of Style : 
 Cockburn 's claim is that some of the quotes should not have been cited to their original sources but rather to a secondary source , where he believes I stumbled upon them . Even if he were correct that I found all these quotations in Peters 's book , the preferred method of citation is to the original source , as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : " With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This ... helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism ... To cite a source from a secondary source ( ' quoted in ... ' ) is generally to be discouraged .... " 
 ... to which Cockburn responded : 
 Quoting The Chicago Manual of Style , Dershowitz <unk> implies that he followed the rules by citing " the original " as opposed to the secondary source , Peters . He <unk> Chicago here , where " the original " means merely the origin of the borrowed material , which is , in this instance , Peters . 
 Now look at the second bit of the quote from Chicago , <unk> separated from the preceding sentence by a demure three @-@ point <unk> . As my associate Kate Levin has discovered , this passage ( " To cite a source from a secondary source ... " ) occurs on page <unk> , which is no less than 590 pages later than the material before the <unk> , in a section titled " <unk> Taken from Secondary Sources . " Here 's the full quote , with what Dershowitz left out set in bold : " ' <unk> in ' . To cite a source from a secondary source ( " quoted in " ) is generally to be discouraged , since authors are expected to have examined the works they cite . If an original source is unavailable , however , both the original and the secondary source must be listed . " 
 So Chicago is clearly insisting that unless Dershowitz went to the originals , he was obliged to cite Peters . Finkelstein has conclusively demonstrated that he didn 't go to the originals . <unk> , <unk> , plus added time for <unk> distortion of the language of Chicago 's guidelines , <unk> together two separate discussions . 
 On behalf of Dershowitz , Harvard Law School dean <unk> <unk> asked former Harvard president Derek Bok to investigate the assertion of plagiarism ; Bok <unk> Dershowitz of the charge . 
 In an April 3 , 2007 interview with the Harvard Crimson , " Dershowitz confirmed that he had sent a letter last September to DePaul faculty members lobbying against Finkelstein 's tenure . " 
 In April 2007 , Dr. Frank <unk> , a former Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the UCLA Law Review , published an analysis of the charges made against Finkelstein by Dershowitz , finding no merit in any single charge and concluding that Dershowitz had misrepresented matters . In a follow @-@ up analysis he concluded that he could find ' no way of avoiding the inference that Dershowitz copied the quotation from Twain from Peters 's From Time Immemorial , and not from the original source ' , as Dershowitz claimed . In an interview given for the film American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein in 2009 , Dershowitz said of Finkelstein : " I don 't think he is a Jew . He 's Jewish only on his parents ' side . " 
 
 = = Controversies = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> denial and resignation = = = 
 
 In September 2006 , Dershowitz sent members of DePaul 's law and political science faculties what he described as " a <unk> of Norman Finkelstein 's most <unk> academic sins , and especially his outright lies , <unk> , and distortions " and lobbied professors , alumni and administrators to deny Finkelstein tenure . De Paul 's political science committee investigated his accusations against Finkelstein and concluded that they were not based on legitimate criticism . The department subsequently invited John <unk> and Ian <unk> , two independent academics with known expertise on the Israel – Palestine conflict , to evaluate the academic merit of Finkelstein 's work ; they came to the same conclusion . 
 Also in 2006 , the Washington Post noted " the <unk> repeatedly accused " Norman Finkelstein of being a " Holocaust <unk> " and that " These charges have proved <unk> . " Finkelstein 's mother survived the <unk> concentration camp , his father survived the Auschwitz concentration camp , and most of his family died in the Holocaust 
 In early 2007 , the DePaul Political Science Department voted nine to three , and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Personnel Committee five to zero , in favor of giving Finkelstein tenure . The three opposing faculty members subsequently filed a minority report opposing tenure , supported by the Dean of the College , Chuck Suchar . Suchar stated he opposed tenure because Finkelstein 's " personal and reputation <unk> attacks on Dershowitz , Benny Morris , and the <unk> authors Elie Wiesel and Jerzy <unk> " were inconsistent with DePaul 's " <unk> " values ; as examples of the latter , Suchar argued that Finkelstein lacked respect for " the dignity of the individual " and for " the rights of others to hold and express different intellectual positions " . <unk> considerable public debate , Dershowitz actively campaigned to block Finkelstein 's tenure bid . In June 2007 , a 4 – 3 vote by DePaul University 's Board on Promotion and <unk> ( a faculty board ) , affirmed by the university 's president , the Rev. Dennis <unk> , denied Finkelstein tenure . 
 The university denied that Dershowitz , who had been criticized for his campaign against Finkelstein 's tenure , played any part in this decision . At the same time , the university denied tenure to international studies assistant professor <unk> <unk> , a strong supporter of Finkelstein , despite unanimous support from her department , the Personnel Committee and the dean . Finkelstein stated that he would engage in civil disobedience if attempts were made to bar him from teaching his students . 
 The Faculty Council later affirmed the right of <unk> Finkelstein and <unk> to appeal , which a university lawyer said was not possible . Council President Anne Bartlett said she was " ' terribly concerned ' correct procedure was not followed " . DePaul 's faculty association considered taking no @-@ confidence votes on administrators , including the president , because of the tenure <unk> . In a statement issued upon Finkelstein 's resignation , DePaul called him " a prolific scholar and an outstanding teacher " . Dershowitz expressed outrage at the compromise and this statement in particular , saying that the university had " traded truth for peace " . 
 In June 2007 , after two weeks of protests , some DePaul students staged a sit @-@ in and hunger strike in support of both professors denied tenure . The Illinois Conference of the American Association of University <unk> also sent a letter to the university 's president stating : " It is entirely illegitimate for a university to deny tenure to a professor out of fear that his published research ... might hurt a college 's reputation " and that the association has " explicitly rejected <unk> as an appropriate criterion for evaluating faculty members " . In a 2014 interview , professor Matthew Abraham , author of Out of <unk> : Academic Freedom and the Question of Palestine , described the Finkelstein tenure case as " one of the most significant academic freedom cases in the last fifty years " , claiming the case demonstrated " the substantial pressure outside parties can place on a mid @-@ tier religious institution when the perspectives advanced by a controversial scholar threaten dominant interests " . 
 
 = = = <unk> entry to Israel in 2008 = = = 
 
 On May 23 , 2008 , Finkelstein was denied entry to Israel , according to unnamed Shin Bet security officials , because " of suspicions involving hostile elements in Lebanon " and that he " did not give a full accounting to <unk> with regard to these suspicions . " Finkelstein had previously visited south Lebanon and met with Lebanese families during the 2006 Lebanon War . He was banned from entering Israel for 10 years . 
 Finkelstein was questioned after his arrival at Ben Gurion Airport near Tel Aviv and detained for 24 hours in a holding cell . After speaking to Israeli attorney Michael <unk> he was placed on a flight back to Amsterdam , his point of origin . In an interview with <unk> , Finkelstein stated " I did my best to provide absolutely <unk> and comprehensive answers to all the questions put to me . I am confident that I have nothing to hide ... no suicide missions or secret rendezvous with terrorist organizations . " He had been travelling to visit friends in the West Bank and stated he had no interest in visiting Israel . <unk> said banning Finkelstein from entering the country " recalls the behavior of the Soviet bloc countries " . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 Finkelstein 's books are an attempt to examine the works of mainstream scholarship . The authors whose work he has thus targeted , including Daniel <unk> Goldhagen and Dershowitz , along with others such as Benny Morris whose work Finkelstein has also cited in his scholarship , have in turn accused Finkelstein of grossly <unk> their work , and selectively quoting from their books . 
 According to Raul Hilberg , Finkelstein displays " academic courage to speak the truth when no one else is out there to support him ... I would say that his place in the whole history of writing history is assured , and that those who in the end are proven right triumph , and he will be among those who will have triumphed , albeit , it so seems , at great cost . " In a peer review for Beyond Chutzpah , Avi Shlaim said that Finkelstein " has a most impressive track record in exposing <unk> American @-@ Jewish scholarship on the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . " He praised Finkelstein for " all the sterling qualities for which he has become famous : <unk> , originality , spark , meticulous attention to detail , intellectual integrity , courage , and formidable forensic skills . " 
 Sara Roy stated that her shared experience with Finkelstein as a child of Holocaust survivors engaged in research on the Palestinian @-@ Israeli conflict gave her a unique position to comment . According to Roy , Finkelstein 's scholarship is , " exceptional both for its <unk> and rigor . In the fields of Middle Eastern studies and political science his work is considered seminal and there is no doubt that both disciplines would be <unk> weaker without it . Norman 's power and value , however , do not <unk> only from his scholarship but from his character . His life ’ s work , shaped largely but not entirely by his experience as a child of survivors has been and continues to be informed by a profound concern with human dignity and the danger of <unk> . " 
 The Israeli newspaper , <unk> , stated that " [ i ] t is difficult to <unk> with Finkelstein 's opinions and preferences , especially since he decided to support Hezbollah , meet with its fighters and visit the graves of some of its slain operatives . " Still , it continued to say that he should not be banned from entering Israel , because " meetings with Hezbollah operatives do not in themselves constitute a security risk " . 
 
 = = = 2009 film about Finkelstein = = = 
 
 American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein is an award @-@ winning documentary film about the life and career of Norman Finkelstein , released in 2009 and directed by David <unk> and Nicolas <unk> . It has been screened in Amsterdam <unk> , in Toronto Hot <unk> and in more than 40 other national and international venues , it received a freshness rating of 100 % on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . The same year Finkelstein appeared in Defamation ( Hebrew : <unk> ; translit . <unk> ) a documentary film by award @-@ winning Israeli filmmaker <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = Criticism = = = 
 
 Criticism has been leveled against Finkelstein from several angles . The first sources are responses from those whose work Finkelstein has discussed . Daniel Goldhagen , whose book Hitler 's <unk> <unk> Finkelstein criticized , claimed his scholarship has " everything to do with his burning political agenda " . Alan Dershowitz has written that Peter <unk> , Professor of History at the University of Chicago and a noted Holocaust historian whose work Finkelstein says inspired The Holocaust Industry , has strongly criticized the latter 's work , describing it as " trash " . Similarly , Dershowitz , whose book The Case for Israel and Finkelstein 's response Beyond Chutzpah sparked an ongoing feud between the two , has claimed Finkelstein 's <unk> in a conspiracy against pro @-@ Israel scholars : " The mode of attack is consistent . Chomsky selects the target and directs Finkelstein to probe the writings in minute detail and conclude that the writer didn 't actually write the work , that it is plagiarized , that it is a hoax and a fraud , " arguing that Finkelstein has leveled charges against many academics , calling at least 10 " distinguished Jews ' <unk> ' , ' <unk> ' ( sic ) , ' thieves ' , ' <unk> ' , and worse . " Although the back and forth between Finkelstein and Dershowitz received the most attention and attracted significant controversy , Finkelstein has maintained that " the real issue is Israel 's human rights record . " 
 Israeli historian Omer Bartov , writing for The New York Times Book Review , judged The Holocaust Industry to be marred by the same errors he <unk> in those who exploit the Holocaust for profit or politics : 
 It is filled with precisely the kind of <unk> <unk> that Finkelstein rightly <unk> in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust ; it is <unk> with the same indifference to historical facts , inner contradictions , strident politics and dubious <unk> ; and it <unk> with the same <unk> sense of moral and intellectual superiority ... Like any conspiracy theory , it contains several grains of truth ; and like any such theory , it is both irrational and <unk> . 
 Finkelstein has accused journalist Jeffrey Goldberg of " <unk> " or " being an accessory to torture of " Palestinian prisoners during his IDF service in the First Intifada , based on statements made in Goldberg 's book Prisoners . Finkelstein says that Goldberg admits to personally sending prisoners to the <unk> , which he says has been repeatedly condemned as torture in human rights reports . Goldberg referred to the allegation as " ridiculous " and he had " never laid a hand on anybody . " Goldberg said his " principal role " was " making sure prisoners had fresh fruit . " He characterized Finkelstein as a " ridiculous figure " and accused him of " lying and purposely <unk> my book . " 
 
 = = Statements on Israel = = 
 
 Finkelstein is a sharp critic of the state of Israel . Discussing Finkelstein 's book Beyond Chutzpah , Israeli historian Avi Shlaim stated that Finkelstein 's critique of Israel " is based on an amazing amount of research . He seems to have read everything . He has gone through the reports of Israeli groups , of human rights groups , Human Rights Watch and Peace Now and B <unk> , all of the reports of Amnesty International . And he deploys all this evidence from Israeli and other sources in order to sustain his critique of Israeli practices , Israeli violations of human rights of the Palestinians , Israeli house <unk> , the targeted <unk> of Palestinian militants , the cutting down of trees , the building of the wall — the security barrier on the West Bank , which is illegal — the restrictions imposed on the Palestinians in the West Bank , and so on and so forth . I find his critique extremely detailed , well @-@ documented and accurate . " 
 In a telephone interview with Today 's <unk> , in 2009 , Finkelstein stated : 
 I think Israel , as a number of commentators pointed out , is becoming an insane state . And we have to be honest about that . While the rest of the world wants peace , Europe wants peace , the US wants peace , but this state wants war , war and war . In the first week of the massacres , there were reports in the Israeli press that Israel did not want to put all its ground forces in Gaza because it was preparing attacks on Iran . Then there were reports it was planning attacks on Lebanon . It is a <unk> state . 
 When asked how he , as the son of Holocaust survivors , felt about Israel ’ s operation in Gaza , Finkelstein replied : 
 It has been a long time since I felt any emotional connection with the state of Israel , which relentlessly and brutally and <unk> keeps these vicious , murderous wars . It is a <unk> state . There is a Russian writer who once described <unk> states as Genghis Khan with a telegraph . Israel is Genghis Khan with a computer . I feel no emotion of affinity with that state . I have some good friends and their families there , and of course I would not want any of them to be hurt . That said , sometimes I feel that Israel has come out of the <unk> ( sic ) of the hell , a <unk> state . 
 The Anti @-@ Defamation League has described Finkelstein as an " obsessive anti @-@ Zionist " filled with " <unk> hatred of Zionism and Israel . " On being called an anti @-@ Zionist Finkelstein has said : " It 's a superficial term . I am opposed to any state with an ethnic character , not only to Israel . " 
 Finkelstein is an advocate of a two @-@ state solution to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict . 
 
 = = = Hezbollah and Hamas = = = 
 
 Finkelstein has expressed solidarity with Hezbollah and Hamas with respect to defensive actions , alleging that Israel had invaded Lebanon as a signal of rejection when Hamas was seeking a diplomatic settlement with Israel . He also condemned what he said was Israel 's refusal " to abide by international law [ and ] to abide by the opinion of the international community " to settle the conflict . 
 " I was of course happy to meet the <unk> people , because it is a point of view that is rarely heard in the United States . I have no problem saying that I do want to express solidarity with them , and I am not going to be a <unk> of ( sic ) a <unk> about it . I don 't care about <unk> as a political organization . I don 't know much about their politics , and <unk> , it 's irrelevant . I don 't live in Lebanon . It 's a choice that the Lebanese have to make : Who they want to be their leaders , who they want to represent them . But there is a fundamental principle . People have the right to defend their country from foreign <unk> , and people have the right to defend their country from invaders who are destroying their country . That to me is a very basic , elementary and <unk> question . " 
 While condemning the targeting of civilians to achieve a political goal , Finkelstein has stated he believes Hezbollah has the right to target Israeli civilians as long as " Israel persists in targeting [ Lebanese ] civilians until Israel ceases its terrorist acts . " 
 Finkelstein claims that an equivalence exists between Hamas and the state of Israel in regards to the military policy of targeted killings during the Second Intifada . According to Finkelstein " the record shows that Israel has routinely targeted civilians for killing " and " Israel <unk> kills civilians " . He concludes that " the argument , among human rights organizations at any rate is that ... in effect , there ’ s no difference between <unk> killing civilians and targeting civilians . " 
 Finkelstein argued one of Israel 's primary motivations for launching the 2008 offensive in Gaza was that Hamas was " signaling that it wanted a diplomatic settlement of the conflict along the June 1967 border . " Finkelstein believes Hamas had joined the international community in " seeking a diplomatic settlement " and describes Hamas 's stance towards Israel prior to the war as a " peace offensive . " 
 
 = = Statements on the BDS movement = = 
 
 Finkelstein had made many criticisms of the <unk> , <unk> and <unk> Movement . Finkelstein stated that " I think the solidarity movement has the right tactics . I support the BDS . But I said it will never reach a broad public until and unless they are explicit on their goal . And their goal has to include recognition of Israel , otherwise it 's a <unk> . " Elsewhere , he has stated that he supports a " <unk> " BDS , making the same point about tactics and goals . 
 In February 2012 , The Jewish Chronicle in England stated that Finkelstein " launched a blistering attack " on the BDS movement , saying it was a " <unk> , dishonest cult " , " [ l ] <unk> the <unk> cult in <unk> , " that tries to cleverly pose as human rights activists while in reality their goal is to destroy Israel . Finkelstein stated that the BDS movement has had very few successes , and that just like a cult , the leaders pretend that they are hugely successful when in reality the general public rejects their extreme views . 
 In June 2012 , in an appearance on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein elaborated on his criticisms of the BDS movement : 
 The problem as I see it with the BDS movement is not the tactic . Who could not support <unk> , <unk> and <unk> ? Of course you should . And most of the human rights organizations , church organizations have moved in that direction . The problem is the goal . . . The official BDS movement , they claim to be agnostic , neutral — whatever term you want to use — on the question of Israel . You can ’ t reach a broad public if you are agnostic on the question of Israel . The broad public wants to know , where do you stand ? And if you claim not to have a stand , you lose them . The BDS movement , it always says , and I ’ m using their language , " We are a rights @-@ based organization . We are based in international law . " I agree with that . That ’ s where you have to go : rights @-@ based international law . But the international law is clear . You read the last sentence of the 2004 International Court of Justice opinion on the wall that Israel has been building in the West Bank , and the last sentence says , " We look forward to two states : a Palestinian state alongside Israel and at peace with its neighbors . " That 's the law . 
 And if you want to go past that law or ignore the Israel part , you ’ ll never reach a broad public . And then it 's a cult . Then it ’ s pointless , in my opinion . We 're wasting time . And it 's only a wasting of time . It becomes — and I know it 's a strong word , and I hope I won 't be faulted for it , but it becomes historically criminal , because there was a time where whatever we said , it made no difference . Nobody was listening . You could shout whatever you want — who cares ? But now , actually , we can reach people . There is a possibility . I ’ m not saying a certainty . I 'm not even saying a probability . But there is a possibility that we can reach a broad public . And so , we have to be very careful about the words we use , and we have to be very careful about the political strategy we map out . Otherwise , we 're going to <unk> a real opportunity . And I don 't want to <unk> it . 
 
 = = = Books = = = 
 
 2014 : Method and Madness : The <unk> Story of Israel 's <unk> on Gaza , OR Books , New York ( 2014 ) 
 2014 : Old Wine , Broken <unk> : Ari <unk> 's <unk> Land , OR Books , New York ( 2014 ) 
 2012 : Knowing Too Much : Why the American Jewish <unk> with Israel is Coming to an End , OR Books , New York ( 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 77 @-@ 5 
 2012 : What Gandhi <unk> About <unk> , Resistance and Courage , OR Books , New York : 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 79 @-@ 9 
 2011 : " <unk> <unk> . Richard <unk> <unk> Israel 's license to kill " , OR Books , New York ( 2011 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 51 @-@ 5 
 2010 : This Time We <unk> Too Far : Truth and <unk> of the Gaza Invasion . OR Books , New York : 2010 . [ 2 ] ; ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 43 @-@ 0 
 2005 : Beyond Chutzpah : On the <unk> of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History . University of California Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ <unk> @-@ 9 . 2nd updated Ed . , University of California Press . June 2008 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ <unk> @-@ 5 , contains an <unk> written by Frank J. <unk> , Dershowitz vs Finkelstein . Who 's Right and Who 's Wrong ? , pp. <unk> – 94 @,@ 
 2000 : The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the <unk> of Jewish Suffering , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ X. 
 1998 : A Nation on Trial : The Goldhagen <unk> and Historical Truth ( co @-@ written with Ruth <unk> <unk> ) , Henry Holt and Co . ; ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ 9 . 
 1996 : The Rise and Fall of Palestine : A Personal <unk> of the Intifada Years . Minneapolis : U of Minnesota P , ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ 9 . 
 1995 : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ 1 
 1987 : From the Jewish Question to the Jewish State : An Essay on the Theory of Zionism ( thesis ) , Princeton University . 
 
 = = = Articles and chapters = = = 
 
 " <unk> and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peter 's ' From Time Immemorial . ' " in <unk> the Victims : <unk> Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . Ed . Edward W. Said and Christopher <unk> . Verso Press , 1988 ; ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ 4 . Chapter Two , Part One : 
 " Peace process or peace panic ? - The <unk> of Palestinian <unk> " , Middle East Report , 19 ( 1989 ) 3 / 158 , pp. 25 – 26 @,@ 28 @-@ 30 @,@ 42 
 " Zionist orientations " , Scandinavian Journal of Development <unk> 9 ( March 1990 ) 1 @.@ p . 41 @-@ 69 
 " <unk> <unk> in year II of the <unk> . - A personal account " , Journal of Palestine Studies 19 ( Winter 1990 ) 2 / 74 , pp. 62 – 74 
 " Israel and Iraq . - A double standard " , Journal of Palestine Studies 20 ( 1991 ) 2 / 78 @.@ pp. 43 – 56 
 " Reflections on Palestinian attitudes during the Gulf war " , Journal of Palestine Studies , 21 ( 1992 ) 3 / 83 , pp. 54 – 70 
 " <unk> sur la <unk> de l <unk> <unk> et du <unk> dans le <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> " ( Reflections on the responsibility of state and citizen in the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict ) , in L ' <unk> et la <unk> , L <unk> 1994 , 114 , S. 37 @-@ 50 
 " <unk> the <unk> process ' ? " , New Left Review , ( 1996 ) 218 , p . 138 
 " <unk> occupation : The real meaning of the <unk> River <unk> " , New Left Review , ( 1998 ) 232 , pp. 128 – 39 
 <unk> to The Politics of Anti @-@ Semitism . Ed . Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair . AK Press , 2001 ; ISBN 1 @-@ <unk> @-@ 77 @-@ 4 . 
 " <unk> of Holocaust compensation " , in Palestinian <unk> : The Right of Return . Ed . <unk> <unk> . Pluto Press , 2001 , S. 272 @-@ 275 ; ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ 1776 @-@ 6 . 
 " Abba <unk> with <unk> " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol 32 . ( 2003 ) , pp. 74 – 89 
 " <unk> for Ending the Occupation " , <unk> , 35 ( 2003 ) 5 , pp. <unk> – 45 
 <unk> to <unk> , <unk> and <unk> : Conversations with Jewish Critics of Israel , by Seth Farber . Common Courage Press , 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ <unk> @-@ 326 @-@ 3 . 
 " The Camp David II negotiations . - how Dennis Ross proved the Palestinians <unk> the peace process " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol . 36 ( 2007 ) , pp. 39 – 53 
 " Dennis Ross and the peace process : <unk> Palestinian rights to Israeli ' needs ' " , Institute for Palestine Studies , 2007 ; ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ 308 @-@ X 
 
 = = Others on Finkelstein and his works = = 
 
 
 = = = Academic reviews of books by Finkelstein = = = 
 
 <unk> , Joseph . " <unk> Holocaust <unk> " , Review Essay , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 32 , No. 1 . ( Autumn , 2002 ) , pp. 78 – 89 . 
 Cole , Tim . " Representing the Holocaust in America : Mixed <unk> or Abuse ? " , The Public Historian , Vol . 24 , No. 4 . ( Fall , 2002 ) , pp. 127 – 31 
 <unk> , Eric . Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 33 , No. 3 , Special Issue in Honor of Edward W. Said . ( Spring , 2004 ) , pp. 123 – 124 . 
 Pelham , Nicolas . Reviewed Work : Image and Reality in the Israel @-@ Palestine <unk> by Norman G. Finkelstein , International Affairs , Vol . 72 , No. 3 , <unk> and International Relations . ( July 1996 ) , pp. <unk> – 28 . 
 <unk> , Ilan . " Valuable New <unk> , " Reviewed Work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine <unk> by Norman G. Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 26 , No. 4 . ( Summer , 1997 ) , pp. 113 – 15 . 
 <unk> , Joel . " The Palestinian @-@ Israeli Conflict after Oslo " , Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman G. Finkelstein . Middle East Report , No. 201 , Israel and Palestine : Two States , <unk> or <unk> ? . ( <unk> @-@ Dec 1996 ) , pp. 45 – 47 . 
 
 = = = Reviews of books by Finkelstein = = = 
 
 <unk> , <unk> ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , NRC <unk> , February 24 , 2006 . 
 <unk> , Ilan ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , <unk> ( February / March 2006 ) 
 De <unk> , Alfred . Review of Beyond Chutzpah in Frankfurter <unk> Zeitung ( February 3 , 2006 ) 
 <unk> , Paul Charles . These <unk> on the Face of the Earth : Israel 's most <unk> critic ( review of Beyond Chutzpah , in Christianity Today ( January / February 2006 ) 
 <unk> , Mike . " Israel , fraud and <unk> " ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ; January 2006 ) 
 <unk> , Vijay . Z magazine reviews Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah . Z Magazine November 2005 Volume 18 , Number 11 
 Gordon , Neve . Neve Gordon : Review of Norman Finkelstein 's , Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah : On the <unk> of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History , by Norman G. Finkelstein . History News Network , October 12 , 2005 
 <unk> , Paul . The Finkelstein <unk> ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , Judaism ( Fall 2002 ) 
 <unk> , Tobias . Finkelstein 's <unk> : The <unk> of <unk> Anti @-@ Zionism ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , <unk> ; accessed November 1 , 2015 
 Bartov , Omer . " A Tale of Two <unk> " ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , New York Times Book Review , August 6 , 2000 
 
 = = = <unk> of Finkelstein = = = 
 
 Garner , Mandy . " The Good Jewish Boys Go into Battle . " Times Higher Education Supplement 16 December 2005 . 
 <unk> , Ben . " His Own <unk> Enemy . " The Jerusalem Post 12 December 2005 . 
 <unk> , Jay . " Finkelstein 's List . " The Observer 16 July 2000 . 
 <unk> , <unk> . " The Finkelstein <unk> . " Ha <unk> 30 March 2001 . 
 
 = = = Critics of Finkelstein and replies = = = 
 
 Daniel Goldhagen , The New <unk> of <unk> at the Wayback Machine ( archived December 4 , 2002 ) 
 Norman Finkelstein , Response to Goldhagen 
 William Rubinstein et al . , Uses of Holocaust , letters to the London Review of Books 
 David Friedman , Anti @-@ Defamation League letter at the Wayback Machine , calling Finkelstein a " Holocaust <unk> " 
 The Washington Post <unk> a <unk> : Marc Fisher , a Washington Post columnist , publishes a retraction of his charge of " Holocaust <unk> " , <unk> ; accessed November 1 , 2015 . 
 
 = = = Video = = = 
 
 Norman Finkelstein at the Internet Movie Database 
 Eight <unk> with Finkelstein ( two sets of four ) , December 2014 and January 2015 , and Three More <unk> with Finkelstein , May 2015 , The Real News 
 American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein - broadcast of the documentary in two parts 
 <unk> the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict : University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Jan 21 , 2009 . 
 Interview broadcast on Lebanese TV January 20 , 2008 
 VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - Israel and Palestine : Roots of Conflict , <unk> for Peace , presentation in Seattle , Washington , May 8 , 2008 . 
 VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - The Coming <unk> of American Zionism , presentation in <unk> , Washington , May 8 , 2008 . 
 VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein at Brown University on YouTube , April 15 , 2008 
 Doha Debate at the Oxford Union Video of debate on whether the " pro @-@ Israeli lobby has successfully <unk> Western debate about Israel 's actions " with Andrew Cockburn , Martin <unk> , and David <unk> , May 1 , 2007 
 Debate with <unk> Ben @-@ <unk> on Democracy Now ! , February 14 , 2006 
 Finkelstein <unk> to Clinton , <unk> <unk> <unk> March 23 , 2010 
 Israel vs Palestine - featuring Norman Finkelstein ( April 2014 ) , <unk> Rap News 
 
 = Mutinus elegans = 
 
 Mutinus elegans , commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn , the dog stinkhorn , the headless stinkhorn , or the devil 's <unk> , is a species of fungus in the <unk> family . A saprobic species , it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter , during summer and autumn in Japan , Europe , and eastern North America . The fruit body begins its development in an " egg " form , resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground . As the fungus matures , a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip . The stalk is covered with a foul @-@ smelling <unk> green spore mass on the upper third of its length . Flies and other insects feed upon the <unk> which contains the spores , assisting in their dispersal . Due to their repellent odor , mature specimens are not generally considered edible , although there are reports of the immature " eggs " being consumed . In the laboratory , Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans . 
 
 = = Taxonomy = = 
 
 Mutinus elegans was first described by British missionary John <unk> in 1679 who chronicled the natural history of Virginia ; this early report is thought to be the first account of a fungus in North America . It was first characterized scientifically by French scientist Jean Pierre François Camille Montagne in 1856 , who called it <unk> elegans . The genus name Mutinus refers to a phallic deity , Mutinus <unk> , one of the Roman di <unk> <unk> by Roman <unk> . The species is commonly known variously as the " elegant stinkhorn " , the " headless stinkhorn " , the " dog stinkhorn " , or the " devil 's <unk> " . The specific epithet elegans is derived from the Latin word meaning " graceful " or " elegant " . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 The young fruiting bodies are initially white and spherical or egg @-@ shaped , partially submerged in the ground , with dimensions of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) by 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) . As the fruit body matures , the egg <unk> and the <unk> spore @-@ bearing stalk emerges ; fully grown , it may be from 1 to 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The stalk is hollow and strongly wrinkled overall ; its shape is cylindrical below , but it gradually tapers to a narrow apex with a small opening at the tip . The upper half of the stalk is bright red to reddish orange , and the color gradually loses intensity transforming into pinkish white below . The stalk may be straight , or slightly curved . A gelatinous greenish @-@ brown gleba covers the upper third of the stalk in newly emerged specimens . The remains of the " egg " forms a volva around the base of the stalk . The odor of the gleba is foul ; one author describes it as " sickly sweet or metallic " . The spores are a greenish @-@ brown color . Fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by whitish rhizomorphs that resemble plant roots . American mycologist Smith noted that the eggs are often slow to open , sometimes taking up to two weeks before the stalk expands . 
 The spores are 4 – 7 by 2 – 3 µm , oblong @-@ elliptical , smooth , and embedded in the gleba . A 1982 study revealed that spores of species in the <unk> family , including Mutinus elegans , have a <unk> scar ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 µm diameter ) that is observable with scanning electron microscopy . The <unk> scar is a circular <unk> at one end of the spore , and it most likely results during the separation of the attachment of the spore to the <unk> of the <unk> . 
 
 = = = Edibility = = = 
 
 The immature egg @-@ forms of Mutinus elegans are edible , but " not recommended " . One field guides notes that the eggs of the stinkhorn fungi " taste like the <unk> that are added to them . " The <unk> odor of mature specimens would probably be repellent to most , although they are not considered poisonous . 
 
 = = = Similar species = = = 
 
 The " dog stinkhorn " ( Mutinus caninus ) is smaller , has a distinct oval or spindle @-@ shaped tip on a slender stem and lacks the bright coloring of M. elegans ; it has less of the stalk covered by gleba . The portion of the stalk below the spore mass is pitted in M. caninus , compared to " <unk> " in M. elegans . M. caninus is also less common than M. elegans . Mutinus <unk> is similar in size and shape , except it does not have a distinct color demarcation between the upper and lower parts of the stalk ; instead , the entire stem shows red pigments . The stalk of M. <unk> is less tapered than M. elegans , and it has a clearly differentiated swollen head . 
 
 = = Habitat and distribution = = 
 
 Mutinus elegans is saprobic — deriving nutrients by breaking down dead or dying organic matter . It is commonly found in gardens and farm areas enriched with <unk> , near well @-@ decayed stumps and logs , and in wood chips . A Japanese publication mentioned its occurrence in <unk> and Osaka @-@ <unk> , where it <unk> in November and December on the ground along paths or in open spaces , under or near bamboo ( <unk> <unk> ) and <unk> such as the Sawtooth Oak , the Japanese <unk> , and the <unk> tree . 
 This common species has been collected in eastern North America , in the area extending from Quebec to Florida and west to the Great Lakes , Iowa , and Texas . In Europe , it has been reported from Netherlands and in Asia , it has been collected in Japan . 
 
 = = <unk> activity = = 
 
 A study of 32 <unk> mushrooms showed that Mutinus elegans was the only species to show antibiotic ( both <unk> and <unk> ) activity against all six microorganisms tested , namely , the human pathogenic <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> coli , <unk> <unk> and the yeast <unk> <unk> . 
 
 
 = The Boat Race 1900 = 
 
 The 57th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1900 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by twenty lengths in a record @-@ equalling time of 18 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 32 – 24 in Oxford 's favour . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1899 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 23 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Leading up to the race , Oxford suffered a variety of misfortune : M. C. <unk> was ordered by his doctor not to row , H. J. Hale was injured and president Felix <unk> contracted scarlet fever . 
 Cambridge were coached by James <unk> Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , and Stanley <unk> , five @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1886 and 1890 . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . The umpire for the race for the eleventh year in a row was Frank <unk> who had won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races . 
 
 = = Crews = = 
 
 The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 <unk> 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 78 @.@ 1 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three members with Boat Race experience : C. E. Johnston , C. W. <unk> and <unk> G. S. Maclagan . Cambridge saw six of their 1899 crew return , including William Dudley Ward and Raymond <unk> <unk> @-@ Smith , both of whom were rowing in their third race . Eight of the nine Light Blues were students at Trinity College . Oxford 's stroke H. H. <unk> , a native of South Australia , was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the race . Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater suggested that this year 's Cambridge crew , along with the Oxford crew which rowed in the 1897 race , " stand in a class by themselves among University crews . " He also described the Oxford crew as " one of the poorest that ever came from the Isis " . 
 
 = = Race = = 
 
 Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In good conditions , umpire <unk> got the race under way at 2 : 00 p.m. whereupon Cambridge took the lead immediately . By <unk> Steps they were three lengths ahead and continued to draw away from the Dark Blues , to win by 20 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds . It was the fastest winning time in the history of the event , equalling that set by Oxford in the 1893 race . Although it was the Light Blues ' second consecutive victory , it followed a run of nine consecutive wins for Oxford – overall the Dark Blues led 32 – 24 . 
 
 
 = Ten Commandments in Catholic theology = 
 
 The Ten Commandments are a series of religious and moral <unk> that are recognized as a moral foundation in several of the Abrahamic religions , including Catholicism . As described in the Old Testament books Exodus and <unk> , the Commandments form part of a covenant offered by God to the Israelites to free them from the spiritual slavery of sin . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official <unk> of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs — the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth , and serve as the basis for Catholic social justice . A review of the Commandments is one of the most common types of examination of conscience used by Catholics before receiving the sacrament of <unk> . 
 The Commandments appear in the earliest Church writings ; the Catechism states that they have " occupied a predominant place " in teaching the faith since the time of Augustine of <unk> ( AD 354 – 430 ) . The Church had no official standards for religious instruction until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 ; evidence suggests the Commandments were used in Christian education in the early Church and throughout the Middle Ages , but with inconsistent emphasis . The lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . Afterward , the first Church @-@ wide catechism in <unk> provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " , but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments . The most recent Catechism devotes a large section to interpret each of the commandments . 
 Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New <unk> and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament , Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further , demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and <unk> . <unk> by Jesus into two " Great Commandments " that teach love of God and love of neighbor , they instruct individuals on their relationships with both . The first three commandments demand respect for God 's name , observation of the Lord 's Day and prohibit the worship of other gods . The others deal with the relationships between individuals , such as that between parent and child ; they include prohibitions against lying , stealing , murdering , adultery and covetousness . 
 
 = = Numbering = = 
 
 The Old Testament refers to ten individual commandments , even though there are more than ten <unk> sentences in the two relevant texts : Exodus 20 : 1 – 17 and <unk> 5 : 6 – 21 . The Old Testament does not make clear how the texts should be divided to arrive at ten commandments . The division traditionally used by the Catholic and Lutheran churches was first derived by the Latin Church Father Augustine of <unk> ( 354 – 430 ) in his book <unk> on Exodus . Other Christian churches , such as the Eastern Orthodox and some Protestant churches , use a form established by the Greek Fathers . The two forms have slightly different numbering , but maintain exactly the same substance despite Protestant accusations to the contrary . Jewish numbering differs from Christian denominations in that it considers what many Christians call a <unk> to be the entire first commandment . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The Ten Commandments are recognized as a moral foundation by Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . They first appear in the Book of Exodus , according to which Moses , acting under the orders of God , freed the Israelites from physical slavery in Egypt . According to Church teaching , God offered a covenant — which included the Ten Commandments — to also free them from the " spiritual slavery " of sin . Some historians have described this as " the central event in the history of ancient Israel " . 
 The coming of Jesus is seen by the Catholic Church as the <unk> of the destiny of the Jews , who were chosen , according to Peter Kreeft , to " show the true God to the world " . Jesus acknowledged the Commandments and instructed his followers to go further , requiring , in Kreeft 's words , " more , not less : a ' righteousness ( which ) exceeds that of the scribes and <unk> ' " . Explaining Church teaching , Kreeft states , " The Commandments are to the moral order what the creation story in Genesis 1 is to the natural order . They are God 's order conquering chaos . They are not man 's ideas about God , but God 's ideas about man . " The Church teaches that Jesus freed people from keeping " the burdensome Jewish law ( Torah or <unk> Law ) with its <unk> distinct regulations [ but ] not from the obligation to keep the Ten Commandments " , because the Ten " were written ' with the finger of God ' , unlike [ those ] written by Moses " . This teaching was reaffirmed at the Council of Trent ( 1545 – 1563 ) and at the Second Vatican Council ( 1962 – 1965 ) . 
 Although it is uncertain what role the Ten Commandments played in early Christian worship , evidence suggests they were recited during some services and used in Christian education . For example , the Commandments are included in one of the earliest Christian writings , known as the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles or the <unk> . Scholars contend that the Commandments were highly regarded by the early Church as a summary of God 's law . The Protestant scholar Klaus <unk> believes that the Church replaced the Commandments with lists of virtues and vices , such as the seven deadly sins , from 400 – 1200 . Other scholars contend that throughout Church history the Commandments have been used as an examination of conscience and that many theologians have written about them . While evidence exists that the Commandments were part of <unk> in monasteries and other venues , there was no official Church position to promote specific methods of religious instruction during the Middle Ages . The Fourth Lateran Council ( 1215 ) was the first attempt to remedy this problem . Surviving evidence reveals that some bishops ' efforts to implement the Council 's resolutions included special emphasis on teaching the Commandments in their respective dioceses . <unk> later , the lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . 
 <unk> produced in specific dioceses from the mid @-@ fourteenth century emphasized the Commandments and laid the foundation for the first official Church @-@ wide catechism , the <unk> Roman Catechism . Commissioned by the Council of Trent , it provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments to emphasize the Catholic belief that Christian life was dependent upon the grace solely obtained through the sacramental life provided by the Catholic Church . This emphasis conflicted with Protestant beliefs , which held the Commandments as the source of divine grace . While more recent papal <unk> offer interpretations of Church teaching on individual commandments , throughout history official Church teachings on the Commandments are based on their mentions in the Old and New <unk> and the writings of the early Church Fathers <unk> , <unk> and Augustine . Later , theologians Thomas Aquinas and <unk> offered notable commentaries on the Commandments . Aquinas , a Doctor of the Church , considered them to be the " primary precepts of justice and all law , and natural reason gives immediate assent to them as being plainly evident principles . " 
 The most recent Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official summary of Church beliefs — devotes a large section to the Commandments , which serve as the basis for Catholic social teaching . According to the Catechism , the Church has given them a predominant place in teaching the faith since the fifth century . Kreeft explains that the Church regards them as " a path of life " , and a " path to freedom " just as a <unk> fence protects children from " life @-@ threatening dangers " . 
 
 = = First commandment = = 
 
 The first commandment , according to Church teaching , " means that [ followers ] must worship and <unk> God alone because God is alone . " The Catechism explains that this prohibits idolatry , providing examples of forbidden practices such as the worship of any creature , and of " ' demons ... power , pleasure , race , ancestors , the state [ and ] money ' " . Augustine interpreted this commandment as " Love God and then do what you will " . Explaining this sentiment , Kreeft states that all sin " serves some other god , <unk> another commander : the world or the flesh or the devil " , if God truly be loved then one will do what God wills . 
 The Catechism associates this commandment with the three theological virtues . The first virtue , faith , instructs Catholics to believe in God and avoid heresy , <unk> , and schism . The second virtue , hope , <unk> Catholics against despair and <unk> . According to the Catechism , the last virtue , charity , can be met only if Catholics refrain from indifference or <unk> toward God , and avoid spiritual <unk> and a hatred of God stemming from pride . The Catechism <unk> specific violations of this commandment , including superstition , polytheism , <unk> , <unk> , and all practices of magic and sorcery . It further prohibits astrology , palm reading , and consulting <unk> or <unk> . The Catechism attributes the latter actions to a " desire for power over time , history , and in the last analysis , other human beings as well as a wish to <unk> hidden powers " . 
 
 = = = <unk> images = = = 
 
 While Catholics are sometimes accused of worshiping images , in violation of the first commandment , the Church says this is a misunderstanding . In the Church 's opinion , " the honor paid to sacred images is a ' respectful veneration ' , not the adoration due to God alone " . In the 8th century , heated arguments arose over whether religious icons ( in this context paintings ) were prohibited by the first commandment . The dispute was almost entirely restricted to the Eastern church ; the <unk> wished to prohibit icons , while the <unk> supported their veneration , a position consistently backed by the Western Church . At the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 , the ecumenical council determined that the veneration of icons and statues was not in violation of the commandment and stated " whoever <unk> an image <unk> the person portrayed in it . " At around the time of the controversy over <unk> , the Western church began to use monumental sculpture , which by the Romanesque period became a major feature of Western Christian art , that has remained part of the Catholic tradition , in contrast to Eastern Christianity , which avoids large religious sculpture . The Catechism , using very traditional arguments , posits that God gave permission for images that symbolize Christian salvation by leaving symbols such as the bronze serpent , and the <unk> on the Ark of the Covenant . It states that " by becoming <unk> , the Son of God introduced a new economy of images " . 
 The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ( <unk> ) explain the Catechism in their book entitled United States Catechism for Adults , published in 2006 . Regarding <unk> images , they expound that this command addresses idolatry that in ancient times expressed itself in the worship of such things as the " sun , moon , stars , trees , bulls , eagles , and serpents " as well as " emperors and kings " . They explain that today , idolatry expresses itself in the worship of other things , and list some as " power , money , <unk> and sports . " 
 
 = = Second commandment = = 
 
 The second commandment prohibits the use of God 's name in vain . Many ancient cultures believed that names were sacred ; some had prohibitions on when a person 's name could be spoken . The Gospel of John relates an incident where a group of Jews attempted to stone Jesus after he used a sacred name of God to refer to himself . They interpreted his statement as a claim of divinity . Since they did not believe that he was God , they considered this blasphemy , which under <unk> law carries a death penalty . Kreeft writes that all of the names by which God is known are holy , and thus all of those names are protected by the second commandment . The Catechism states , " Respect for his name is an expression of the respect owed to the mystery of God himself and to the whole sacred reality it evokes . " The Catechism also requires respect for the names of people out of respect for the dignity of that person . 
 The sentiment behind this commandment is further codified in the Lord 's Prayer , which begins , " Our Father who art in heaven , <unk> be thy name " . According to Pope Benedict XVI , when God revealed his name to Moses he established a relationship with mankind ; Benedict states that the <unk> was the culmination of a process that " had begun with the giving of the divine name . " Benedict <unk> that this means the divine name could be misused and that Jesus ' inclusion of " <unk> be thy name " is a plea for the <unk> of God 's name , to " protect the wonderful mystery of his accessibility to us , and constantly assert his true identity as opposed to our distortion of it " . 
 According to Catholic teaching , this commandment does not preclude the use of God 's name in taking solemn oaths administered by legitimate authority . However , lying under oath , invoking God 's name for magical purposes , or voicing words of hatred or defiance against God are considered sins of blasphemy . 
 
 = = Third commandment = = 
 
 Quoting the Jewish rabbi and scholar Jacob <unk> , Pope Benedict XVI explains that to Israel , keeping this commandment was more than ritual ; it was a way to imitate God , who rested on the seventh day after the creation . It also constituted the core of the social order . 
 Although a few Christian denominations follow the <unk> practice of observing the Sabbath on Saturday , Catholics , along with most Christians , observe Sunday as a special day , which they call the " Lord 's Day " . This practice dates to the first century , arising from their belief that Jesus rose from the dead on the first day of the week . The <unk> calls on Christians to come together on the Lord 's Day to break bread and give thanks . <unk> is the first to mention Sunday rest : " We , however ( just as tradition has taught us ) , on the day of the Lord 's Resurrection ought to guard not only against kneeling , but every posture and office of <unk> , <unk> even our businesses <unk> we give any place to the devil " ( " De <unk> . " , <unk> ; cf . " Ad nation . " , I , <unk> ; " <unk> . " , <unk> ) . 
 In the sixth century , <unk> of <unk> taught that the whole glory of the Jewish Sabbath had been transferred to Sunday and that Christians must keep Sunday in the same way as the Jews were commanded to keep the Sabbath . The Council of <unk> in 538 <unk> this tendency , to apply the law of the Jewish Sabbath to the observance of the Christian Sunday , as Jewish and non @-@ Christian . 
 The Church leaders of later centuries inscribed Sunday rest into official Church teaching , and Christian governments have attempted to enforce the Sunday rest throughout history . For Catholics , Jesus ' teaching that " the <unk> was made for man , not man for the <unk> " means that good works " when the needs of others demand it " can be part of the day of rest . The Catechism offers guidelines on how to observe the Lord 's Day , which include attending Mass on Sundays and holy days of obligation . On these days , Catholics may not work or do activities that " hinder the worship due to God " , but " performance of the works of mercy , and appropriate relaxation in a spirit of joy " are permitted . 
 According to the <unk> , this commandment " has been <unk> for Catholics " as one of the Church precepts . The organization cites the papal encyclical Dies <unk> : 
 Because the faithful are obliged to attend Mass unless there is a grave <unk> , <unk> have the corresponding duty to offer everyone the real possibility of fulfilling the precept . ... Yet more than a precept , the observance should be seen as a need rising from the depths of Christian life . It is <unk> important that all the faithful should be convinced that they cannot live their faith or share fully in the life of the Christian community unless they take part regularly in the Sunday <unk> assembly . 
 
 = = Fourth commandment = = 
 
 Pope Benedict XVI states that Rabbi <unk> " rightly sees this commandment as anchoring the heart of the social order " . It strengthens <unk> relationships , makes explicit the connection between family order and societal stability , and reveals that the family is " both willed and protected by God . " Because parents ' unconditional love for their children mirrors God 's love , and because they have a duty to pass the faith on to their children , the Catechism calls the family " a domestic church " , " a privileged community " and the " original cell of social life " . 
 The Catechism says this commandment requires duties of children to parents that include : 
 Respect toward parents that also flows to brothers and sisters . 
 Gratitude , as expressed in a quote from <unk> : " Remember that through your parents you were born ; what can you give back to them that equals their gift to you ? " 
 <unk> to parents for as long as the child lives at home " when it is for his good or the good of the family " , except when obedience would require the child to do something morally wrong . 
 Support that requires grown children to offer material and moral support for their aging parents , particularly at times of " illness , loneliness , or distress " . 
 Keeping this commandment , according to the Catechism , also requires duties of parents to children which include : 
 " <unk> education , spiritual formation and <unk> " of their children . 
 Respect for their children as children of God and human persons . 
 <unk> discipline for children while being careful not to provoke them . 
 " <unk> pressure to choose a certain profession or spouse " , which does not preclude parents from giving " <unk> advice " . 
 " Being a good example " to their children . 
 " <unk> their own failings " to their children to guide and correct them . 
 
 = = = Jesus ' expansion = = = 
 
 The Gospel of Matthew relates that when told his mother and brothers were waiting to see him , Jesus replied , " Who is my mother and who are my brothers ? " <unk> his hand over his disciples he said , " Here are my mother and my brothers ! For whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother , and my sister , and mother . " Pope Benedict XVI stated that this <unk> of Jesus brought the fourth commandment to a new and higher level . By doing God 's will , any person can become part of the universal family of Jesus . Thus , the fourth commandment 's responsibilities extend to the greater society and requires respect for " legitimate social authorities " . The Catechism specifies " duties of citizens and nations " , which Kreeft <unk> as : 
 " <unk> and honor " to " all who for our good have received authority in society from God " . 
 " <unk> of taxes , exercising the right to vote and defending one 's country " . 
 " An obligation to be <unk> and critical " , which requires citizens to criticize that which harms human dignity and the community . 
 " A duty to disobey " civil authorities and <unk> that are contrary to the moral order . 
 " To practice charity " , which is a " necessity for any working family or society " ; it is the " greatest social commandment " and requires people to love God and neighbor . 
 " To welcome the foreigner " who is in need of security and livelihood that cannot be found in his own country . 
 " An obligation for rich nations to help poor nations " , especially in times of " immediate need " . 
 " An expectation for families to help other families " . 
 
 = = Fifth commandment = = 
 
 This commandment demands respect for human life and is more accurately translated as " thou <unk> not murder . " Indeed , killing may , under limited circumstances , be justified within Catholicism . Jesus expanded it to prohibit unjust anger , hatred and vengeance , and to require Christians to love their enemies . The basis of all Catholic teaching about the fifth commandment is the <unk> of life ethic , which Kreeft argues is philosophically opposed to the quality of life ethic , a philosophy which he <unk> as introduced by a book entitled Die <unk> der <unk> des <unk> <unk> ( The <unk> to <unk> Life <unk> of Life ) ( see Life unworthy of life ) and which he asserts was the " first to win public acceptance ... by German doctors before World War II — the basis and beginning of Nazi medical practices . " This interpretation is supported by modern medical journals that discuss the dilemma posed by these opposing philosophies to <unk> who must make life or death decisions . Some <unk> characterize the use of the " Nazi analogy " as inappropriate when applied to quality of life decisions ; Arthur <unk> called this rhetoric " <unk> wrong " . The Church is actively involved in the public debates over abortion , capital punishment and <unk> , and encourages <unk> to support legislation and politicians it describes as pro @-@ life . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The Catechism states : " Human life is sacred because from its beginning it involves the creative action of God and it remains forever in a special relationship with the Creator , who is its sole end . ... no one can under any circumstance claim for himself the right directly to destroy an innocent human being . " Direct and intentional killing of an innocent human is considered a mortal sin . Considered by the Church to be of an even greater gravity is the murder of family members , including " <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , the murder of a spouse and procured abortion . " 
 The Catechism states that the embryo " must be treated from conception as a person " . The Latin original of as is <unk> , meaning " like " or " just as " . " Although the Church has not determined officially when human life actually begins , it has taken the course of maintaining that human life is present from the moment of conception or fertilization " ; respect for life at all stages , even potential life , is generally the context of church documents . 
 <unk> has been specifically and persistently condemned by the Church since the first century . " Formal cooperation " in abortion <unk> the penalty of excommunication " by the very commission of the offense " ( <unk> <unk> <unk> , " sentence [ already , i.e. automatically ] passed " ) . The Catechism emphasizes that this penalty is not meant to restrict mercy , but that it makes clear the gravity of the crime and the <unk> harm done to the child , its parents and society . " Formal cooperation " in abortion extends not just to the mother who freely <unk> , but also to the doctor , nurses and anyone who directly aids in the act . The Church has <unk> of reconciliation , such as Project Rachel , for those who <unk> <unk> of their sin of formal cooperation in abortion . 
 Official Church teaching allows for medical procedures and treatments intended to protect or restore the mother 's health if she would be in mortal danger without them , even when such procedures carry some risk of death to the fetus . Examples include the removal of a <unk> tube in the case of an <unk> pregnancy , removal of a pregnant <unk> uterus , or an <unk> . 
 
 = = = = Use of embryos for research or fertilization = = = = 
 
 The United States Catechism for Adults devotes a section to in vitro fertilization , stem @-@ cell research and <unk> in its explanation of the fifth commandment , because these often involve the destruction of human embryos , considered to be a <unk> sinful form of murder . <unk> stem cell research is called " an immoral means to a good end " and " morally unacceptable . " Citing the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 's <unk> on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the <unk> of <unk> , the US Bishops quote : " No objective , even though noble in itself , such as a foreseeable advantage to science , to other human beings , or to society , can in any way justify experimentation on living human embryos or <unk> , whether viable or not , either inside or outside the mother 's body . " The Bishops note that adult stem cell research , using cells obtained with informed consent , is a promising field of research that is morally acceptable . 
 
 = = = Suicide , <unk> = = = 
 
 The fifth commandment forbids suicide and the mercy killing of those who are dying , even to eliminate suffering . The ordinary care of those facing an imminent death may not morally be withheld , according to the Church . " Ordinary care " refers to food , water and pain relief , and does not include " extraordinary care " , which refers to the use of <unk> or feeding tubes that are considered discretionary . <unk> a terminally ill person to die , using <unk> that may shorten their life , or refusing extraordinary treatment to the terminally ill such as chemotherapy or radiation , are considered morally acceptable and not a violation of the fifth commandment , in accordance with the principle of double effect . 
 
 = = = Capital punishment = = = 
 
 For the first two hundred years , Christians " refused to kill in the military , in self @-@ defense , or in the judicial system " , but there was no official Church position on the death penalty . When the Church was first officially recognized as a public institution in <unk> , its attitude toward capital punishment became one of toleration but not outright acceptance . The death penalty had support from early Catholic theologians , though some of them such as Saint <unk> encouraged members of the clergy not to <unk> or carry out capital punishment . Saint Augustine answered objections to capital punishment rooted in the first commandment in The City of God . Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus argued that civil authority to carry out capital punishment was supported by scripture . Pope Innocent III required Peter Waldo and the <unk> to accept that " secular power can , without mortal sin , exercise judgement of blood , provided that it <unk> with justice , not out of hatred , with prudence , not precipitation " as a prerequisite for reconciliation with the church . Paul <unk> states that official Church teachings have neither absolutely condemned nor promoted capital punishment , but toleration of it has fluctuated throughout the ages . The <unk> provide the most memorable instance of Church support for capital punishment , although some historians considered these more lenient than the secular courts of the period . 
 The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the death penalty is permissible in cases of extreme gravity . It is allowed if the " guilty party 's identity and responsibility have been fully determined " and if the death penalty is the only way to defend others against the guilty party . However , if there are other means available to defend people from the " unjust aggressor " , these are preferred because they are considered to be more respectful of the dignity of the person and in keeping with the common good . Because modern societies have effective means for preventing crime without execution , the Catechism declares , " the cases in which execution of the <unk> is an absolute necessity ' are very rare , if practically <unk> . ' " Pope John Paul II discussed and affirmed this in <unk> <unk> , published in 1995 . 
 
 = = = Personal health , dead bodies , burial = = = 
 
 According to Church teaching , respect for human life requires respect for one 's own body , <unk> unhealthy behavior , the abuse of food , alcohol , medicines , illegal drugs , tattoos and <unk> . The Church also warns against the opposite behavior of " excessive preoccupation with the health and welfare of the body that ' <unk> ' physical perfection , fitness , and success at sports . " 
 <unk> , terrorism , and torture are forbidden , as well as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> that are not for therapeutic medical reasons . According to the Catechism , societies have a moral obligation to strive to provide healthy living conditions for all people . 
 Church belief in the resurrection of the body led to a prohibition against cremation that was <unk> modified at the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s under limited circumstances , but those conditions have been largely ignored even by the clergy . According to the Catechism , burial of the dead is a corporal work of mercy that must treat the body with respect and love ( e.g. scattering of <unk> remains , burial in an unmarked grave , <unk> are forbidden in the Catholic Church ) . Organ donation after death and organ <unk> under certain terms , also <unk> for legal and scientific reasons are permitted . 
 
 = = = War and self @-@ defense = = = 
 
 In the <unk> on the Mount , Jesus recalls the commandment , " You shall not kill " and then adds to it the <unk> against anger , hatred and vengeance . Going further , Christ asks his disciples to love their enemies . The Catechism asserts that " it is legitimate to insist on respect for one 's own right to life . " Kreeft says , " self @-@ defense is legitimate for the same reason suicide is not : because one 's own life is a gift from God , a treasure we are responsible for preserving and defending . " The Catechism teaches that " someone who defends his life is not guilty of murder even if he is forced to deal his aggressor a lethal blow . " <unk> defense can be not only a right but a grave duty for one who is responsible for the lives of others . The defense of the common good requires that an unjust aggressor be rendered unable to cause harm . For this reason , those who legitimately hold authority also have the right to use arms to repel <unk> against the civil community entrusted to their responsibility . 
 The Church requires all to pray and work to prevent unjust wars , but allows for just wars if certain conditions are met : 
 The reasons for going to war are defensive . 
 " The damage inflicted by the aggressor ... must be lasting , grave , and certain . " 
 It is a last resort taken only after all other means of putting an end to the " grave damage " have been ineffective . 
 The ultimate aim is peace and there is a serious chance of success . 
 No <unk> <unk> are produced that overshadow the evil to be eliminated . This forbids the use of arms to eliminate whole cities and areas with their inhabitants . 
 Respect and care is required for non @-@ combatants , wounded soldiers and prisoners . Soldiers are required to disobey commands to commit <unk> and ones that violate universal principles . 
 
 = = = Scandal = = = 
 
 The Catechism classifies scandal under the fifth commandment and defines it as " an attitude or behavior which leads another to do evil " . In the Gospel of Matthew , Jesus stated , " <unk> causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin , it would be better for him to have a great <unk> <unk> round his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea . " The Church considers it a serious crime to cause another 's faith , hope and love to be weakened , especially if it is done to young people and the perpetrator is a person of authority such as a parent , teacher or priest . 
 
 = = Sixth commandment = = 
 
 According to the Church , humans are sexual beings whose sexual identity should be accepted in the unity of body and soul . The sexes are meant by divine design to be different and complementary , each having equal dignity and made in the image of God . Sexual acts are sacred within the context of the marital relationship that reflects a " complete and lifelong mutual gift of a man and a woman . " Sexual sins thus violate not just the body but the person 's whole being . In his 1995 book Crossing the <unk> of Hope , John Paul II reflected on this concept : 
 After all , young people are always searching for the beauty in love . They want their love to be beautiful . If they give in to weakness , following the models of behavior that can rightly be considered a ' scandal in the contemporary world ' ( and these are , unfortunately , widely <unk> models ) , in the depths of their hearts they still desire a beautiful and pure love . This is as true of boys as it is of girls . Ultimately , they know that only God can give them this love . As a result , they are willing to follow Christ , without caring about the sacrifices this may entail . 
 Like Orthodox Judaism and Islam , the Catholic Church considers all sexual acts outside of marriage to be grave sins . The gravity of the sin " ' excludes one from sacramental communion ' until <unk> of and <unk> in sacramental confession . " 
 
 = = = <unk> to chastity = = = 
 
 Church teaching on the sixth commandment includes a discussion on chastity . The Catechism describes chastity as a " moral virtue ... a gift from God , a grace , a fruit of spiritual effort . " The Church sees sex as more than a physical act ; it also affects body and soul , so the Church teaches that chastity is a virtue all people are called to acquire . It is defined as the inner unity of a person 's " bodily and spiritual being " that successfully <unk> a person 's sexuality with his or her " entire human nature . " To acquire this virtue , followers are encouraged to enter into the " long and exacting work " of self @-@ mastery that is helped by friendships , God 's grace , maturity and education " that respects the moral and spiritual dimensions of human life . " The Catechism <unk> violations of the sixth commandment into two categories : " offenses against chastity " and " offenses against the dignity of marriage " . 
 
 = = = = <unk> against chastity = = = = 
 
 The Catechism lists the following " offenses against chastity " in increasing order of gravity : 
 Lust : the Church teaches that sexual pleasure is good and created by God , who meant for spouses to " experience pleasure and enjoyment of body and spirit " . Kreeft says , " Lust does not mean sexual pleasure as such , nor the delight in it , nor the desire for it in its right context . " Lust is the desire for sexual pleasure alone , outside its intended purpose of procreation and the uniting of man and woman , body and soul , in mutual self @-@ donation . 
 <unk> is considered sinful for the same reasons as lust , but is a step above lust in that it involves a physical act instead of a mental one . 
 <unk> is the sexual union of an unmarried man and an unmarried woman . This is considered contrary to " the dignity of persons and of human sexuality " because it is not ordered to the " good of spouses " or the " generation and education of children . " 
 <unk> ranks higher because it is considered a perversion of the sexual act that is intended for distribution to third parties for viewing . 
 <unk> is considered sinful for both the prostitute and the customer ; it reduces a person to an instrument of sexual pleasure , violating human dignity and <unk> society . The gravity of the <unk> is less for prostitutes who are forced into the act by <unk> , blackmail or social pressure . 
 <unk> is an intrinsically evil act that can cause grave damage to the victim for life . 
 <unk> , or " rape of children by parents or other adult relatives " or " those responsible for the education of the children entrusted to them " is considered the most <unk> of sexual sins . 
 
 = = = = <unk> = = = = 
 
 The Catechism devotes a separate section to homosexuality within its explanation of the sixth commandment . Like heterosexual acts outside of marriage , homosexual acts are considered sins . The Church distinguishes between homosexual attractions , which are not considered sinful , and homosexual acts , which are . The Catechism states that they " violate natural law , cannot bring forth life , and do not proceed from a genuine <unk> and sexual <unk> . Under no circumstances can they be approved . " The Church teaches that a homosexual inclination is " <unk> disordered " and can be a great trial for the person , who the Church teaches must be " accepted with respect , compassion and sensitivity ... unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided . " 
 <unk> are , according to the Church , " called to chastity " . They are instructed to practice the virtues of " self @-@ mastery " that teaches " inner freedom " using the support of friends , prayer and grace found in the sacraments of the Church . These tools are meant to help homosexuals " gradually and <unk> approach Christian perfection " , which is a state to which all Christians are called . 
 ( Two lay movements represent opposing philosophies regarding homosexuality : <unk> seeks to change the Church 's teachings to justify homosexual acts ; Courage International is an organization of homosexuals who " support each other in the sincere effort to live in chastity and in fidelity to Christ and his Church " . ) 
 
 = = = Love of husband and wife = = = 
 
 According to Church teaching , spousal love is intended to form an unbroken , two @-@ fold end : the union of husband and wife and the transmission of life . The <unk> aspect includes the <unk> of each partner 's being " so that they are no longer two but one flesh . " The sacrament of <unk> is viewed as God 's sealing the consent which binds the partners together . Church teaching on the marital state requires spousal acceptance of each other 's failures and faults , and the recognition that the " call to <unk> in marriage " is one that requires a process of spiritual growth and conversion that can last throughout life . 
 
 = = = = <unk> of marriage , sexual pleasure , birth control = = = = 
 
 The Church position on sexual activity can be summarized as : " sexual activity belongs only in marriage as an expression of total self @-@ giving and union , and always open to the possibility of new life . " Sexual acts in marriage are considered " noble and honorable " and are meant to be enjoyed with " joy and gratitude . " <unk> is to be reserved to marriage : " by its very nature <unk> love requires the <unk> fidelity of the spouses . This is the consequence of the gift of themselves which they make to each other . Love seeks to be definitive ; it cannot be an arrangement ' until further notice . ' " The " intimate union of marriage , as a mutual giving of two persons , and the good of the children , demand total fidelity from the spouses and require an <unk> union between them . " ( Gaudium et spes ) " . 
 Artificial birth control predates Christianity ; the Catholic Church has condemned these methods throughout its history . In response to the Church of England accepting the practice of artificial contraception in 1930 , the Catholic Church issued the papal encyclical <unk> <unk> on 31 December 1930 . The 1968 papal encyclical <unk> <unk> is a <unk> of the Catholic Church 's traditional view of marriage and marital relations , and a continued condemnation of artificial birth control . 
 The Church seeing large families as a sign of God 's blessing . " By its very nature the institution of marriage and married love is ordered to the procreation and education of the offspring and it is in them that it finds its crowning glory . " ( Gaudium et spes ) Children are the supreme gift of marriage and contribute greatly to the good of the parents themselves . ( ... ) true married love and the whole structure of family life which results from it , without <unk> of the other ends of marriage , are directed to <unk> the spouses to cooperate <unk> with the love of the Creator and <unk> , who through them will increase and <unk> his family from day to day . ( Gaudium et spes ) . " It recognizes that responsible <unk> sometimes calls for reasonable spacing or limiting of births and considers natural family planning as morally acceptable , but rejects all methods of artificial contraception . The Church rejects all forms of artificial insemination and fertilization because the techniques divorce the sexual act from the creation of a child . The Catechism states , " A child is not something owed to one , but is a gift ... ' the supreme gift of marriage . ' " 
 Many Western Catholics and non @-@ Catholics have voiced disagreement on the Church 's support for natural family planning , and contend it contributes to <unk> and poverty . The Church 's rejection of condom use is widely criticized , in particular with regard to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions . In its defense , Catholics cite countries such as Kenya and Uganda , where behavioral changes are encouraged instead of condom use , and where greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in countries that promote condom use alone . 
 
 = = = = <unk> against the dignity of marriage = = = = 
 
 According to the Church , adultery and divorce are considered offenses against the dignity of marriage and are defined as follows : 
 <unk> is the sexual union of a man and woman where at least one is married to someone else . It is for this reason that the Church considers it a greater sin than <unk> . Kreeft states , " The <unk> sins against his spouse , his society , and his children as well as his own body and soul . " 
 Divorce : According to the Catholic New American Bible translation , Jesus taught , " whoever divorces his wife ( unless the marriage is unlawful ) causes her to commit adultery , and whoever marries a divorced woman commits adultery . " Explaining Church interpretation of this teaching , Kreeft says Jesus considered divorce to be an accommodation that had slipped into Jewish law . The Church teaches that marriage was created by God and was meant to be <unk> : like the creation of a child that cannot be " un @-@ created " , neither can the " one flesh " of the marriage bond . The Catechism states , " Divorce is a grave offense against the natural law . It claims to break the contract , to which the spouses freely consented , to live with each other till death . " By marrying another , the divorced person adds to the gravity of the offense as the remarried spouse is considered to be in a state of " public and permanent adultery " . 
 The <unk> of the Catechism 502 lists other offenses against the dignity of marriage : " polygamy , <unk> , free unions ( <unk> , <unk> ) , and sexual acts before or outside of marriage " . 
 
 = = = = <unk> , civil divorce , <unk> = = = = 
 
 According to the Church , there are situations that do not <unk> to divorce : 
 In extreme situations , such as domestic violence , separation is allowed . This is not considered a divorce and may be justified . 
 Civil divorce is not a divorce according to the Church . If it is deemed to be the only way of ensuring legal rights , care of children , or protection of inheritance , the Church considers it morally acceptable . 
 <unk> is not a divorce ; it is a ruling by the Church that the marriage was never valid . The marriage is deemed invalid if it lacks one of five integral elements : it should be " complete " , " lifelong " , " mutual " , a " free gift " and of " man and woman " . According to Pope John Paul II 's Address to the Roman <unk> on 22 January 1996 , couples do not have a right to an annulment , but do have a right to make their case for <unk> or validity before " the competent Church authority and to request a decision in the matter . " According to the Catholic Diocese of <unk> : 
 ... signs that might indicate reasons to investigate for an annulment are : marriage that excluded at the time of the wedding the right to children , or to a permanent marriage , or to an exclusive commitment . In addition , there are youthful marriages ; marriages of very short duration ; marriages marked by serious emotional , physical , or substance abuse ; <unk> sexual practices ; profound and consistent <unk> and lack of commitment ; conditional consent to a marriage ; fraud or deceit to elicit spousal consent ; serious mental illness ; or a previous bond of marriage . The determination of the ground should be made after extensive consultation with the parish priest or deacons , and based upon the proofs that are available . 
 
 = = Seventh commandment = = 
 
 The Catechism explains that this commandment <unk> worldly goods , and forbids unjustly taking , using or damaging those that belong to someone else . It places requirements upon those who possess worldly goods to use them <unk> , taking into consideration the good of society . The Catechism addresses the concept of human stewardship of God 's creation in its explanation of the seventh commandment and forbids abuse of animals and the environment . 
 
 = = = Private property = = = 
 
 According to the Church , people have a right to private property . However , ownership makes that person " a steward " who is expected to make it " fruitful " or profitable in a way that benefits others after that person has first taken care of their family . Private property and the common good are seen as complementary elements that exist for the purpose of strengthening society . The taking of another 's private property " in obvious and urgent necessity " as " the only way to provide for immediate , essential needs ( food , shelter , clothing ) " is not considered by the Church to be stealing . The concept of slavery as private property is condemned by the Church , which classifies it as the stealing of a person 's human rights . 
 
 = = = Theft = = = 
 
 According to the Catechism , theft or stealing means " <unk> another 's property against the reasonable will of the owner " though exclusion exists for someone in great need to survive . " <unk> taking and keeping the property of others " considered as theft , even if the act is outside the scope of civil law . Cardinal Christoph <unk> gave example from the story of Saint Augustine , written in his Confessions , who took <unk> from neighbor 's garden when he was young . <unk> says that Augustine still has " <unk> of conscience over a childish theft " even when he became grown person , indicating that human conscience is very aware of theft though the act perhaps not an offense against civil law . 
 Following acts are also considered as violation of the seventh commandment : price manipulation to get advantage on the harm of others , corruption , appropriation of the public goods for personal interests , work poorly carried out , tax avoidance , counterfeiting of checks or any means of payment , any forms of copyright infringement and piracy , and extravagance . 
 
 = = = Social justice = = = 
 
 The papal encyclical <unk> <unk> discusses the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital , as well as government and its citizens . Of primary concern was the need for some <unk> for " the misery and <unk> pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class " . The encyclical supported the right to form unions , rejected socialism , communism and unrestricted capitalism , and affirmed the right to private property . 
 Church interpretation of the seventh commandment teaches that business owners should balance a desire for profits that will ensure the future of the business with a responsibility toward the " good of persons " . Business owners are required to pay their workers a reasonable wage , honor contracts , and <unk> from dishonest activity , including bribery of government officials . Workers are required to do their jobs <unk> , as they have been hired to do them , and to avoid <unk> in the workplace , such as using office goods for personal use without permission ( <unk> ) . 
 The Church teaches that a balance should exist between government regulation and the laws of the marketplace . It deems that sole reliance on the marketplace ( pure capitalism ) <unk> addresses many human needs , while sole reliance on government regulation ( pure socialism ) " <unk> the basis of social bonds " . The Church warns about the danger of either capitalism or socialism , as these systems tend to use excessive extremes that result in injustice to persons . 
 <unk> nations , like <unk> individuals , have a moral obligation to help poorer nations and individuals , and work to reform financial institutions and economic factors to benefit all . 
 
 = = Eighth commandment = = 
 
 The Catechism explains that bearing false witness or " speaking a <unk> with the intention of <unk> " encompasses all violations of truth . These violations have degrees of gravity depending on the " intentions of the one who lies and the harms suffered by its victims . " Listed as follows , these are : 
 <unk> witness and <unk> : statements made publicly in court which obstruct justice by condemning the innocent or <unk> the guilty , or which may increase the punishment of the accused . 
 <unk> judgement : believing , without sufficient evidence , that a person has done moral faults . 
 <unk> : the <unk> of another 's faults without a valid reason . 
 <unk> : lying to harm a person 's reputation and providing opportunity to others to make false <unk> concerning them . 
 <unk> : " speech to <unk> others for our benefit . " 
 <unk> , <unk> , or mocking : speech which either only honors oneself or <unk> others . 
 The Church requires those who have damaged the reputation of another to " make reparation for the <unk> they have communicated . " However , it does not require a person to reveal a truth to someone who does not have a right to know , and teaches respect for a right to privacy . <unk> are prohibited from violating the seal of confession no matter how grave the sin or its impact on society . 
 Included in the Church teachings of this commandment is the requirement for Christians to bear witness to their faith " without <unk> " in situations that require it . The use of modern media in spreading <unk> , by individuals , businesses or governments , is condemned . 
 
 = = <unk> commandment = = 
 
 The ninth and tenth commandments deal with <unk> , which is an interior disposition not a physical act . The Catechism distinguishes between covetousness of the flesh ( improper sexual desire ) and covetousness for another 's worldly goods . The ninth commandment deals with the former and the tenth the latter . 
 Jesus emphasized the need for pure thoughts as well as actions , and stated , " Everyone who looks at a woman <unk> has already committed adultery with her in his heart " ( Matthew 5 : 28 ) . The Catechism states that , with the help of God 's grace , men and women are required to overcome lust and bodily desires " for sinful relationships with another person 's spouse . " In <unk> of the Body , a series of lectures given by Pope John Paul II , Jesus ' statement in Matthew 5 : 28 is interpreted that one can commit adultery in the heart not only with another 's spouse , but also with his / her own spouse if one looks at him / her <unk> or treats him / her " only as an object to satisfy instinct " . 
 Purity of heart is suggested as the necessary quality needed to accomplish this task ; common Catholic prayers and hymns include a request for this virtue . The Church identifies gifts of God that help a person maintain purity : 
 <unk> , which enables people to love others with upright and undivided hearts . 
 Purity of intention , which seeks to fulfill God 's will in everything , knowing that it alone will lead to the true end of man . 
 Purity of vision , " external and internal " , <unk> the thoughts and imagination to reject those that are impure . 
 Prayer that recognizes the power of God to grant a person the ability to overcome sexual desires . 
 <unk> , of the feelings as well as the body is discreet in choice of words and clothing . 
 Jesus stated , " Blessed are the clean of heart , for they shall see God . " This purity of heart , which the ninth commandment introduces , is the " <unk> of the vision of God " and allows the person to see situations and people as God sees . The Catechism teaches that " there is a connection between purity of heart , of body and of faith . " 
 
 = = Tenth commandment = = 
 
 Detachment from riches is the goal of the tenth commandment and the first <unk> ( " blessed are the poor in spirit " ) because , according to the Catechism , this precept is necessary for entrance into the Kingdom of heaven . <unk> is prohibited by the tenth commandment because it is considered to be the first step toward commission of theft , robbery and fraud ; these lead to violence and injustice . The Church defines covetousness as a " disordered desire " that can take different forms : 
 <unk> is the desire for too much of what one does not need . 
 <unk> is the desire for what belongs to another . The US Bishops define it as " an attitude that fills us with sadness at the sight of another 's prosperity . " 
 Explaining Church teaching of this commandment , Kreeft cites Saint Thomas Aquinas , who wrote , " An evil desire can only be overcome by a stronger good desire . " The US Bishops suggest that this can be achieved through cultivation of goodwill , <unk> and gratitude for one 's own and others ' blessings , while trusting in God 's grace . Kreeft explains that Saint Paul the <unk> illustrated the concept in his letter to the <unk> when he listed his worldly credentials as a respected Jew and stated , " I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord . " As Jesus stated , " What shall it profit a man if he shall gain the whole world , and lose his own soul ? " Church teaching on the tenth commandment is directed toward this same attitude toward worldly goods , termed " poverty of spirit " . 
 
 
 = Yamaha NS @-@ 10 = 
 
 The Yamaha NS @-@ 10 is a loudspeaker that became a standard nearfield studio monitor in the music industry among rock and pop recording engineers . <unk> in 1978 , the NS @-@ 10 started life as a <unk> speaker destined for the domestic environment . It was poorly received but eventually became a valuable tool with which to mix rock recordings . The speaker has a characteristic white @-@ coloured mid – bass drive unit . 
 Technically , it is known as a speaker that easily reveals poor quality in recordings . Recording engineers sought to dull its treble response by hanging tissue paper in front of it , resulting in what became known as the " tissue paper effect " , a type of comb filtering . The NS @-@ 10 has been used to monitor a large number of successful recordings by numerous artists , leading Gizmodo to refer to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " . Yamaha discontinued the product in 2001 . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Originally conceived as a domestic hi @-@ fi speaker , the NS @-@ 10 was designed by Akira <unk> and launched in 1978 . It was sold at the $ 400 price point . The speaker was poorly received and its commercial life was short . However , it took five years for its popularity to be established with professional users . As recording engineers came to rely on the NS @-@ 10 as a <unk> , it dominated the mixing of pop and rock music throughout the world for at least 20 years . 
 The NS @-@ 10 displaced the <unk> <unk> Sound <unk> as the nearfield monitor of choice in the 1980s and was recognised for its ability to reveal shortcomings in recordings . It probably first reached American shores through a recording engineer 's visit to Japan . The engineer , likely to have been Greg <unk> , monitored a recording session through the speaker in a Japanese studio and brought a pair back on his return to the US . <unk> then began using the speakers in a Los Angeles studio . Other engineers heard the NS @-@ 10 for the first time and were impressed by its sound . Its use spread to New York where the NS @-@ 10 was adopted at The Power Station and other studios . 
 Early use of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers include Bob Clearmountain , Rhett Davies , and Bill <unk> in the US , and Nigel <unk> in the UK . Clearmountain , then a rising star in record production , is often credited for the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 ; Phil Ward , writing in Sound on Sound , suggested that Clearmountain was probably not the earliest , but was certainly the most influential early <unk> . It became a legend that Clearmountain had chosen it because it was the worst speaker he could find . He was one of a new breed of creative freelance recording engineers and producers who would travel from studio to studio equipped with their own gear that included microphones , and a pair of Yamaha NS @-@ 10 , as a reference . 
 Recording studios around the world , particularly those specialising in rock and pop music , adopted the speaker as the standard . In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs were sold throughout the world . Gizmodo referred to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " . 
 Yamaha stopped manufacturing the speaker in 2001 , citing problems <unk> the wood pulp for the drivers . Even years after it was discontinued , the speaker continued to be found in studios everywhere . Mix reported in 2008 that variants of the NS @-@ 10 were still commercially available in the Japanese consumer market . 
 
 = = Design and construction = = 
 
 The NS @-@ 10 is an 8 @-@ <unk> two @-@ way loudspeaker with a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ litre <unk> cabinet measuring <unk> × 215 × 199 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 0 × 8 @.@ 5 × 7 @.@ 8 in ) and weighing 6 kilograms ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . Its 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) particle @-@ board cabinet has a wood veneer skin with seven black finishing layers . The domestic version of the speaker was vertically <unk> , and came factory fitted with a grille . 
 Its two drivers are a 180 mm paper <unk> and a 35 mm soft @-@ domed tweeter . The <unk> 's <unk> , weighing 3 @.@ 7 g , is manufactured from a flat sheet of pressed pulp paper . <unk> , it is formed into conical shape not through moulding or pressure , but by curling and then <unk> the two ends together . Against the black finish of the cabinet , the white bass / mid driver <unk> is a distinctive and iconic feature of the product . 
 The network is second @-@ order passive , crossing over at 2 kHz . The frequency range is quoted from 60 Hz to 20 kHz , and rated power handling is 25 – 50 W. The early version of the speaker has press @-@ down type output terminals ; later models had screw terminals . 
 
 = = Signature sound = = 
 
 In simplistic terms , the NS @-@ 10 possesses sonic characteristics that allow record producers to assume that if a recording sounds good on these monitors , then it should sound good on most playback systems . Whilst it can reveal any shortcomings in the recording mix as well as the monitoring chain , it may lead to listener fatigue with prolonged use in the domestic setting . 
 The NS @-@ 10 does not have a perfectly flat frequency response . The sound of the NS @-@ 10 is slightly heavy in the midrange , and like other sealed @-@ box speakers of similar size its bass extension is limited . It has a + 5 <unk> boost in the midrange at around 2 kHz , and the bottom end starts rolling off at 200 Hz . The midrange response is so open that it exposes the frequencies that are the most problematic and worst @-@ sounding to the human ear . 
 On a practical level for the music professional , the speaker is <unk> and clinical @-@ sounding . Gizmodo likened the NS @-@ 10 to music editors who reveal the weaknesses of recordings , so that engineers would be forced to either make necessary compensation in the mix or otherwise rework them . 
 A 2001 report by Newell et al. at Southampton University undertaken for Studio Sound in 2001 found that the NS @-@ 10 had excellent time @-@ domain response at low frequencies – its ability to start and stop in response to signal input was found to be superior to that of most other nearfield monitors . Part of this was related to its closed @-@ box design . The researchers held that the extremely fast decay time of the speaker in the low frequencies ensures that the bass instruments ( guitar and drums ) are correctly balanced in the mix . 
 
 = = Product revisions = = 
 
 There were many other versions of the NS @-@ 10 , the best known of which were the " NS @-@ 10M Studio " and the " NS @-@ 10M Pro " , both introduced in 1987 . Technically identical to the " Studio " , the " Pro " comes fitted with a speaker grille and is meant to be used in a vertical orientation . 
 The " professional " version launched some nine years after its first introduction on the back of the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers . The revised version , with everything including the logo and connection panel <unk> horizontally , was <unk> " NS @-@ 10M Studio " . <unk> included a new tweeter and crossover to address the problem in the treble , better connection terminals , and a <unk> cabinet that no longer accommodates <unk> . The Studio reincarnation also has improved power handling – 60 – 120 W. In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs of " Studio " alone were sold throughout the world . 
 Also in the product line @-@ up were NS @-@ <unk> , NS @-@ 10M X , NS @-@ <unk> , NS @-@ <unk> . The NS @-@ 10M X is a " Studio " with magnetic shielding and a different tweeter . In the 1990s Yamaha introduced the NS @-@ <unk> , a bass @-@ <unk> version of the 10M X with a different tweeter and grille . Designed for home cinema , it has bass response down to 43 Hz , nominal <unk> of 6 <unk> and maximum power handling rated at 180 W. A miniature version named Natural Sound <unk> Speaker <unk> was launched in 1997 or 1998 . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 The sound quality of the NS @-@ 10 has <unk> opinions , characterised as " love them or hate them " . Many professionals find it indispensable , even though they may not particularly enjoy listening to it ; others refuse to give it space in their studio but will happily admit that it is an effective professional tool . The reliance on the NS @-@ 10 by top independent producers became a viral phenomenon ; thousands of studios equipped themselves with NS @-@ 10s to attract big named producers , making the speakers an industry standard . 
 
 = = <unk> paper effect = = 
 
 Clearmountain was said to have been one of the first recording engineers to hang tissue paper over the <unk> of the NS @-@ 10 to tame the over @-@ bright treble . Covering the <unk> with tissue paper was said to produce treble @-@ deficient mixes when replayed on normal domestic hi @-@ fi . The phenomenon became the subject of hot debate . Recording engineer Bob <unk> investigated the alleged sonic effects of tissue paper . He found inconsistent results with different paper , but said that tissue paper generally demonstrated an undesirable effect known as comb filtering , where the high frequencies are reflected back into the tweeter instead of being absorbed . <unk> derided the tissue practice as " aberrant behaviour " , saying that engineers usually fear comb filtering and its associated cancellation effects . He also suggested that more <unk> and less random electronic filtering would be <unk> . Newell et al. noted that had the speakers ' <unk> been used in studios , where they are routinely removed , they would have had the same effect on the treble output as the improvised tissue paper filter . 
 
 = = Influence = = 
 
 The speaker came to be relied on by independent engineers , who worked in different studios and needed equipment they were familiar with as a reference point . Throughout the 1980s , engineers and producers worked widely with the speaker to monitor " [ almost ] any album you love from the 80s or 90s " – from Born in the <unk> ( Bruce Springsteen ) , Avalon ( Roxy Music ) Let 's Dance ( David Bowie ) , to Big <unk> Boom ( Hall and Oates ) . 
 The NS @-@ 10 , and the <unk> before it , are two of the most influential nearfield monitors used in the professional mixing of sound recordings . In 2008 , the NS @-@ 10 was inducted into the Mix magazine <unk> Hall of Fame . Also reflecting its influence , the speaker won a Technical Grammy for Yamaha in 2007 . In 2008 , the speaker was found " in almost every studio " . 
 
 
 = Utah State Route 61 = 
 
 State Route 61 ( SR @-@ 61 ) is a nearly 7 @.@ 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 7 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Utah , connecting SR @-@ 23 in Cornish , Cache County to U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) near Richmond via Lewiston , in the extreme northern part of the state . The highway has existed since at least 1914 , as SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 , and between 735 and 2 @,@ 180 vehicles travel along the highway on an average day in 2012 . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 At the intersection of SR @-@ 23 ( <unk> West ) and 13400 North in the center of Cornish , SR @-@ 61 departs east on 13400 North due east , crossing over a single track belonging to the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) . <unk> Cornish , the highway crosses the Bear River and continues east through rural Cache County . Just shy of the western city limits of Lewiston , the highway intersects SR @-@ 200 ( 800 West ) , a connector road to Preston , Idaho . From the western terminus to SR @-@ 200 , the shoulder is up to four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , suitable for <unk> , however the remainder of the route has much narrower shoulders , between less than or equal to one and nine @-@ tenths feet ( 0 @.@ 58 m ) wide . 
 The highway 's name changes from 13400 South to Center Street through Lewiston . Passing the Lewiston Cemetery , SR @-@ 61 crosses over the Cub River and a second single track belonging to UP , and then a third UP single track just before the highway 's eastern terminus at US @-@ 91 north of Richmond . All of the rail lines that SR @-@ 61 crosses originally belonged to the Oregon Short Line Railway . Aside from the segment through Lewiston , the highway is surrounded by farmland for its entire journey across northern Utah . 
 Every year , <unk> conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , <unk> calculated that as few as 735 vehicles used the highway on an average day at its western terminus in Cornish , and as many as 2 @,@ 180 vehicles used the highway at its junction with SR @-@ 200 . Thirty @-@ five percent of this was truck traffic . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 A roadway linking Cornish to the east has existed since at least 1914 . The roadway that serves as the eastern terminus was numbered SR @-@ 1 by 1927 , and the highway officially was designated SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 . The 53 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) bridge that carries SR @-@ 61 over the Cub River today was constructed in 1952 , while the 182 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 55 @.@ 5 m ) bridge over the Bear River was built in 1961 . The original river <unk> were slightly further south than their current locations . 
 
 = = Major intersections = = 
 
 The entire route is in Cache County . 
 
 
 = <unk> = 
 
 A hemmema ( from Finnish " Hämeenmaa " , <unk> ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian Baltic navy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The hemmema was initially developed for use against the Russian Navy in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of <unk> and Finland . It was designed by the prolific and innovative Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik <unk> Chapman ( 1721 – 1808 ) in collaboration with Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 1772 ) , an artillery officer and later commander of the Swedish archipelago fleet . The hemmema was a specialized vessel for use in the shallow waters and narrow passages that surround the thousands of islands and <unk> extending from the Swedish capital of Stockholm into the Gulf of Finland . 
 The hemmema replaced the galleys that had made up the core of the Swedish archipelago fleets until the mid @-@ 18th century . Compared to galleys , the hemmema had a deeper draft and was slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for the crew , carried more stores , was more <unk> and had roughly ten times as many heavy guns . It could be propelled by either sails or oars but was still smaller and more <unk> than most sailing warships , which made it suitable for operations in confined waters . 
 Between 1764 and 1809 , Sweden built six hemmemas . The hemmema became the largest and most heavily armed vessel in the archipelago fleet and served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Oden , the first hemmema , was relatively small and very similar to a turuma , a different type of " archipelago frigate " . Russia built six hemmemas based on the Swedish design between 1808 and 1823 after capturing three of the Swedish vessels at the surrender of Sveaborg in 1808 . The later versions , both Swedish and Russian , were much larger and much more heavily armed than Oden . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and powerful naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Russian naval power in the Baltic grew to challenge the interests of Sweden , the other leading power in the Baltic . Swedish holdings at that time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion depending on , and connected by , the Baltic Sea trade routes . During the Great Northern War ( 1700 – 1721 ) , Sweden lost all its territories in the Baltic states and suffered Russian raids in Finland and along the chain of islands and <unk> stretching from the Gulf of Finland to Stockholm . The Swedes began to deploy inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean galleys . Most of these new vessels were more akin to <unk> and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels . 
 <unk> were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ <unk> , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically carry only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . The galleys also lacked decks and adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , many of whom succumbed to illness as a result of exposure during the war of 1741 – 43 . 
 
 = = = Archipelago fleet = = = 
 
 After the Russian victory against Sweden in 1743 , the Swedes established a commission to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , the commission concluded that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded , and that Sweden needed to build a strong coastal navy . Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 72 ) , an artillery officer , was the driving force behind these changes . The committee based many of its conclusions and decisions on his ideas . In 1756 , Sweden established the archipelago fleet with the official name <unk> <unk> ( " fleet of the army " ) under the command of the army department , <unk> , with Ehrensvärd as supreme commander . For two decades , the struggle for power between the Hats and the <unk> , the dominant political factions at the time , and rivalries between army and navy brought about changes to the archipelago fleet . The parliamentary victory of the Hats in the <unk> in 1769 – 70 and the coup d <unk> by King Gustav III in 1772 secured the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent branch of the army . Starting in 1770 , the archipelago fleet merged with the Finnish Squadron ( <unk> <unk> ) based at Sveaborg . In 1777 , it incorporated the Swedish Squadron ( <unk> <unk> ) , the galley fleet based at Stockholm . The Swedish armed forces invested considerable resources in the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted members of the social and cultural elite who enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III , who had established himself as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup . 
 After the poor performance of galleys in Russo – Swedish war of 1741 – 43 and the <unk> War ( 1757 – 62 ) , development of replacements became <unk> . During the <unk> War , trials had been made with " gun prams " ( <unk> ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed barges with a shallow draft that carried guns in broadside arrangements . The prams carried more guns than the galleys , but proved far too slow to be effective . Augustin Ehrensvärd argued for new archipelago vessels that combined firepower , maneuverability , <unk> , and decent crew accommodations . He began a successful collaboration with <unk> Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( <unk> " <unk> Chapman " in 1772 ) , and together they developed five new vessels : a gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun and a schooner rigging , as well as four types of " archipelago frigates " ( <unk> ) : the smaller <unk> and <unk> , and the larger turuma and hemmema . All four types have been called <unk> ( archipelago frigates ) in Swedish and English historical literature , though some authors have called the <unk> and <unk> " archipelago <unk> " . Chapman specifically designed the archipelago frigates for service off the south coast of Finland and named them after the Finnish provinces of <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( <unk> ) , and Hämeenmaa ( <unk> ) . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 The concept of small sailing frigates with a complementary set of oars ( or " <unk> " ) was not new . The English Tudor navy had used small " <unk> " in the mid @-@ 16th century . In the 1660s its successor , the Royal Navy , equipped the equivalent of sixth @-@ rates with oar ports on or below the <unk> . During the 18th century the Russian Navy introduced " <unk> " , Baltic variants on the Mediterranean <unk> , for inshore duties . The <unk> were good <unk> , could be rowed if necessary and had more guns and greater stores than galleys ; they were also less expensive to maintain . The Russian designs influenced Chapman and the Swedish naval commanders . Consequently , Chapman 's designs for new ships were <unk> on those principles , but with adaptations to archipelago warfare . 
 Chapman 's archipelago frigates provided better protection for their crew than the galleys they replaced , and up to three times the capacity for stores and provisions . They could operate in the narrow , shallow waters around <unk> in all <unk> and in open water in all but the worst storms . They had a deeper draft than galleys , but considerably shallower draft than traditional sailing warships . The new ship types also increased the archipelago fleet 's firepower , provided it with better defensive capabilities , and made possible more efficient fire support in amphibious operations . 
 
 = = Design and construction = = 
 
 Of the new designs , <unk> and hemmemas best fit the description of " archipelago frigate " because of their similarities to small ocean @-@ going frigates . The first hemmema , the Oden , was completed in 1764 . It was c . 33 m ( 108 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 2 m ( 26 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with a draft of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 25 ft ) . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck , and no <unk> deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with <unk> sails , like a galley . The navy later replaced the <unk> rigs with a more conventional square @-@ sail frigate rig . The early design provided for 14 pairs of oars with four men per oar . The rowers plied their oars from the gun deck through oar ports positioned between the gunports , close to the waterline , which gave the rowers better leverage . The oars were also placed on a rectangular <unk> , designed to further improve the leverage . Even so , hemmemas performed poorly when rowed and were difficult in contrary winds . They were slower than ordinary sailing ships , but sailed better than galleys . 
 During the Russian war of 1788 – 1790 , Sweden built three hemmemas of a new design . They were considerably larger , 44 @.@ 5 by 11 m ( 146 by 36 ft ) , and the number of oars were increased to 20 pairs . They also had some of the heaviest broadsides , even when compared with the much larger frigates of the high seas navy . The artillery officer Carl Fredrik <unk> had cooperated with Chapman to increase the main armament to twenty @-@ two 36 @-@ pounders and two 12 @-@ pounders , which increased the draft by about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) . The addition of diagonal <unk> to reinforce the hull allowed the later hemmemas to carry guns more powerful even than those on the largest sailing frigates of the high seas navy . Due to their considerable firepower and relative size , naval historian Jan <unk> has described the hemmemas as " super archipelago frigates " . 
 The hemmema 's design was very similar to that of the turuma . The primary difference was that the turuma 's oarsmen sat on the weather deck above the guns , whereas the hemmema 's oarsmen sat on the <unk> . The later hemmemas were considerably larger , more heavily armed , and of a more robust construction . <unk> has described them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs . 
 
 = = Service = = 
 
 <unk> served in the Finnish squadrons during the war of 1788 – 1790 . They supported amphibious operations and conducted raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . <unk> fought in the first and second battles of <unk> . During the first battle in 1789 , one hemmema complemented the similar <unk> , and in the second battle in July 1790 , two hemmemas made up the defensive center and provided a considerable percentage of the firepower . 
 The Swedes were building three additional hemmemas at the shipyards within the fortress of Sveaborg when it was surrendered to the Russians in 1808 , and all three were incorporated in the Russian Navy . Shortly afterward , the Russian Navy built its own 32 @-@ gun versions , with the final vessel launched as late as 1823 . Two more were built in Sweden in 1809 , Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll . Birger Jarl sank in an accident in 1813 and Erik Segersäll was planned for conversion as a <unk> steam battery for coastal defense , though the idea was eventually abandoned and the ship scrapped in 1826 . 
 Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the hemmema had specific strengths and weaknesses . Although it had superior firepower relative to galleys , its sailing qualities were somewhat mediocre and while highly <unk> under oars , it was still difficult to propel while rowed . A hemmema had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely <unk> them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could <unk> considerable <unk> , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role <unk> . 
 
 = = Ships = = 
 
 A total of twelve hemmemas were built , six of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet and six for the Russian Navy . Details of individual vessels are listed below . The Swedish hemmemas were all built to the same specifications , except for the early design Oden , and Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll carried heavier armament than the others . <unk> and <unk> list Oden as a turuma rebuilt as a hemmema in 1784 , though Oscar <unk> and Lars @-@ Otto Berg do not . The Russian vessels were built between 1808 and 1823 and have been described by <unk> and <unk> as <unk> @-@ class " rowing frigates " . 
 Under the Finnish form " Hämeenmaa " , the name of the ship type was later carried on to several vessels of the 20th century Finnish Navy . 
 
 
 = Edward Creutz = 
 
 Edward Creutz ( January 23 , 1913 – June 27 , 2009 ) was an American physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II . After the war he became a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology . He was Vice President of Research at General Atomics from 1955 to 1970 . He published over 65 papers on <unk> , physics , mathematics , metallurgy and science policy , and held 18 patents relating to nuclear energy . 
 A graduate of the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Creutz helped Princeton University build its first cyclotron . During World War II he worked on nuclear reactor design under Eugene Wigner at the Metallurgical Laboratory , designing the cooling system for the first water @-@ cooled reactors . He led a group that studied the metallurgy of uranium and other elements used in reactor designs . In October 1944 , he moved to the Los Alamos Laboratory , where he became a group leader . 
 After the war ended , Creutz accepted an offer to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology , where he became the head of its Physics Department and its Nuclear Research Center in 1948 . In 1955 he returned to Los Alamos to evaluate its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he accepted an offer to become Vice President for Research and Development and the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science at General Atomics . Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a nuclear reactor for universities and laboratories . 
 Creutz served as an assistant director of the National Science Foundation from 1970 to 1977 , and then as Director of the <unk> <unk> Bishop Museum in Honolulu , where he took particular interest in the museum 's preparation of a Manual of the <unk> <unk> of Hawaii ' . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Edward Chester Creutz was born on January 23 , 1913 , in Beaver Dam , Wisconsin , the son of Lester Creutz , a high school history teacher , and Grace Smith Creutz , a general science teacher . He had two older brothers , John and Jim , and a younger sister , Edith . The family moved to <unk> Claire , Wisconsin , in 1916 , Monroe , Wisconsin , in 1920 , and to Janesville , Wisconsin , in 1927 . He played a number of musical instruments , including the mandolin , <unk> and trombone . He played in the school bands at Janesville High School and Monroe High School . At Janesville he played tenor banjo in a dance orchestra called <unk> 's <unk> , and timpani with the school orchestra at Monroe . He also played left guard on the American football teams at Janesville and Monroe . He expressed an interest in chemistry , biology , geology and photography . 
 After graduating from Janesville High School in 1929 , he took a job as a <unk> at a local bank . In 1932 , his brother John , who had graduated from the University of Wisconsin – Madison with a degree in electrical engineering , persuaded him to go to college as well . John suggested that " if you aren ’ t sure what part of science you want , take physics , because that 's basic to all of them . " Creutz later recalled that this was the best advice he ever got . He entered the University of Wisconsin and studied mathematics and physics . Money was scarce during the Great Depression , especially after his father died in 1935 . To pay his bills , Creutz worked as a <unk> and short order cook , and took a job taking care of the physics laboratory equipment . In 1936 , his senior year , he taught physics laboratory classes . 
 Creutz encountered several members of the faculty at the University of Wisconsin , including Julian Mack , <unk> Rollefson , Raymond Herb , Eugene Wigner and Gregory Breit . Mack gave Creutz a research project to do in his junior year . Creutz remained at Wisconsin as a graduate student after receiving his Bachelor of Science ( <unk> ) degree in 1936 , working for Herb upgrading the <unk> Van de <unk> generator from 300 to 600 keV . With this done , the question became what to do with it , and Breit suggested that it had previously been observed that high @-@ energy gamma rays were produced when lithium was bombarded with protons at 440 keV . Creutz therefore wrote his 1939 Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) thesis on <unk> <unk> of <unk> by <unk> , under Breit 's supervision . Creutz married <unk> Rollefson , a mathematics student at Wisconsin , and the sister of <unk> Rollefson , on September 13 , 1937 . The couple had three children , two sons , Michael and Carl , and a daughter , Ann Jo . 
 Wigner moved to Princeton University in 1938 , and soon after Creutz received an offer as well . Princeton had been given a 36 @-@ inch ( 910 mm ) magnet by the University of California , which had been used to build an 8 MeV cyclotron . They wanted Creutz to help get it operational . He later recalled : 
 On my third day in Princeton I was invited to give a short report on my thesis work . There were usually two or three speakers at these " Journal Club " meetings . This time the speakers were <unk> <unk> , Albert Einstein , and Ed Creutz . To be on the same program with these two giants of scientific accomplishments was <unk> . Just before the meeting began , my sponsor , <unk> , asked me , " Say , Creutz , have you met Einstein yet ? " I had not . <unk> took me over to where Einstein was sitting in <unk> and tennis shoes , and said , " Professor Einstein , this is Creutz who has come to work on our cyclotron . " The great man held out his hand , which seemed as big as a dinner plate , and said in an accented voice , " I ’ m glad to meet you , Dr. Creutz . " I managed to <unk> out , " I ’ m glad to meet you , too , Dr. Einstein . " 
 But it was <unk> who electrified the audience with his news from Europe of the discovery by <unk> <unk> and Otto <unk> of nuclear fission . <unk> rushed to confirm the results . Creutz built an ionization chamber and a linear amplifier out of radio vacuum tubes , coffee cans and motorcycle batteries , and with this apparatus the physicists at Princeton were able to confirm the results . 
 
 = = World War II = = 
 
 In the early years of World War II between 1939 and 1941 , Wigner led the Princeton group in a series of experiments involving uranium and two tons of graphite as a neutron <unk> . In early 1942 , Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project 's various teams working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design , including Wigner 's team from Princeton , at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago . The name was a <unk> ; Creutz was the first to conduct actual metallurgy research , and he hired its first <unk> to work with him . 
 Wigner led the Theoretical Group that included Creutz , Leo <unk> , Alvin M. Weinberg , <unk> Way and Gale Young . The group 's task was to design the reactors that would convert uranium into plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . In July 1942 , Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design , with a graphite neutron <unk> and water cooling . The choice of water as a coolant was controversial at the time because water was known to absorb neutrons , thereby reducing the efficiency of the reactor ; but Wigner was confident that his group 's calculations were correct and that water would work , while the technical difficulties involved in using helium or liquid metal as a coolant would delay the project . Working seven days a week , the group designed the reactors between September 1942 and January 1943 . Creutz studied the corrosion of metals in a water @-@ cooled system , and designed the cooling system . In 1959 a patent for the reactor design would be issued in the name of Creutz , <unk> , Weinberg , Wigner , and Young . 
 As a group leader at the Metallurgical Laboratory , Creutz conducted studies of uranium and how it could be <unk> into rods . His group looked into the process of corrosion in metals in contact with fast @-@ flowing liquids , the processes for <unk> aluminium and <unk> uranium with it . It also investigated the forging of beryllium , and the preparation of thorium . Frederick Seitz and Alvin Weinberg later <unk> that the activities of Creutz and his group may have reduced the time taken to produce plutonium by up to two years . 
 The discovery of spontaneous fission in reactor @-@ bred plutonium due to contamination by plutonium @-@ 240 led Wigner to propose switching to breeding uranium @-@ 233 from thorium , but the challenge was met by the Los Alamos Laboratory developing an <unk> @-@ type nuclear weapon design . In October 1944 , Creutz moved to Los Alamos , where he became a group leader responsible for explosive lens design <unk> and preliminary testing . <unk> encountered in testing the lenses led to the construction of a special test area in <unk> Canyon , and Creutz became responsible for testing there . As part of the preparation for the Trinity nuclear test , Creutz conducted a test detonation at <unk> Canyon without nuclear material . This test brought bad news ; it seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail . Hans Bethe worked through the night to assess the results , and was able to report that the results were consistent with a perfect explosion . 
 
 = = Later life = = 
 
 After the war ended in 1945 , Creutz accepted an offer from Seitz to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology as an associate professor , and help create a nuclear physics group there . Creutz in turn recruited a number of young physicists who had worked with him at Princeton and on the Manhattan Project in Chicago and Los Alamos , including Martyn <unk> , Jack Fox , Roger Sutton and Sergio <unk> . Together , with funding from the Office of Naval Research they built a 450 MeV <unk> at the Nuclear Research Center near <unk> , Pennsylvania . For a time , This put them at the forefront of research into nuclear physics , allowing physicists there to study the recently discovered <unk> meson and <unk> meson . A visiting scholar , <unk> <unk> , created the first photographic <unk> of a meson . 
 Creutz became a professor , the head of the Physics Department , and the head of Nuclear Research Center at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1948 . He was also a member of the Executive Board at the <unk> National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 , and a consultant at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 . In addition to his work on nuclear physics , he cultivated flowers and orchids at his home . He published eight papers on floral species , and named three varieties of <unk> after his children . One 1966 paper , published in the New York <unk> Garden Journal was on <unk> <unk> , a rare flower found only on the island of <unk> in French Polynesia . He travelled to Polynesia many times , and translated Grammar of the Tahitian language from French into English . His family served as hosts for a time to two young people from Tahiti and Samoa . 
 In 1955 and 1956 , Creutz spent a year at Los Alamos evaluating its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he was approached by <unk> de Hoffmann , who recruited him to join the General Atomics division of General <unk> . He moved to La <unk> , California , as its Vice President for Research and Development , and was concurrently the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science from 1955 to 1967 . He was also a member of the Advisory Panel on General Science at the Department of Defense from 1959 to 1963 . 
 Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a small reactor for universities and laboratories . TRIGA used uranium <unk> hydride ( <unk> ) fuel , which has a large , prompt negative fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity . As the temperature of the core increases , the reactivity rapidly decreases . It is thus highly unlikely , though not completely impossible , for a nuclear <unk> to occur . Due to its safety and reliability , which allows it to be installed in densely populated areas , and its ability to still generate high energy for brief periods , which is particularly useful for research , it became the world 's most popular research reactor , and General Atomics sold 66 <unk> in 24 countries . The high @-@ temperature gas @-@ cooled reactor ( <unk> ) was less successful , and only two <unk> power reactors were built , both in the United States . A 40 MW demonstration unit at the Peach <unk> Nuclear <unk> Station in Pennsylvania operated successfully , but a larger 300 MW unit at the Fort St. <unk> <unk> Station in Colorado encountered technical problems . General Atomics also conducted research into thermonuclear energy , including means of <unk> <unk> plasma . Between 1962 and 1974 Creutz published six papers on the subject . 
 In 1970 President Richard Nixon appointed Creutz as Assistant Director for Research of the National Science Foundation . He became Assistant Director for <unk> and <unk> Sciences in 1975 , and was acting Deputy Director from 1976 to 1977 . The 1970s energy crisis raised the national profile of energy issues , and Creutz served on a panel that produced a study called The Nation 's Energy Future . His wife <unk> died of cancer in 1972 . In 1974 he married Elisabeth <unk> , who worked for the National Science Board . The two of them enjoyed locating and photographing rare orchids . 
 His appointment at the National Science Foundation ended in 1977 , and Creutz became director of the <unk> <unk> Bishop Museum in Honolulu . He took particular interest in the museum 's work preparing a two @-@ volume Manual of the <unk> <unk> of Hawaii , which was published in 1999 . He expanded programs for education and outreach , and secured funding for two new buildings . He retired in 1987 and returned to his home in Rancho Santa Fe , California , and died there on June 27 , 2009 . 
 
 = = Documentaries = = 
 
 To Mars by A @-@ <unk> : The Secret History of Project Orion 
 
 
 = <unk> Del Toso = 
 
 <unk> Del Toso ( born 12 August 1980 ) is a 3 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player who represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal . <unk> with chronic inflammatory <unk> <unk> at the age of nineteen , Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . Playing in the local Victorian competition , she was named the league 's most valuable player in 2007 . That year started playing for the Knox Ford Raiders in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . The following year , she was named the team 's Players ' Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . 
 Del Toso has played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL since 2008 . In the semifinal between her Dandenong Rangers and the <unk> <unk> in 2009 , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . The Dandenong Rangers won back to back titles in 2011 and 2012 . 
 Del Toso made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan . Since winning a silver medal in London , she has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 . 
 
 = = Personal = = 
 
 Nicknamed <unk> , Del Toso was born on 12 August 1980 . At the age of nineteen , she was diagnosed with chronic inflammatory <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , a heredity condition that involves damage to the nerves . Del Toso has two siblings ; her younger brother Daniel also developed the disease . Prior to her diagnosis , she played regular basketball . Del Toso has worked as a <unk> , and as a participation assistant for Basketball Victoria . As of 2013 , she lives in <unk> , Victoria . 
 
 = = Wheelchair basketball = = 
 
 Del Toso was a 4 point wheelchair basketball player . Due to the progress of her disease , she was reclassified as a 3 @.@ 5 point player in 2013 . As of 2012 , she has a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , and in financial year 2012 / 13 , she received a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant from the Australian Sports Commission as part of its Direct <unk> Support ( <unk> ) program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 and 2010 / 11 , $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 and $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 09 . In 2012 , she trained in Dandenong , <unk> , Box Hill and Knox . 
 
 = = = Club = = = 
 
 Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . An Australian Paralympic Committee flyer on the wall at her local gym asking " Are you the next <unk> ? " prompted Del Toso to respond . She was advised to take up wheelchair basketball . Playing in the local Victorian competition in 2007 , she was named the league 's most valuable player . That year , she made her debut in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) with the Knox Ford Raiders . At the end of the season , she was named the most improved player . She played for the Rangers ( now known as Victoria ) since 2008 . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Dandenong Rangers defeated the Western Stars 53 – 47 . She scored 20 points in her team 's victory . In the second round of the 2008 season , playing for the Dandenong Rangers in a 38 – 72 loss to the Hills Hornets , she scored 12 points . That season , she was named the team 's Players Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . 
 In 2009 , Del Toso played in the WNWBL finals . In the semifinal between the Dandenong Rangers and the <unk> <unk> , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . In 2010 , she was named the Dandenong Rangers 's Most Valuable Player . The Rangers won the WNWBL title in 2011 . In a round four game in 2012 , against Sydney <unk> Flames that the Rangers won 55 – 44 , she scored 14 rebounds . The Rangers won the league championship again that year . 
 
 = = = National = = = 
 
 In 2008 , Del Toso was named as a reserve for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . She made her national team debut at the 2009 Osaka Cup the following year , when her team finished first . That year , she also participated in the Four Nations in Canada and the Japan Friendly Series , one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 . In July 2010 , she played in a three @-@ game test series against Germany . She was member of the Australian team at the 2010 World Championships that finished fourth . She also played in the 2010 Osaka Cup where her team finished first . She played in four games in the 2012 Gliders World Challenge . 
 Del Toso was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball . The London Games were her first . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal . 
 Since the games , Del Toso has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 . 
 
 = = Statistics = = 
 
 
 
 = No. 79 Wing RAAF = 
 
 No. 79 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing of World War II . It was formed in December 1943 at Batchelor , Northern Territory , as part of North @-@ Western Area Command . <unk> by Group Captain Charles Eaton , the wing comprised four squadrons on its establishment , flying Beaufort and B @-@ 25 Mitchell bombers and Beaufighter heavy fighters . No. 79 Wing took part in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 – 45 , eventually transferring to <unk> in the Dutch East Indies as the Allies advanced northward . By the end of the Pacific War , the wing was attached to the Australian First Tactical Air Force and was made up of Nos. 2 and 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadrons , both flying Mitchells . The latter transferred to the Netherlands Air Force in late 1945 , while the former returned to Australia where it disbanded the following year . No. 79 Headquarters itself disbanded in October 1945 , soon after the end of hostilities . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 No. 79 Wing was established at Batchelor , Northern Territory , on 30 November 1943 . Its combat units consisted of Nos. 1 and 2 Squadrons ( flying Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . The wing was commanded by Group Captain Charles Eaton , whose Dutch personnel called him " <unk> Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , No. 79 Wing participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 . 
 Through March – April 1944 , the Beaufighters attacked Japanese shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations <unk> and <unk> , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . Eaton organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , on 19 April . <unk> of thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters , the force destroyed the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , a result that earned the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault on Hollandia – Aitape met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment leading up to it . 
 In May 1944 , Nos. 1 , 18 and 31 Squadrons attacked Japanese positions in Timor , while No. 2 Squadron was withdrawn from combat to re @-@ equip with Mitchells . No. 79 Wing 's light and medium bombers suffered from a lack of suitable targets as they had few airfields in forward areas from which to refuel . No. 2 Squadron returned to operations with Mitchells in June . That month , No. 18 Squadron flew 149 sorties , damaging Japanese airfields and shipping in the Timor area , but lost its commanding officer to anti @-@ aircraft fire during a raid . 
 In June – July 1944 , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on <unk> . No. 18 Squadron was again the wing 's most active unit , flying 107 sorties . In September , the Beaufighters and Mitchells attacked Japanese shipping and infrastructure in <unk> and <unk> , but lost nine aircraft and twenty @-@ six crewmen killed , among them Squadron Leader Wilbur Wackett , son of Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation manager Lawrence Wackett . By the end of the month , Mitchell missions were put on hold while replacement crews were trained . In late 1944 , plans were made to transfer No. 79 Wing from North @-@ Western Area Command to Northern Command in Papua New Guinea , where it would undertake operations against the Japanese in New Britain . The wing 's composition for this move was to be Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons , operating Mitchells , and 120 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . No. 31 Squadron was transferred from No. 79 Wing to the Australian First Tactical Air Force at <unk> in December . The same month , Group Captain Eaton posted out and was replaced by Group Captain John <unk> . 
 Weather hampered the wing 's activities in January 1945 . No. 1 Squadron was withdrawn to Queensland to re @-@ equip with <unk> , with No. 13 Squadron , flying <unk> , taking up the <unk> on anti @-@ shipping missions . The squadron accounted for around half of the thirty @-@ eight enemy vessels sunk by No. 79 Wing in February , and a similar ratio to the twenty sunk the following month . Wing operations were cut back in March , as preparations were made to transfer the Mitchells to <unk> Bay in New Britain . On 6 April , all twenty available aircraft of Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons were ordered to join B @-@ 24 Liberators of No. 82 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser <unk> . The Liberators were late for their rendezvous with the Mitchells off <unk> so the latter , at the very limit of their range , attacked the convoy regardless . They claimed two direct hits without loss , despite anti @-@ aircraft fire from the cruiser and other ships , and frontal attacks by enemy fighters . Allied submarines sank the damaged <unk> the next day . 
 The wing 's proposed move to New Britain was cancelled in May 1945 , after the Netherlands government requested that its squadrons operate over the Dutch East Indies . No. 120 Squadron was transferred to <unk> , while No. 79 Wing and its two Mitchell squadrons were ordered to move to Borneo , under the command of First Tactical Air Force . By July , No. 79 Wing had relocated from Batchelor to <unk> , leaving No. 13 Squadron under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Mitchells joined Liberators of No. 82 Wing <unk> RAAF personnel from Borneo to Australia . No. 79 Wing Headquarters was disbanded on 8 October . The following month , No. 18 Squadron was reassigned to the Netherlands Air Force . No. 2 Squadron returned to Australia in December , disbanding in mid @-@ 1946 . These were the only two squadrons in the RAAF to operate Mitchells during the war . 
 
 
 = Vitamin D ( Glee ) = 
 
 " Vitamin D " is the sixth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on October 7 , 2009 . It was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by <unk> Keene . In the episode , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) pits the male and female club members against each other for a mash @-@ up competition . Will 's wife Terri ( <unk> <unk> ) takes a job as the school nurse to stop him becoming closer to guidance <unk> Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , but is fired after giving the students performance @-@ enhancing pseudoephedrine tablets . 
 The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " Vitamin D " was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million US viewers , and received generally positive reviews from critics . Performances by Morrison , Mays and Jane Lynch as <unk> coach Sue Sylvester attracted praise , as did the staging of the musical mash @-@ ups . However , <unk> <unk> of MTV and Mandi Bierly of Entertainment Weekly both noted critically that dramatic storylines in the episode dominated over the musical performances . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 Believing the glee club members are becoming complacent ahead of the forthcoming <unk> , director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) divides the club into boys against girls for a mash @-@ up competition . <unk> coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) observes that head cheerleader Quinn <unk> 's ( Dianna Agron ) performance standards are slipping . When Quinn blames her <unk> on her glee club participation , Sue <unk> her resolve to destroy the club , planning to sabotage Will 's personal life . 
 Sue tells Will 's wife Terri Schuester ( <unk> <unk> ) that guidance <unk> Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) has romantic feelings for Will . <unk> to stay close to her husband , Terri takes a job as the school nurse , despite having no medical qualifications . She encourages Emma 's boyfriend , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) to propose to her , which he does . After asking Will if there is any reason she should not marry Ken , and being warned off Will by Terri , Emma accepts his proposal . Terri is still hiding the fact she experienced a hysterical pregnancy from Will , and upon realizing how much her life is changing due to her pregnancy , Quinn agrees to let Terri secretly adopt her baby . 
 Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) is exhausted by his extra @-@ curricular activities , so Terri gives him pseudoephedrine tablets , which Finn shares with the rest of the males in the glee club . The effects of the tablets enhance their performance , and they give an energetic mash @-@ up of " It 's My Life and " Confessions Part II " . When Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) tells the girls the secret behind the boys ' performance , they , too , request the tablets from Terri , and give a high @-@ spirited mash @-@ up of " Halo " and " Walking On Sunshine " . Finn and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) feel guilty for cheating , however , and agree to <unk> the competition . When Principal Figgins ( <unk> Theba ) learns what has happened , he fires Terri and , angry with Will , appoints Sue as co @-@ director of the glee club . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 Recurring characters who appear in " Vitamin D " are glee club members Santana Lopez ( <unk> Rivera ) , Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( <unk> <unk> ) , former glee club director Sandy <unk> ( Stephen <unk> ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Gallagher ) , Terri 's co @-@ worker Howard <unk> ( Kent <unk> ) , and local news anchors Rod <unk> ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( <unk> Davis ) . Joe <unk> guest stars as Joe . 
 The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " It 's My Life / Confessions Part II " charted at number 7 in Ireland , 14 in the UK , 22 in Australia , 25 in Canada and 30 in America , while " Halo / Walking on Sunshine " charted at number 4 in Ireland , 9 in the UK , 10 in Australia , 28 in Canada and 40 in America . Michele has revealed that she practiced talking " <unk> " for several days in order to convey the effects of pseudoephedrine on Rachel . In order to portray the character in her altered state , she questioned : " How manic is the right amount of manic ? What would Rachel be like on <unk> ? What would she sound like ? " She deemed performing the mash @-@ up piece in that state " so much fun " . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million U.S. viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Glee maintained its ratings from the previous week , despite all of the other new Wednesday night shows of the season declining by double @-@ digit percentages . It was the eighteenth most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 61 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 008 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 608 million on E4 , and 400 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time . 
 " Vitamin D " was nominated for the best " Comedy Series Episode " award at the 2010 <unk> Awards . It received generally positive reviews from critics . <unk> Malcom of the Los Angeles Times noted that she preferred the boys ' performance to the girls ' , commenting : " Their number had the same heart @-@ soaring power as " Don 't Stop <unk> ' " [ performed in the pilot episode ] . " Malcom enjoyed Sue 's character development in the episode , claiming that , " In less skilled hands , there ’ s no doubt Sue would be an over @-@ the @-@ top disaster . But thanks to the <unk> Jane Lynch , I can ’ t wait to see what trouble the character <unk> up next . " <unk> <unk> of MTV also enjoyed the boys ' performance more than the girls ' , and gave the episode a mostly positive review , writing that it moved the series ' storylines to " a whole new level " . She felt , however , that the episode " didn 't have nearly enough singing " . Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that : " So much happened in this hour that the musical numbers , though enjoyable , were almost an <unk> . " Bierly favoured the girls ' performance , and praised Morrison 's acting , commenting : " Matthew Morrison <unk> so much with his eyes . There ’ s a <unk> and a longing in them that I ’ m always surprised Emma ( Jayma Mays ) matches . " 
 Mike Hale for the New York Times praised Mays ' performance , noting : " Jayma Mays registered Emma ’ s devastation with just the slightest widening of those enormous eyes . In fact all the best non @-@ singing moments in the episode were hers . " Hale was less impressed with the rest of the episode , deeming the pregnancy storyline " so boring that is hardly <unk> " . He noted that : " For many viewers , the best moments in the episode probably came very early on and involved Jane Lynch ’ s Sue Sylvester , who still got all the best lines . " <unk> Wieselman for the New York Post agreed with this assessment , opining that although the episode was " filled with more brilliant moments than ever before " , the stand @-@ out scene was Sue writing in her journal , which Wieselman deemed " jam @-@ packed with so many one liners , it acted as a vacuum , sucking the smart out of everything else on TV from 9 : 05 to 9 : 07 pm . " Fellow New York Post critic <unk> Shen deemed the episode her favorite of the series so far . Anna <unk> of The Guardian called the pseudoephedrine storyline " relentlessly silly [ ... ] but <unk> so " , preferring the boys ' performance to the girls ' as " some excellent comedy helped me forget about Finn 's dodgy <unk> vocals for once " . 
 
 
 = Fern Hobbs = 
 
 Fern Hobbs ( May 8 , 1883 – April 10 , 1964 ) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon , and a private secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West . She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman , and became the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in America in her mid @-@ twenties . 
 Hobbs made international news when Governor West sent her to implement martial law in the small Eastern Oregon town of Copperfield . The event was considered a strategic coup for West , establishing the State 's authority over a remote rural community and <unk> his reputation as a proponent of prohibition . 
 Hobbs later worked for the American Red Cross in Europe and at the Oregon Journal newspaper . She died in Portland in 1964 . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Hobbs was born on May 8 , 1883 , in <unk> , Nebraska , to John Alden Hobbs and <unk> Bush Hobbs . Her family moved to Salt Lake City , Utah when she was six years old ; she lived there for 12 years , finishing high school . Her father then met with financial difficulties , and she moved to Oregon , settling in Hillsboro . There , she put her younger brother and sister through school , while studying <unk> and working for a living . 
 She soon became a private secretary to the president of the Title <unk> and Trust Company . The bank , which held many assets of the Oregon Common School Fund , failed during Hobbs ' time there . Ben <unk> , who was the Secretary of State and a member of the State Land Board , was charged with protecting the Common School Fund , and was involved in negotiating with the failing bank over the State 's assets . He took note of Hobbs ' strong loyalty to her employer . 
 After the bank 's failure , Hobbs worked as a governess for J. Wesley <unk> ( brother of William S. <unk> ) in Portland . She also helped raise her younger brother and sister , studied <unk> and the law , and worked as a secretary . In 1913 , Hobbs graduated from <unk> University College of Law with a Bachelor of Laws degree , and was admitted to the Oregon State Bar . 
 <unk> , who managed Oswald West 's successful 1910 campaign to become Governor of Oregon , recommended that West hire Hobbs as his private stenographer . She was hired , and impressed West to the point that he hired her as his private secretary two years later . At that time , at age 27 , she was the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in the United States , earning $ 3 @,@ 000 per year . 
 
 = = Martial law in Copperfield , Oregon = = 
 
 West ordered Hobbs to Copperfield , Oregon to restore law and order on January 2 , 1914 , along with a group of six militia men that included Oregon State <unk> <unk> <unk> Lawson . Copperfield , located on the Snake River in Baker County , had grown up around construction projects for a railroad tunnel and power plant . Fifteen @-@ hundred jobs in the area came from the railway project of E. H. <unk> or the power generation facility . 
 The town had descended into lawlessness with a number of saloons , <unk> , dancing halls , and widespread gambling . The town had no law enforcement officers , and the local government officials had become bar keepers . Governor West had extended prohibition laws , Some local residents had appealed to the state government for <unk> but they were widely ignored in Copperfield . Over half the residents of the town had signed a petition , addressed to West , alleging that saloons owned by the mayor and City Council members were selling liquor to minors and staying open later than their posted hours . Governor West responded by ordering county officials to restore order , close the saloons , and force the <unk> of the corrupt city leaders by December 25 , 1913 . 
 County officials did not take care of the problem , so West sent Hobbs , hoping the presence of a woman would prevent any outbreak of violence . Hobbs was a <unk> woman standing 5 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) tall and weighing less than 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . She was dispatched with orders to restore order and to implement martial law if necessary . While Hobbs was traveling to Eastern Oregon , both she and Governor West were coy with reporters about the presence of the militia men , suggesting that Hobbs might be acting alone . 
 The saloon keepers , who received word that Hobbs was accompanied by law enforcement officers only shortly before her arrival , greeted her by dressing up the town with <unk> , blue and pink ribbons , and flowers . A town meeting was arranged at 2 : 30 p.m. on January 3 . Hobbs renewed the call for the resignation of city officials , but was the request was refused . Hobbs ' escorts then arrested the city leaders and ordered Lawson to declare martial law . It was the first time in Oregon since the Civil War that martial law was put into effect . 
 Soon the town was disarmed and order restored , with the gambling equipment and weapons confiscated , and the saloons closed down . Hobbs then left Lawson in charge and caught the 4 : 00 p.m. train out of town that same day . The residents did not openly resist Hobbs or the militia men , although nearly all were armed and had been prepared to offer non @-@ violent resistance . She stopped at the county seat in Baker City to officially remove the town 's officials in front of a judge before returning to the state capitol in Salem . The Baker County Circuit Court quickly <unk> the militia from holding the town under martial law ; Sheriff Rand began assembling a <unk> to carry out the court order . Governor West requested a hearing , seeking Rand 's temporary removal from office , and appointed Hobbs to represent the State as special counsel . 
 The actions of the governor were later challenged in court , with Hobbs and West among the defendants . The saloon keepers sought remuneration for liquor they claimed was confiscated during the period of martial law . The Baker County circuit court determined the governor 's actions were within his powers , and the Oregon Supreme Court ultimately concurred . 
 These events made Hobbs the most famous woman in Oregon at that time . Hobbs also made national and international news for these events . Writer Stewart Holbrook reported : 
 
 = = Later life = = 
 
 After the Copperfield affair , Hobbs continued as Governor West 's secretary until the end of his term in 1915 . She visited the Union County town of Cove in February 1914 , also to investigate complaints about a saloon . A local election had declared the town " dry , " but a county election had declared the entire county " wet . " On advice of a judge , the mayor of Cove stated that he was unable to determine whether the saloon was legal or not , but expressed <unk> to the governor 's wishes . Hobbs did not order the saloon closed down . 
 She then moved to Portland and practiced law . Women 's rights groups promoted Hobbs as a candidate to run for governor , but she never ran for office . Within a few years Fern Hobbs became the commissioner of Oregon State Industrial Accident Commission , working on getting taxes due on the Oregon & California Lands . In 1917 , with the United States entering World War I , she began a long association with the Red Cross . From 1917 to 1922 she worked in Europe , including time spent as the chief of the casualty division in Paris , France . In that position Hobbs was responsible for notifying dead soldiers ' next of <unk> . She returned to Europe in the 1930s , working in the Rhine Valley when it was occupied by France . 
 Upon returning to Oregon , Hobbs worked as a secretary for the Oregon Journal newspaper . She retired in 1948 as the secretary to the paper 's business manager . Fern Hobbs died on April 10 , 1964 , at the age of 80 , and was buried at the Hillsboro Pioneer Cemetery in Hillsboro , Oregon . 
 The Oregon writer Stewart Holbrook interviewed her in the early 1950s , a few years after her retirement , observing that she " still weighs 104 pounds . Her eyes are clear and blue behind her glasses . There is not a gray hair on her head . She lives as quietly as she has always lived , except for those <unk> few days so long ago [ concerning Copperfield ] . " Holbrook noted during his interview that " the subject of Copperfield <unk> her " and concluded his account of her as follows : 
 
 
 = <unk> Stephen = 
 
 <unk> Stephen , MBE ( 19 April 1893 – 12 June 1979 ) was a twentieth @-@ century British suffragette , labour activist and local councillor . She grew up in Scotland and won a scholarship to train as a teacher . Family finances dictated otherwise , leading to her becoming a domestic worker at the age of 15 . She became involved in national labour issues as a teenager , via organisations such as the Independent Labour Party and the Women 's Social and Political Union . After moving to Lancashire and London she visited the United States and Canada , where she held meetings with the public including migrant English domestic workers . 
 Stephen later become more involved in formal political parties , being elected as a local councillor and standing as a candidate in general elections . After moving to Bristol she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council . She was appointed MBE in 1977 and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bristol . 
 
 = = Biography = = 
 
 Stephen is recorded in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as a " suffragette and labour activist " , and has been described as " working @-@ class " . 
 
 = = = Childhood and family = = = 
 
 Some sources give Stephen 's place of birth as Marylebone , London , others as Glasgow . The eldest of eleven children in a " closely @-@ knit ... family " , her father was a <unk> . She has been described as " virtually the only Scottish working @-@ class Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) member about whom anything is known " . She attended Sunday schools separately linked to the church and to socialism , and was educated at North <unk> School . She won a scholarship to train as a pupil @-@ teacher . 
 Her father 's low and variable income meant that she could not afford to pursue her aspiration to become a teacher , and became a domestic worker at the age of 15 . Her father was a founder member of the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) when it was established in 1893 . She described her mother as being " so quiet and the very opposite of dad " . 
 
 = = = Early career = = = 
 
 She was referred to as a " young activist in the <unk> Branch of the ILP " , before she joined the WSPU in 1909 , aged 16 . She was the youngest member of the WSPU Glasgow delegation to the Chancellor of the <unk> David Lloyd George in 1912 . As a member of the WSPU and organiser of the Domestic Workers ' Union , she led the first of the " Scottish <unk> " ( involving attacks on pillar boxes ) in Glasgow in February 1913 . 
 Stephen was approached by Sylvia <unk> and moved from Glasgow to London , where she became considered one of the " most active members " ( along with Emma <unk> , around 1916 ) of the Workers ' Suffrage Federation . In April 1919 , Stephen was one of a number of speakers to address a crowd of " about 10 @,@ 000 people " in Trafalgar Square , opposing the <unk> of Germany . Other speakers included <unk> <unk> @-@ Lawrence and <unk> Wilson Wilson . She was also an active member of the Women 's Peace Crusade and at the 1920 ILP conference argued against the use of force during events preceding the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR . 
 In the 1920s she visited the United States , holding public meetings with immigrant communities from Scotland and <unk> and fund @-@ raising for the Socialist Party of America . She also visited Vancouver , where she encouraged migrant English domestic workers to <unk> . 
 
 = = = Middle years = = = 
 
 Stephen later lived in Lancashire and also in London , where she became involved in the East London Federation and sold the Women 's <unk> . She was elected Labour borough councillor for <unk> in 1922 , after failing to be selected as a parliamentary candidate for the ILP , and worked for <unk> MP Alfred <unk> . She stood as Labour candidate for Portsmouth South in the general elections of 1923 , 1924 and 1929 , and for <unk> in 1931 . 
 From 1924 she worked as a freelance journalist , established a <unk> agency in Lewes in 1935 and joined the National Union of Clerks in 1938 . At the time of the Second World War , she worked for Murphy Radio in <unk> Garden City . 
 She later moved to <unk> , Bristol , where she worked at the Broad <unk> branch of the Co @-@ operative <unk> Society ( <unk> ) and with the National Union of Clerks . She later became chair of the local <unk> management committee . Around this time , she spoke publicly and gave advice on birth control . She was elected to the city council . In 1952 she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council . 
 
 = = = Later life = = = 
 
 In the 1964 general election , she was a candidate for the Labour Party in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare constituency . She was appointed MBE for " services to the trade union movement " in June 1977 . She died at Bristol General Hospital in 1979 , and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in <unk> . 
 
 
 = Of Human Feelings = 
 
 Of Human Feelings is a studio album by American jazz saxophonist and composer Ornette Coleman . It was recorded on April 25 , 1979 , at CBS Studios in New York City with his band Prime Time , which featured guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Calvin Weston and Coleman 's son Denardo . It followed Coleman 's failed attempt to record a direct @-@ to @-@ disc session earlier in March 1979 . 
 Of Human Feelings explores jazz @-@ funk music and continues Coleman 's <unk> approach to improvisation with Prime Time , whom he introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . He drew on rhythm and blues influences from early in his career for Of Human Feelings , which had shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . Coleman also applied free jazz principles from his music during the 1960s to elements of funk . 
 Following a change in management , Coleman signed with Island Records , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 by its subsidiary label Antilles Records . Critics generally praised Coleman 's expressive music and <unk> approach , but the album made little commercial impact and went out of print . Coleman enlisted his son Denardo as manager after a dispute with his former managers over the album 's royalties , a change that inspired him to perform publicly again during the 1980s . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 By the end of the 1960s , Ornette Coleman had become one of the most influential musicians in jazz after pioneering its most controversial subgenre , free jazz , which jazz critics and musicians initially derided for its <unk> from conventional structures of harmony and tonality . In the mid @-@ 1970s , he stopped recording free jazz , recruited electric <unk> , and pursued a new creative theory he called harmolodics . According to Coleman 's theory , all the musicians are able to play individual melodies in any key , and still sound coherent as a group . He taught his young <unk> this new improvisational and ensemble approach , based on their individual tendencies , and prevented them from being influenced by conventional styles . Coleman likened this group ethic to a spirit of " collective consciousness " that stresses " human feelings " and " biological rhythms " , and said that he wanted the music , rather than himself , to be successful . He also started to incorporate elements from other styles into his music , including rock influences such as the electric guitar and non @-@ Western rhythms played by Moroccan and <unk> musicians . 
 Of Human Feelings was a continuation of the harmolodics approach Coleman had applied with Prime Time , an electric quartet introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . The group comprised guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Ronald Shannon Jackson and Denardo Coleman , Ornette Coleman 's son . Tacuma was still in high school when Coleman enlisted him , and first recorded with Prime Time in 1975 for the album Body Meta , which was released in 1978 . Tacuma had played in an ensemble for jazz <unk> Charles <unk> , but <unk> dismissed him as he felt audiences gave excessive attention to his playing . Coleman found Tacuma 's playing ideal for harmolodics and encouraged him not to change . Although Coleman 's theory initially challenged his knowledge and perception of music , Tacuma came to like the unconventional role each band member was given as a soloist and <unk> : " When we read Ornette 's music we have his notes , but we listen for his phrases and phrase the way he wants to . I can take the same melody , then , and phrase it like I want to , and those notes will determine the <unk> , the rhythm , the harmony – all of that . " 
 In March 1979 , Coleman went to RCA Records ' New York studio to produce an album with Prime Time by direct @-@ to @-@ disc recording . They had mechanical problems with the studio equipment and the recording was rejected . The failed session was a project under <unk> Text , Coleman 's music publishing company . He wanted to set up his own record company with the same name , and chose his old friend <unk> Mwanga as his manager . In April , Mwanga arranged another session at CBS Studios in New York City , and Coleman recorded Of Human Feelings there on April 25 ; the session was originally titled Fashion Faces . Jackson did not record with the band and Calvin Weston was hired in his place to play simultaneously with Denardo Coleman . They recorded all the album 's songs on the first take without any equipment problems . The album was recorded with a Sony <unk> @-@ 1600 two @-@ track digital recorder , a rare item at the time . According to journalist Howard Mandel , the passages played by the band sounded neither very soft or loud on the album , because it had been mixed with a middle @-@ frequency range and compressed dynamics . Because of the equipment used , Coleman did not <unk> the album with added effects and avoided <unk> , multi @-@ tracking , and remixing . According to him , Of Human Feelings was the first jazz album to be digitally recorded in the United States . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 According to The <unk> Oxford Dictionary of Music ( 2004 ) , Of Human Feelings features jazz @-@ funk , a type of music that originated around 1970 and was characterized by intricate rhythmic patterns , a recurrent bass line , and Latin rhythmic elements . Lloyd Sachs of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , although Coleman was not viewed as a jazz fusion artist , the album can be described as such because of its combination of free jazz and funk . Glenn Kenny disagreed and felt its <unk> style had more in common with the no wave genre and the artists of New York City 's downtown music scene such as John <unk> . Jazz writer Stuart Nicholson viewed it as the culmination of Coleman 's musical principles that dated back to his free jazz music in 1960 , but <unk> with a funk @-@ oriented <unk> . According to jazz critic Barry McRae , " it was as if Coleman was translating the concept of the famous double quartet " from his 1961 album Free Jazz to what was required to perform jazz @-@ funk . 
 Coleman incorporated traditional structures and rhythms , and other elements from the rhythm and blues music he had played early his career . According to Mandel , the album 's simple , brisk music was more comparable to a coherent R & B band than jazz fusion . Although Coleman still performed the melodies on a song , he employed two guitarists for contrast to make each pair of guitarist and drummer responsible for either the rhythm or melody . Ellerbee provided accented linear counterpoint and Nix played variations of the song 's melody , while Denardo Coleman and Weston played both <unk> and <unk> . Tacuma and Ornette Coleman 's instrumental responses were played as the foreground to the less prominent guitars . McRae remarked that Coleman and Prime Time exchanged " directional hints " throughout the songs , as one player changed key and the others <unk> accordingly . The band made no attempt to <unk> their radically different parts . 
 Of Human Feelings features shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . " Sleep Talk " , " Air Ship " , and " Times Square " were originally performed by Coleman during his concerts in 1978 under the names " Dream Talking " , " Meta " , and " Writing in the Streets " , respectively . " What Is the Name of That Song ? " was titled as a <unk> reference to two of his older compositions , " Love Eyes " and " Forgotten Songs " ( also known as " Holiday for Heroes " ) , whose themes were played concurrently and <unk> by Prime Time . The theme from " Forgotten Songs " , originally from Coleman 's 1972 album Skies of America , was used as a refrain . 
 On songs such as " Jump Street " and " Love Words " , Ellerbee incorporated distortion into his guitar playing , which gave the songs a thicker texture . " Jump Street " is a blues piece , " Air Ship " comprises a six @-@ bar riff , and the <unk> " Times Square " has futuristic dance themes . " Love Words " heavily uses <unk> , a central feature of harmolodics , and <unk> Coleman 's extended solo against a dense , <unk> complex backdrop . Nicholson observed West African rhythms and collective improvisation rooted in New Orleans jazz on " Love Words " , and suggested that " Sleep Talk " was derived from the opening <unk> solo in Igor Stravinsky 's 1913 orchestral work The <unk> of Spring . 
 
 = = Release and reception = = 
 
 A few weeks after Of Human Feelings was recorded , Mwanga went to Japan to negotiate a deal with Trio Records to have the album released on <unk> Text . Trio , who had previously released a compilation of Coleman 's 1966 to 1971 live performances in Paris , prepared to press the album once Mwanga provided the label with the record <unk> . Coleman was also set to perform his song " Skies of America " with the <unk> Symphony Orchestra , but cancelled both deals upon Mwanga 's return from Japan . Mwanga immediately quit after less than four months as Coleman 's manager . In 1981 , Coleman hired Stan and Sid Bernstein as his managers , who sold the album 's recording tapes to Island Records . He signed with the record label that year , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 on Island 's subsidiary jazz label Antilles Records . Billboard magazine published a front @-@ page story at the time about its distinction as both the first digital album recorded in New York City and the first digital jazz album recorded by an American label . 
 According to jazz writer Francis Davis , " a modest commercial breakthrough seemed imminent " for Coleman , who appeared to be regaining his celebrity . German <unk> Peter <unk> Wilson said the album may have been the most <unk> and commercial @-@ sounding of his career at that point . The album 's clean mix and relatively short tracks were interpreted as an attempt for radio airplay by Mandel , who described its production as " the surface consistency that would put it in the pop sphere " . Of Human Feelings had no success on the American pop charts , only charting on the Top Jazz Albums , where it spent 26 weeks and peaked at number 15 . Because the record offered a middle ground between funk and jazz , McRae argued that it consequently appealed to neither demographic of listeners . Sound & Vision critic Brent <unk> speculated that it was overlooked because it had electric instruments , rock and funk drumming , and did not conform to what he felt was the <unk> image of jazz that many of the genre 's fans preferred . The album later went out of print . 
 Of Human Feelings received considerable acclaim from contemporary critics . In a review for <unk> , Gary <unk> hailed it as another landmark album from Coleman and his most accomplished work of harmolodics , partly because of compositions which he found clearly expressed and occasionally <unk> . In his opinion , the discordant keys radically transmuted conventional <unk> and would be the most challenging part for listeners , whom he said should concentrate on Coleman 's playing and " let the <unk> resolve itself around his center " . <unk> <unk> from the Detroit Metro Times said Coleman 's <unk> approach displayed expressive <unk> rather than superficial technical <unk> while calling the record " a multi @-@ tonal mosaic of great power , humor , color , wit , <unk> , compassion and <unk> " . He found the songs inspirational , <unk> , and encompassing developments in African @-@ American music over the previous century . Robert Christgau found the music heartfelt and sophisticated in its exchange of rhythms and simple pieces of melody , writing in The Village Voice , " the way the players break into <unk> of song only to <unk> back into the <unk> is <unk> democracy at its most practical and <unk> . " 
 <unk> critics in jazz complained about the music 's incorporation of <unk> beats and electric guitar . In <unk> Review , Chris <unk> deemed the combination of saxophone and bizarre funk occasionally captivating but ultimately <unk> . Dan Sullivan of the Los Angeles Times argued that the album 's supporters in " hip rock circles " had overlooked flaws ; he felt Tacuma and Coleman 's playing sounded like a unique " beacon of clarity " amid an incessant background . Leonard Feather wrote in the Toledo <unk> deemed the music <unk> ambiguous , potentially controversial , and difficult to assess but interesting enough to warrant a listen . At the end of 1982 , Billboard editor Peter <unk> named Of Human Feelings the year 's best album , calling it a prime example of fusing free jazz with modern funk . In year @-@ end lists for The Boston Phoenix , James Hunter and Howard Hampton ranked the album number one and number four , respectively . It was voted 13th best in the <unk> & <unk> , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it number one in an accompanying list , and in 1990 he named it the second @-@ best album of the 1980s . 
 Coleman received $ 25 @,@ 000 for the publishing rights to Of Human Feelings but said his managers sold it for less than the recording costs and that he did not receive any of its royalties . According to Stan Bernstein , Coleman had financial expectations that were " unrealistic in this business unless you 're Michael Jackson " . Antilles label executive Ron Goldstein felt the $ 25 @,@ 000 Coleman received was neither a great nor a fair amount for someone in jazz . After he had gone over budget to record a follow @-@ up album , Island did not release it nor pick up their option on him , and in 1983 , he left the Bernstein Agency . He chose Denardo Coleman to manage his career while overcoming his <unk> of public performance , which had been rooted in his distrust of doing business with a predominantly White music industry . According to Nicholson , " the man once accused of standing on the throat of jazz was welcomed back to the touring circuits with both curiosity and affection " during the 1980s . Coleman did not record another album for six years and instead performed internationally with Prime Time . 
 In a 1986 article for The New York Times on Coleman 's work with Prime Time , Robert Palmer said Of Human Feelings was still innovative and radical by the standards of other music in 1982 , three years after it was recorded . Because writers and musicians had heard its test pressing in 1979 , the album 's mix of jazz improvisation and gritty , punk and funk @-@ derived energy sounded " <unk> " when it was released , Palmer explained . " The album is clearly the progenitor of much that has sounded radically new in the ongoing fusion of punk rock , black dance rhythms , and free jazz . " AllMusic critic Scott <unk> believed that although Coleman 's compositions never achieved popularity , they succeeded within the context of an album that showcased his distinctive saxophone style , which was high @-@ brow yet catchy . Joshua Klein from The A.V. Club recommended Of Human Feelings as the best album for new listeners of Coleman 's harmolodics @-@ based music , while Chicago Tribune rock critic Greg <unk> included it in his guide for novice jazz listeners ; he named it one of the few albums that helped him both become a better listener of rock music and learn how to enjoy jazz . In 2008 , New York magazine 's Martin Johnson included it in his list of canonical albums from what he felt had been New York 's <unk> yet vital jazz scene in the previous 40 years ; Of Human Feelings <unk> what he described as a spirit of <unk> with elements of funk , Latin , and African music , all of which were <unk> by music that retained a jazz identity . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 All compositions by Ornette Coleman . 
 Side one 
 " Sleep Talk " – 3 : 34 
 " Jump Street " – 4 : 24 
 " Him and Her " – 4 : 20 
 " Air Ship " – 6 : 11 
 Side two 
 " What Is the Name of That Song ? " – 3 : 58 
 " Job <unk> " – 4 : 57 
 " Love Words " – 2 : 54 
 " Times Square " – 6 : 03 
 
 = = Personnel = = 
 
 Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes . 
 
 = = = Musicians = = = 
 
 Denardo Coleman – drums 
 Ornette Coleman – alto saxophone , production 
 Charlie Ellerbee – guitar 
 Bern Nix – guitar 
 Jamaaladeen Tacuma – bass guitar 
 Calvin Weston – drums 
 
 = = = Additional personnel = = = 
 
 Susan Bernstein – cover painting 
 Peter <unk> – cover design 
 Joe <unk> – mastering 
 Ron Saint Germain – engineering 
 Ron Goldstein – executive direction 
 Harold <unk> – second engineering 
 Steven Mark <unk> – photography 
 Ken Robertson – tape operation 
 
 
 = Dangerously in Love Tour = 
 
 The Dangerously in Love Tour was the debut concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . Although the tour was intended to showcase songs from her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love , ( 2003 ) the set list also contained a special segment dedicated to Beyoncé 's girl group Destiny 's Child and featured songs from her 2003 film The Fighting Temptations . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some <unk> images . The tour was reviewed negatively by Dave Simpson of The Guardian who graded it with two stars out of five . The Dangerously in Love Tour only reached Europe and Beyoncé 's performance at the Wembley Arena in London , was filmed and later released on the CD / DVD Live at Wembley ( 2004 ) . 
 
 = = Background and development = = 
 
 The Dangerously In Love Tour was the debut solo concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . The tour was intended to showcase songs from Beyoncé ' debut solo album , Dangerously in Love released in 2003 . However , the set list also contained a special segment of her show dedicated to her girl group Destiny 's Child and songs from Beyoncé ' 2003 film The Fighting Temptations ( " Fever " and " <unk> " ) . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that moved up and down throughout the entire show and displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some <unk> images with special effects . The show also featured a small staircase and platforms on both side of the stairs for her band . Beyoncé later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys as ensemble for the Verizon Ladies First Tour ( 2004 ) in North America . 
 
 = = Synopsis and reception = = 
 
 Dave Simpson of The Guardian described the opening of the show during his review : " Some while after Beyoncé is due on stage , a voice announces that the support act won 't be appearing and that Beyoncé will be with us ' in a moment ' . Like everything else – hits , boots , hair and sponsorship deals – moments are very big in Beyoncé world . An age later , cheers erupt for the raising of a curtain which revealed , er , a <unk> <unk> with a drum kit . An hour later , the <unk> music is getting gradually louder to drown boos and the cries of small children whose parents are moaning it 's getting past their <unk> . " The show opens with " Baby Boy " which Beyoncé sang while being lowered onto the stage upside down . A highlight for many fans was her performance of " Dangerously in Love 2 " . During the tour , a special 8 @-@ minutes rendition of the song was performed . 
 Simpson of The Guardian reviewed the opening show of the tour negatively , <unk> it with two out of five stars . He was negative about Beyoncé ' clothing during the show , saying : " The delays may well be down to Beyoncé 's wardrobe , which could trouble <unk> Marcos . There are skimpy skirts , tails ( for a note perfect if pointless version of Peggy Lee 's Fever ) and a general theme of low material , high <unk> . But often , the main <unk> is on Beyoncé 's outfit . " He also added that " The dancers ' ' naked suits ' make the former church girl a <unk> rival to <unk> [ <unk> ] . But there 's an <unk> section where they pretend to be <unk> , and when Beyoncé disappears for long periods it feels like an expensive night with <unk> and Co . " He concluded his review by saying , 
 " <unk> , the armies of industry professionals that put Beyoncé together aren 't sure of her core audience . A vague Saturday night TV , family entertainment feel gradually gives way to a more intriguing cross between <unk> <unk> showbiz and thumping R & B. However , a <unk> tape <unk> Crazy In Love and a belting Work It Out suggest Beyoncé is best sticking to her roots . <unk> , if <unk> , she puts the carnage down to her tour manager falling off stage , but at least she 's grasped one showbiz <unk> : the show must go on . " 
 
 = = <unk> and recordings = = 
 
 On November 10 , 2003 , Beyoncé performed at the Wembley Arena in London ; this was later put on a DVD , titled Live at Wembley , which was released in April 2004 . It was accompanied by a CD comprising three previously @-@ unreleased studio recorded songs and one remix each of " Crazy in Love " , " Baby Boy " and " Naughty Girl " . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage can be also seen on the DVD . The album debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The DVD has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it had sold 264 @,@ 000 copies in the US by October 2007 , while as at October 6 , 2010 , it had sold 197 @,@ 000 digital downloads . In an interview with The New York Times in 2007 , American singer Miranda Lambert revealed that Live at Wembley inspired her to " take little bits from that [ Beyoncé ' performance ] " for her live shows . 
 
 = = Set list = = 
 
 " Baby Boy " 
 " Naughty Girl " 
 " Fever " 
 " Hip Hop Star " 
 " Yes " 
 " Work It Out " 
 " Gift from <unk> " 
 " Be with You " 
 " <unk> " 
 Destiny 's Child Medley : 
 " <unk> a Boo " 
 " No , No , No Part 2 " 
 " Bootylicious " 
 " <unk> ' , <unk> ' " 
 " Say My Name " 
 " Independent Women Part I " 
 " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " 
 " Survivor " 
 " Me , Myself and I " 
 " <unk> " 
 " Dangerously in Love 2 " 
 " Crazy in Love " 
 
 = = Tour dates = = 
 
 
 
 = Zhou Tong ( archer ) = 
 
 Zhou ( or <unk> ) Tong ( Chinese : <unk> and <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> <unk> ) ( died late 1121 CE ) was the archery teacher and second military arts tutor of famous Song Dynasty general Yue Fei . Originally a local hero from Henan , he was hired to continue Yue Fei 's military training in archery after the boy had rapidly mastered <unk> under his first teacher . In addition to the future general , Zhou accepted other children as archery pupils . During his tutelage , Zhou taught the children all of his skills and even rewarded Yue with his two favorite bows because he was his best pupil . After Zhou 's death , Yue would regularly visit his tomb twice a month and perform unorthodox sacrifices that far surpassed that done for even beloved tutors . Yue later taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers and they were successful in battle . 
 With the publishing of Yue Fei 's 17th folklore biography , The Story of Yue Fei ( 1684 ) , a new distinct fictional Zhou Tong emerged , which differed greatly from his historical persona . Not only was he now from Shaanxi ; but he was Yue 's adopted father , a learned scholar with knowledge of the eighteen weapons of war , and his personal name was spelled with a different , yet related , Chinese character . The novel 's author portrayed him as an elderly widower and military arts tutor who counted Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of the fictional 108 outlaws on which the Water Margin is based , among his former pupils . A later republican era folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang not only adds Wu Song to this list , but represents Zhou as a knight @-@ errant with supreme <unk> . The tale also gives him the nickname " Iron Arm " , which he shares with the executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw Cai Fu , and makes the outlaw Lu Zhishen his sworn brother . Because of his association with the outlaws , he is often confused with the similarly named outlaw Zhou Tong . 
 Various <unk> novels and folk legends have endowed Zhou with different kinds of martial and supernatural skills . These range from mastery of the bow , double <unk> , and Chinese spear to that of <unk> hard qigong and even x @-@ ray vision . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . He is also linked to Northern <unk> Mantis boxing via Lin Chong and Yan Qing . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of <unk> Eight Immortals boxing . However , the oldest historical record that mentions his name only says he taught archery to Yue Fei . Nothing is ever said about him knowing or teaching a specific style of Chinese martial arts . 
 Zhou has appeared in various forms of media such as novels , comic books , and movies . His rare 20th century biography , Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , serves as a sequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue as his pupil . This was later adapted into a ten volume <unk> comic book . He also appears in a novel concerning one of his fictional martial arts brothers . He was portrayed by three different actors in a string of black and white Yue Fei films produced in the 1940s and 1960s , one of which featured a ten @-@ year @-@ old <unk> <unk> as the lead . <unk> martial arts actor Yu <unk> , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 interview that he has always wanted to portray Zhou in a film . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Mention in Yue family memoirs = = = 
 
 On his deathbed , Yue Fei 's third son Yue Lin ( <unk> , born 1130 ) asked his own son , the poet and historian Yue Ke ( <unk> , <unk> – post @-@ <unk> ) , to complete Yue Fei 's memoirs . This two @-@ part memoir was completed in 1203 , some sixty years after the general 's political execution , but was not published until 1234 . It was later abridged in 1345 and published in the Yuan Dynasty 's dynastic chronology History of the Song Dynasty under the title Yue Fei Biography ( chapter 365 , biography 124 ) . Zhou 's mention in Yue Ke 's memoir was only briefly summarized in the Yuan rewrite . It reads , " He [ Yue Fei ] learned archery from Zhou Tong . He learned everything and could fire with his left and right hands . After Tong 's death , he would offer sacrifices at his tomb " . 
 Western Washington University history professor Edward Kaplan explains Zhou was a " local <unk> " ( <unk> - " heroic ( person ) " ) . He comments Hao can also mean " a ' knight errant ' in poetic translation , or in <unk> terms a professional <unk> and bodyguard . ' " This means Zhou was a local hero from Tangyin County , <unk> prefecture , Henan province ( the same area as Yue Fei ) . 
 Historical and scholarly sources spell his personal name as <unk> ( Tong ) , meaning " same or similar " . This differs from the spelling present in fictional sources , which will be further explained below . So , " <unk> " represents the historical archer . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Despite being literate , giving him a chance to become a scholar , young Yue Fei chose the military path because there had never been any tradition of full @-@ fledged Confucian civil service in his family history . He would stay up all night reading military strategy books and idolized such great historical heroes as Guan Yu . However , the Yue family was much too poor to afford military lessons for their son , so , Yao <unk> , the boy 's maternal grandfather , hired Chen <unk> ( <unk> ) to teach the eleven @-@ year @-@ old how to wield the Chinese spear . Yao was very surprised when his grandson quickly mastered the spear by the age of thirteen . Zhou was then brought in to continue Yue 's military training in archery . Dr. Kaplan describes Zhou as the " most important " of the two teachers . 
 A section of the Jin <unk> Xu <unk> , the second part of Yue Ke 's original published memoir , describes one of Zhou 's archery lessons and reveals that he took other children as his pupils : 
 " One day , [ Chou ] T 'ung gathered his pupils for an archery session and to display his ability put three arrows in succession into the center of the target . Pointing to the target to show grandfather [ Yue Fei ] , he said : ' After you can perform like this , you can say you are an archer ' . <unk> , thanked him and asked to be allowed to try . He drew his bow , let fly his arrow and struck the end of T 'ung 's arrow . He shot again and again hit the mark . T 'ung was greatly amazed and subsequently presented to grandfather his two favorite bows . Thereafter grandfather practiced still more [ until ] he was able to shoot to the left and right , accurately letting fly the arrow as he moved . When he became a general he taught this to his officers and men so that his whole army became skilled at shooting to the left and right and frequently used this technique to crush the enemy 's spirit " . 
 The last sentence of the passage is similar to one from the Republican era Biography of Song Yue , Prince of E. But instead of teaching them his own technique , it states Yue taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers who were victorious in battle . 
 
 = = = Death = = = 
 
 Zhou continued to teach the children until his death , prior to Yue 's legal adulthood . Following his passing , Yue became extremely depressed since Zhou had been the greatest influence on his early life . Zhou 's student would regularly visit his tomb on the first and fifteenth of every month with sacrifices of meat and wine and would shoot three arrows in succession with one of the two bows his tutor had presented him with ( it is never mentioned whether any of Zhou 's other archery pupils came to visit his tomb ) . Dr. Kaplan comments this continuous unusual display of mourning " went far beyond the ceremonial appropriate for even a highly respected teacher " . Noted <unk> <unk> Wilhelm claims even though the display of grief was genuine , it was also a way of <unk> the stories of his heroic idols and " [ establishing himself ] in the public eye " . Yue 's father later followed him secretly to Zhou 's tomb after striking him during an argument over his melancholic behavior . There , he saw him perform the unorthodox <unk> involving the meat , wine , and three arrows . When he finally confronted him , the son confessed that " his gratitude for Chou 's instruction could not be <unk> simply by the usual first and middle of the month ceremonies and so he ... shot off the three arrows to symbolize that Chou had been the source of his inspiration as an archer " . Dr. Kaplan 's states this happened just prior to Yue 's entrance into the army and that the entire event served as a symbol for Yue 's " entrance into responsible <unk> " . 
 The <unk> of Yue <unk> lists the events at Zhou 's tomb happening in 1121 when Yue was nineteen , but Yue would have been eighteen in that year since he was born on " the fifteenth day of the second month of 1103 " . The author of the original source material was using <unk> age calculation , in which a child is already considered one year old at birth . Since Yue joined the military shortly after Zhou 's death , a relative time frame can be given for when he died . During the early months of 1122 , the Song empire mobilized its armed forces to assist the Jurchen in <unk> their common enemy , the Liao Dynasty . Therefore , it appears that Zhou died in late 1121 , before the call to arms was issued . 
 
 = = Fiction = = 
 
 Zhou Tong 's fictional life story can be <unk> together from two sources : The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . The Story of Yue Fei is a fictionalized retelling of Yue Fei 's young life , military exploits , and execution . It was written by a native of <unk> named Qian Cai ( <unk> ) , who lived sometime between the <unk> of the <unk> and <unk> emperors in the Qing dynasty . The preface dates the book 's publication to 1684 . It was deemed a threat by the Qing emperors and banned during the <unk> era . In the novel , Zhou is portrayed as an elderly widower and Yue 's only military arts tutor . The General 's historical spear master Chen <unk> is never mentioned . Zhou teaches Yue Fei and his sworn brothers military and literary arts from chapters two through five , before his death . 
 In the writing of his novel , Qian Cai used a different character when spelling Zhou 's given name . Instead of the original character meaning " similar " , it was changed to <unk> , meaning " rude or <unk> " . So , " <unk> " represents Zhou 's distinct fictional persona . This spelling has even been carried over into modern day martial arts manuals . 
 Iron Arm , Golden Sabre was written by Wang <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> Long and published in 1986 . This novel , which serves as Zhou 's own fictional biography , is a prequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue Fei as his student . It follows his life as a young martial arts instructor in the Song army 's Imperial guard , his struggles against the <unk> and Liao <unk> barbarian tribes and his tutelage of Water Margin outlaws . The last few chapters incorporate the storyline from the four chapters that he appears in The Story of Yue Fei . This was later adapted into a ten volume <unk> @-@ style comic book called The Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987 . 
 
 = = = Early life and adulthood = = = 
 
 Zhou is born in Shaanxi and trains in the martial arts from a young age . He is taken as one of the pupils of Shaolin master Tan <unk> ( <unk> ) and , learning the true essence of Shaolin <unk> , becomes proficient in things both literary and martial . Tan 's other students include the future generals Jin Tai ( <unk> ) and Zong Ze ( <unk> ) and the future Water Margin outlaws Sun Li and <unk> <unk> . As a young man , Zhou catches the attention of Judge <unk> <unk> and enlists in the military as an officer . His superiors take note of his great skill after he helps his classmate General Jin battle Liao <unk> in northern China and install him as a teacher in the Capital Imperial Martial Arts School . The school has three teaching positions named in order of prestige : " Heaven , " " Earth , " and " Man . " Since he has the greatest skill , he occupies the Heaven position . He uses this post and his friendship with General Zong to get their classmate Sun Li installed as the Superintendent of Forces of <unk> . Sun later becomes an outlaw under <unk> <unk> and helps defeat the evil Zhu Family , who learn military arts from his classmate <unk> <unk> . 
 As he grows older , Zhou becomes dissatisfied with politics because the Imperial court chooses to appease the northern barbarian tribes instead of standing against them . He then devotes himself <unk> to his martial arts practice and creates several official and authoritative techniques including the " five step , thirteen lance piercing kick " , which is a development of Shaolin <unk> boxing , and the " Zhou Tong <unk> . " He makes a <unk> effort to transmit his martial efforts while teaching at the Imperial Martial Arts School and formally accepts two disciples : " Jade Unicorn " Lu Junyi and " Panther head " Lin Chong . Lu Junyi is a millionaire with vast land holdings and does not hold office , but Lin Chong <unk> Zhou 's position after his retirement , and continues to serve as the lead instructor for the 800 @,@ 000 members of the Song army 's Imperial Guard . 
 During this time , Zhou Tong also has an additional disciple named Wu Song . Wu Song becomes famous for killing a man @-@ eating tiger with his bare hands and is appointed as a constable in his native Shandong . The county magistrate Sun <unk> later sends Wu on a mission to Kaifeng with precious tiger bone <unk> in order to <unk> favor with influential personages . During his stay in the capital , he makes the acquaintance of Zhou . Zhou finds Wu to be a man of great strength , but feels that he lacks refinement in his martial technique and , therefore , offers guidance for Wu 's training . Unfortunately , these two men only interact for a brief two months before Wu has to return home , never to see Zhou again . 
 Following his retirement , Zhou serves for a time as an advisor to General Liu <unk> ( <unk> ) , whose troops are garrisoned in Henan Province . But Zhou later becomes an outlaw himself after he aids the heroes of the Water Margin and is forced to flee from government forces . Meanwhile , he learns his elderly classmate Jin Tai is close to death and <unk> to Shaolin ( where the general had become a Buddhist monk after the murder of his family ) to pay his last respects . As the oldest of Tan 's pupils , Jin orders Zhou to find a talented youth to pass on all of his martial arts knowledge to . However , this reunion is cut short when the troops track him to Shaolin . He flees to Wine Spring mountain and lives in hiding for sometime before being invited by his old friend Wang Ming ( <unk> ) to become the precept of the Wang family in Unicorn Village . 
 
 = = = Old age and death = = = 
 
 One day , Zhou surprises the children with a written exam and leaves the classroom to speak with a visitor . Wang 's son , Wang Gui ( <unk> ) , tricks their maid 's son , Yue Fei , into completing their assignment while they go outside to play . After easily finishing the task at hand , Yue writes a heroic poem on a whitewashed wall and signs it with his name . The children then burst into the classroom upon learning of Zhou 's forthcoming return and tell Yue to escape in order to avoid apprehension . The old teacher eventually discovers the <unk> and , after <unk> at Yue 's impromptu ballad , asks Yue to fetch his mother , Lady Yao ( <unk> ) , for an important meeting . With the entire Wang household assembled in the main hall , Zhou asks the Lady for her blessing to have the boy as his adopted son and student . She <unk> and Yue takes his seat amongst Zhou 's students the following morning . Because Zhou knows Yue is poor , he commands the four students to become sworn brothers . Zhou also begins to teach Yue all of the eighteen weapons of war . 
 Six years later , Zhou takes the group to visit his old friend , the abbot of a small Buddhist temple on the " Hill of Dripping Water " . Thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wanders behind the temple and finds the " Cave of Dripping Water " , in which lives a magical snake . When it <unk> at Yue , he <unk> to one side and pulls on its tail with his supernatural strength , causing it to turn into an 18 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , gold @-@ plated spear named the " Supernatural <unk> of Dripping Water " . When they return home , Zhou begins to drill all of his students in the military arts — eighteen weapons of war , archery , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . After three years of practice , Zhou enters them into a preliminary military examination in Tangyin in which sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wins first place by shooting a succession of nine arrows through the <unk> of a target two hundred and forty paces away . After his display of <unk> , Yue is asked to marry the daughter of Li Chun ( <unk> ) , an old friend of Zhou 's and the county magistrate who presided over the military exams . Father and son then return home to their village . 
 <unk> Li writes out a marriage certificate and dispatches a messenger to deliver the document to Yue Fei in Unicorn Village . Zhou and Yue set out at dawn and travel back to Tangyin to thank the <unk> for his generosity and kindness . There , Li prepares a great feast for them , but when food is brought out for any servants that might have accompanied them , Zhou comments that they had come on foot without help . Li decides to let Yue pick from any one of his thousands of horses because every able military man needs a strong <unk> . After finishing their feast , Zhou and Yue thank Li once again and leave Tangyin to return home . During their journey , Zhou recommends that Yue run the horse to test its speed . Yue spurs the horse on leaving Zhou in pursuit . When they reach the village gate , the two <unk> and Zhou returns to his study where he feels hot from the race and removes his outer garments to fan himself . But he soon falls ill and stays <unk> for seven days . Then the book describes his death and burial : 
 " ... his <unk> <unk> up and he died . This was on the fourteenth day of the ninth month in the seventeenth year of the Reign of Xuan He , and his age was seventy @-@ nine ... Buddhist and Taoist <unk> were asked to come and chant prayers , for seven times seven , namely forty @-@ nine days . Then the body was taken up to be buried beside the Hill of Dripping Water " . 
 Yue lives in a shed by his grave through the winter and in the second lunar month of the following year , his martial brothers come and pull the building down , forcing him to return home and take care of his mother . 
 The quoted death date is not only unreliable because the book is fiction , but also because the Xuan He reign era of Emperor Huizong lasted only seven years ( 1119 – 1125 ) and not seventeen . Although The Story of Yue Fei states Zhou died shortly before Yue took a wife , he historically died after Yue married . It is likely that the original author invented this fictional date . 
 
 = = = Family = = = 
 
 According to The Story of Yue Fei , Zhou was married with a son . But Zhou comments that his " old wife " died and his " small son " was killed in battle against the <unk> after leaving with the outlaw Lu Junyi to fight in the war . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , his wife is named Meng <unk> ( <unk> ) and his son is named Zhou <unk> ( <unk> ) . He defeats Meng in a <unk> <unk> martial arts contest and wins her as his wife . But she is shortly thereafter kidnapped by the wicked monks of the Stone Buddha temple . Both Zhou and Meng eventually defeat the monks with their combined martial skills and later marry at the <unk> Pass in Hubei province . 
 Zhou <unk> first appears as a fierce , impulsive young man who rides his horse into the thick of enemy <unk> wielding a long spear . He later dies in battle against the Liao Dynasty . After his son 's death , Zhou retreats to the <unk> Temple for a long morning period . He later takes seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei as his adopted son and sole heir years after the boy 's father drowns in a great flood : 
 " I see that he [ Yue Fei ] is clever and handsome and I , an old man , wish to have him as my adopted son ... He need change neither his name nor his surname . I only want him to call me father temporarily so that I can faithfully transmit all the skills I have learned in my life to a single person . Later , when I die , all he has to do is to bury my old bones in the earth and not allow them to be exposed , and that is all " . 
 However , after comparing events from The Story of Yue Fei and an account of Yue 's life from the sixteenth @-@ century work Restoration of the Great Song Dynasty : The Story of King Yue ( <unk> ) , literary critic <unk> Hsia concluded " that his father did not [ historically ] die in the flood and that , although <unk> Fei showed almost <unk> regard for the memory of his teacher Chou T 'ung <unk> ( not <unk> ) , the latter had not been his adopted father " . The Restoration of the Great Song was one of the earliest of four " historical novels " ( fictionalized dynastic <unk> ) written about Yue during the Ming Dynasty , all of which predate The Story of Yue Fei . Despite the addition of popular legends , <unk> <unk> ( fl 1552 ) , the author of the The Story of King Yue , relied heavily on historical <unk> including Zhu Xi 's ( 1130 – 1200 ) <unk> and Details Based on the T 'ung @-@ <unk> , Yue Ke 's family memoir , and the Yuan Dynasty 's official Yue Fei Biography to write his story . So , The Story of Yue Fei was the first full @-@ blown fictionalized novel to introduce the adoption storyline . 
 
 = = = <unk> and voice = = = 
 
 He is generally portrayed as a large elderly man with a powerful voice . A modern folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang ( 1889 – 1968 ) , whom folklore researcher <unk> <unk> called " the <unk> master of this [ the 20th ] century " , describes Zhou thus , 
 " He was beyond the age of fifty , he was more than fifty , and standing upright he measured about eight feet . His face had a golden tan , arched <unk> , a pair of bright eyes , a regular head form , a square mouth , a pair of protruding ears , and under his chin there were three locks of beard , a <unk> beard . On his head he wore a sky @-@ blue satin scarf , and he was dressed in a <unk> sky @-@ blue satin coat with a <unk> <unk> , a pair of wide black trousers without <unk> and satin boots with thin <unk> " . 
 Heroes and religious masters with above normal height are a recurring theme in Chinese folklore . For instance , his student Wu Song is said to be over nine feet tall in the same folktale . In The Story of Yue Fei , the General simultaneously duels with two other warriors vying for first place in a military exam ; one is nine feet tall and the other is eight feet tall . A <unk> of the Taoist saint Zhang <unk> states he was over seven feet tall . 
 When Zhou is <unk> in " Yangzhou storytelling " , he speaks in " Square mouth public talk " , which is a manner of speaking reserved for martial heroes , highly respected characters , or , sometimes , lesser characters that pretend to be an important hero . Square mouth public talk is actually a mixture of two forms of dialogue : <unk> and <unk> . <unk> ( square mouth ) is a manner of steady , yet forceful over pronunciation of dialogue that was possibly influenced by Northern Chinese opera . <unk> ( public talk ) is monologue and dialogue that is sometimes used for " imposing heroes " . This mixture of styles means Zhou Tong is treated as a highly regarded hero . 
 In her analysis of Yangzhou storytelling , <unk> noted that the aforementioned tale about Zhou and Wu Song uses different forms of dialogue for both characters . Wu speaks square mouth utilizing standard <unk> without rusheng ( short <unk> syllables ) . On the contrary , Zhou speaks <unk> using the Yangzhou tone system , which does utilize rusheng syllables . Therefore , she believes " square mouth dialogue should at least be divided into two <unk> , namely the Wu Song variant — without rusheng , and the Zhou Tong variant — with rusheng " . 
 
 = = = Students = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Water Margin outlaws = = = = 
 
 The Water Margin ( c . 1400 ) is a Ming Dynasty military romance about one hundred and eight demons @-@ born @-@ men and women who band together to rebel against the lavish Song Dynasty government . Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of these outlaws , are briefly mentioned as being Zhou 's previous students in The Story of Yue Fei . They are not characters within the main plot , though , as both are killed by " villainous officials " prior to Zhou becoming precept of the Wang household . Most importantly , the two were not among his historical students since they are fictional characters . 
 Zhou 's portrayal as their teacher is connected to a recurring element in Chinese fiction where Tang and Song Dynasty heroes train under a " celestial master " , usually a Taoist immortal , prior to their military exploits . <unk> Hsia suggests the mold from which all other similar teachers are cast is <unk> , master of the feuding <unk> Sun <unk> and <unk> Juan , from the Yuan Dynasty tale <unk> Volume of the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Seven Kingdoms ( <unk> ) . Hsia goes on to say that Qian Cai , Yue 's fictional biographer , associated Zhou with the outlaws because " most such teachers [ in the military romance genre ] are <unk> " with at least two students . But in adopting this format , Qian reversed the traditional pattern of " celestial tutelage " since Zhou is written as a human , while his students are <unk> of demons ( Lin and Lu ) and the celestial bird Garuda ( Yue Fei ) . 
 Although Lin and Lu have been connected to Zhou since the early Qing Dynasty , Wu Song did not become associated with him until Wang Shaotang created a 20th @-@ century folktale in which the two meet in Kaifeng . The tale takes place during Wu 's mission to Kaifeng , but before the murder of his older brother Wu <unk> . Zhou teaches Wu the " Rolling Dragon " style of <unk> during the constable 's one @-@ month stay in the capital city . This tale was chapter two of Wang 's " Ten chapters on Wu Song " storytelling repertoire , which was later transcribed and published in the book Wu Sung in 1959 . It eventually carried over into the storyline of Iron Arm , Golden Sabre and , subsequently , The Legend of Zhou Tong . In the latter version , Wu instead learns <unk> <unk> boxing from Zhou during a two month stay in the capital . 
 Wang 's tale portrays Zhou as an aging itinerant <unk> with " a fame <unk> like thunder " throughout the underworld society of <unk> . He is made the sworn brother of the outlaw " <unk> <unk> " Lu Zhishen , a military officer @-@ turned @-@ fighting monk , who is , according to Hsia , first among the most popular protagonists of the Water Margin . He is also given the nickname " Iron Arm " ( <unk> ) , which carried over into the title of his fictional biography Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . While the tale fails to explain the reason for the moniker , it does mention Zhou 's ability to direct his <unk> to any part of his body to make it hard enough to <unk> the " Iron shirt " technique of another martial artist . Furthermore , Zhou shares the same nickname with Cai Fu , an executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw known for his ease in wielding a heavy sword . 
 Because of his association with these outlaws , Zhou is often confused with the similarly named outlaw " Little <unk> " Zhou Tong . In the Water Margin , this Zhou Tong is a bandit chief of Mount Peach <unk> whom Lu Zhishen beats for trying to forcibly marry the daughter of the Liu family . He dies later under the sword of Li <unk> , an officer in the rebel army of Fang La . So , the connection between both Zhou 's is based solely on the <unk> transcription of their name . 
 
 = = = = Yue Fei = = = = 
 
 The Story of Yue Fei comments Lu Junyi is Zhou 's last student prior to taking on seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei and his three sworn @-@ brothers Wang Gui , Tang Huai ( <unk> ) and Zhang <unk> ( <unk> ) . He teaches them literary and military lessons on even and odd days . The novel says Yue is talented in all manners of " literary and military matters " and even surpasses the skill of Lin and Lu . After Yue <unk> his " Supernatural <unk> of Dripping Water " , Zhou tutors all of his students in the eighteen weapons of war , but each excels with one in particular ; Yue Fei and Tang Huai , the spear ; Zhang <unk> , the Hook @-@ <unk> spear and Wang Gui , the <unk> <unk> . All of them learn the skill of archery in addition . Some of these and other children are mentioned in Yue Ke 's memoir as being his grandfather 's historical childhood friends , but they are never specified as being Zhou 's students . 
 Books written by modern @-@ day martial artists make many claims that are not <unk> with historical documents or current scholarly thought . For instance , <unk> Yang <unk> @-@ Ming says Zhou was a scholar who studied martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and later took Yue as his student after the young man worked as a tenant farmer for the official @-@ general Han Qi ( <unk> , <unk> – 1075 ) . During this time , he learned all types of military weapons , horseback riding , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The General later created Xingyi and Eagle Claw boxing from his internal and external training under Zhou . However , history <unk> <unk> <unk> notes that unarmed boxing styles did not develop at Shaolin until the late Ming Dynasty . He also states that Ji family memoirs and Qing Dynasty records suggest Xingyi was created hundreds of years after the death of Yue by a <unk> named Ji <unk> ( fl . 1651 ) . In addition , the appearance of Han Qi in the story is a chronological anachronism since he died nearly 30 years before Yue 's birth . Yue historically worked as a tenant farmer and bodyguard for descendants of Han Qi in 1124 after leaving the military upon the death of his father in late 1122 , but he learned from Zhou well before this time . 
 Eagle Claw <unk> <unk> Shum and Lily <unk> believe " <unk> Tong " ( the Cantonese rendering of his name ) was a monk who brought young Yue to the Shaolin Monastery and taught him a set of hand techniques , which Yue later adapted to create his <unk> <unk> ( Eagle fist ) . Liang <unk> states practitioners of <unk> <unk> <unk> believe Yue trained under Zhou as a child and competed to become China 's top fighter at an early age . Their lineage story dictates Zhou also took Yue to a " Buddhist <unk> " who taught him said qigong style . Northern <unk> Mantis Master <unk> <unk> says Zhou taught Yue the " same school " of martial arts as he did his Water Margin students and that the General was the originator of the praying <unk> technique " Black Tiger <unk> [ sic ] Heart " . Although Martial arts historian Stanley <unk> admits that Yue 's biographies do not mention boxing , he says " he [ Yue ] almost certainly did practice some form of bare handed fighting " to prepare for his weapons training . But he does not suggest who Yue might have learned it from . 
 
 = = = Martial arts = = = 
 
 There is insufficient historical evidence to support the claim he knew any skills beyond archery . Contemporary records never once mention Zhou teaching Yue boxing . Despite this , various <unk> novels and folk legends have attributed many different military and supernatural skills to Zhou . These range from mastery of the bow , double swords and Chinese spear to that of <unk> hard qigong , Chuojiao boxing and even X @-@ ray vision . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of <unk> Eight Immortals boxing . 
 Zhou can also be linked to these combat arts through his historical and folklore students . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . <unk> <unk> believes Zhou taught Lin Chong and Lu Junyi the " same school " of martial arts that was later combined with seventeen other schools to create Mantis fist . This combination of various schools refers to an eighteenth @-@ century martial arts manual that describes the gathering of eighteen masters at the Shaolin Monastery that supposedly took place during the early years of the Song Dynasty . Lin Chong and Yan Qing are listed as two of the eighteen masters invited , which means their skills of Mandarin Duck Leg and ground fighting are treated as two separate schools , instead of one . But he believes Mantis fist was created during the Ming Dynasty , and was therefore influenced by these eighteen schools from the Song . He also says Lu Junyi taught Yan Qing the same martial arts as he learned from Zhou . 
 Very few references are made to the people who supposedly taught martial arts to Zhou . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , he learns as a child from a Shaolin master named Tan <unk> . Practitioners of Chuojiao claim he learned the style from its creator , a wandering Taoist named <unk> Liang . Practitioners of <unk> <unk> <unk> , a style attributed to Yue Fei , believe he studied under Han De , a " <unk> person " from Shaanxi . 
 
 = = In popular culture = = 
 
 Zhou has appeared in various kinds of media including novels , comic books , and movies . Apart from The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , he appears in a novel based around his older martial arts brother , Jin Tai . A recent graphic novel of The Story of Yue Fei , <unk> all mythological elements from the storyline and presents it in a historical manner . Instead of traveling from Hebei to Hubei to inspect land , Zhou travels from Shaanxi to Kaifeng City in Henan to visit an old friend who had been promoted to General . While en route to the capital city , Zhou takes note of a great famine <unk> the <unk> and even hears stories of some people <unk> to <unk> . However , when he arrives in Kaifeng , he sees the empire is wasting money on the construction of large imperial gardens , the court officials Cai Jing and Wang <unk> have extravagant <unk> , and hears that even <unk> are rich because they are given high government posts . Upon locating his friend , Zhou is distressed to find him in stocks and <unk> and being escorted to the farthest reaches of China by imperial guards . He later learns that the General had accidentally offended some court officials and was sentenced to permanent exile on some <unk> up charges . Apparently having little or no money , Zhou decides to visit Wang Ming in Hubei ( mistakenly called Hebei ) and becomes the estate 's tutor . 
 Another noticeable difference in the storyline takes place when Zhou travels with his teenage disciples to visit his friend the Abbot . Instead of Yue wandering behind the temple to battle the magical snake , he stays with Zhou and the Abbot , while the other disciples go off to explore . Zhou watches as the Abbot tests Yue 's strength by asking him to move an ornate three @-@ hundred pound copper stove dating from the Han Dynasty . The abbot then <unk> a stone floor tile and presents the boy with a large book on military strategy . He goes on to tell Yue how he was once a great soldier who fought in campaigns against the Liao and Western Xia empires , but became a monk after the Song agreed to become a vassal of each state . He later made a name for himself by teaching military skills to youths from the surrounding area . Since he has no heir of his own , the Abbot presents Yue with his own personal spear and instructs him in the proper use of the weapon . Zhou kindly protests the gift at first , but allows Yue to keep it out of friendship . 
 A second graphic novelization drastically changes the storyline involving Zhou . Like the original , Zhou becomes the tutor of the Wang estate , but , when news of his arrival prompts rich families to send their sons to learn from him , he is forced to accept <unk> of these students on a trial basis . He eventually chooses his friends ' sons as his indoor disciples and Yue as his " <unk> " . Years later , he takes his now teenage students not to see the Buddhist abbot , but to teach them military strategy out in the mountain wilderness . Yue senses trouble after his martial brothers separate to explore the forest and rushes off to rescue them , only to be confronted by a monstrous snake . After vanquishing the beast with his sword , Yue discovers a magic glowing spear within a cave and reports back to Zhou . Following their training , Zhou becomes ill from <unk> to the cold mountain air on the return trip home and dies soon after . Instead of just Yue , all of his students live beside his grave for a mourning period of one hundred days before returning home to their families . These events take place three years before Zhou originally died in The Story of Yue Fei . 
 Stories including Zhou have also been used to educate . The Secondary School system of Hong Kong teaches children the value of <unk> by making them read about the close teacher @-@ pupil relationship between Zhou and Yue . A morale tale called " Yue Fei Studies <unk> " in Children 's <unk> , a Chinese magazine tailored for children ages two through seven , demonstrates how great achievements are only made possible via <unk> practice . The story states how young Yue stumbles upon Zhou 's training hall in a neighboring town while gathering fire wood . Yue applies to become a student , but Zhou tells him he must first practice the art of the " far @-@ sighted person " by staring into the morning sun to improve his eyesight . After years of <unk> practice , Yue is able to spot a lone <unk> flying off in the distance and two <unk> on a tree far into the forest . Zhou then officially takes him as his disciple and adopted son . Under his tutelage , Yue is able to master the eighteen weapons of war and to shoot a falling leaf from one @-@ hundred paces away . 
 He is mentioned numerous times in author Robert <unk> 's thriller <unk> ( 2009 ) . Zhou is first featured in chapter eight during a conversation between the main character John " Hutch " Hutchinson , a journalist bent on stopping the <unk> plans of a billionaire <unk> , and his friend 's young son Dillon , an archery enthusiast . When Hutch asks him if he had ever heard of the archery @-@ champion @-@ turned @-@ actor Howard Hill , Dillon replies : " I don 't think so ... You told me about Zhou Tong " . Hutch then says : " Oh , yeah . Zhou Tong was something . <unk> the Song Dynasty to be the best military <unk> in history . But Howard Hill [ was the best ] " . Later in chapter fifty , while Hutch is trailing a killer through an airport , a page goes out over the <unk> system for a " Mr. Zhou Tong " . When the page goes out again , Hutch muses : " Zhou Tong had been a famous archery teacher and military arts tutor in the Song Dynasty . [ Dillon and I ] had long telephone conversations about him , because of Tong 's blending of archery skills and self @-@ discipline . He was an inspiration to [ me ] . Dillon had <unk> that and wanted to known everything about him " . He finally realizes that the page had to have been left by Dillon 's mother Laura to catch his attention . The page is sent to warn him of a trap , but Hutch receives it too late . 
 Screen actors who have portrayed Zhou in film 's from the 1940s and 1960s include <unk> <unk> <unk> , Li Ming , and Jing <unk> Bo . Jing starred alongside a ten @-@ year @-@ old <unk> <unk> , who played young Yue Fei . <unk> martial arts actor Yu <unk> , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 newspaper interview that he never shaved his trademark beard , even at the request of movie producers , because he wanted to portray Zhou in a future film . He went on to say " He is an outstandingly able person from the northern and southern Song <unk> and many Water Margin heroes are his disciples . This person is very important in the martial arts and many people want to portray him in films " . 
 
 
 = Romanian Land Forces = 
 
 The Romanian Land Forces ( Romanian : <unk> <unk> <unk> ) is the army of Romania , and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces . In recent years , full professionalisation and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the force . 
 The Romanian Land Forces were founded on 24 November [ <unk> 12 November ] 1859 . They participated in World War I , together with the Russian Empire forces in actions against the Central Powers and , despite initial setbacks , won the decisive battles of <unk> and <unk> . During most of World War II ( until August 23 , 1944 ) Romanian forces supported the Axis powers , fighting against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front . From August 1944 until the end of the war , Romania fought against Germany under the control of the Soviet Union . When the communists seized power after the Second World War , the army underwent reorganisation and <unk> . 
 Following the Romanian Revolution , due to shortage of funds , many units were disbanded and much equipment was phased out . Likewise , Romanian military capability declined because of a lack of fuel as well as training . However , since the late 1990s , a number of positive changes have come about and the level of combat readiness is growing greatly ; since 1996 , the military budget has grown more than four times - rising from <unk> million dollars to 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in 2007 . Conscription has been abolished and professionalisation has been completed . 
 
 = = Mission = = 
 
 The Land Forces represent the most important component of the Romanian Armed Forces and they are <unk> for execution of various military actions , with terrestrial or <unk> character , in any zone or direction . 
 The Land Forces must , independently or together with other Romanian military branches , conduct operations and defensive or offensive battles , for capture , or destruction of the invading enemy , being part of national , or multinational military structures . 
 A part of the units which compose the current operational structure of the Land Forces , must be able to conduct military operations outside the national territory , together with the international military forces . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The first attempt to create an independent Romanian army was made by <unk> <unk> during the 1848 <unk> Revolution , and it was based at <unk> ( now part of <unk> <unk> ) . However , <unk> rapidly ordered his troops to <unk> when the Ottoman forces swept into Bucharest to stop the revolution . 
 
 = = = Romanian War of Independence = = = 
 
 The current Romanian Land Forces were formed in 1859 , immediately after the unification of <unk> with Moldavia , and were commanded by Alexandru <unk> <unk> , <unk> of Romania until his abdication in 1866 . In 1877 , at the request of <unk> <unk> , Grand Duke of Russia the Romanian army fused with the Russian forces , and led by King Carol I , fought in what was to become the Romanian War of Independence . They participated in the Siege of <unk> and several other battles . The Romanians won the war , but suffered about 27 @,@ 000 casualties . Until World War I , the Romanian army didn 't face any other serious actions . 
 
 = = = Second Balkan War = = = 
 
 The Romanian Army entered the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria , allowing Romania to annex Southern <unk> ( also known as the <unk> ) . Although some 330 @,@ 000 troops were mobilised , the Romanians met little resistance in Bulgaria and as such this is not considered a major conflict in Romanian history . This was due to historical claims on land . This area no longer belongs to Romania . 
 
 = = = World War I = = = 
 
 On July 6 , 1916 , Romania declared war on Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , following the initial success of the <unk> Offensive ( a major Russian offensive against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front ) . The Romanian armies entered Transylvania ( then part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire ) , together with Russian forces . However , German forces under the command of General Erich von <unk> stalled the attack in November , 1916 , and drove back the Romanians . At the same time , Austrian and Turkish troops invaded southern Romania , forcing the country into a two @-@ front war . The Central Powers drove deep into Romania and conquered the south of the country ( <unk> , including Bucharest ) by the end of 1916 . The Romanian forces , led by Marshal Constantin Prezan , retreated into the north @-@ east part of Romania ( Moldavia ) . In the summer of 1917 however , Prezan , aided by the future Marshal , General Ion Antonescu , successfully defended the remaining unoccupied territories against German and Austro @-@ Hungarian forces led by Field Marshal August von <unk> . General Alexandru <unk> led the Second Army in the victories of the Battle of <unk> ( July 22 to August 1 , 1917 ) and the Battle of <unk> ( August 6 to September 8 , 1917 ) . As a result of the Russian Revolution , Romania was left isolated and unable to continue the war , and was forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers . Later on , in 1919 , Germany agreed , in the Treaty of Versailles Article 259 , to renounce all the benefits provided to it by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918 . After the successful offensive on the <unk> front , which put Bulgaria out of the war , Romania re @-@ entered the war on November 10 , 1918 , a day before its end in the West . 
 
 = = = Hungarian @-@ Romanian War of 1919 = = = 
 
 After World War I , Transylvania proclaimed union with the Kingdom of Romania . As a result , in April 1919 , the newly established Hungarian Soviet Republic vowed to retake the region by force , and Hungarian troops attacked Romanian formations in Transylvania . The Romanian Army defeated the Hungarians and conquered Budapest in August 1919 . 
 From 1921 to 1939 in Transylvania <unk> General of Army no . 3 had subordinate the 6th and 7th Army Corps . By 1 April 1921 , when he disbanded Forces Western Command , to order 6th Army Corps ( and earlier structures ) have been generals Prezan Constantin , Constantin <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> George , Nicholas and Arthur <unk> et al . After 1 April 1921 to 23 March 1939 , C. 6 A. was commissioned by General Nicholas <unk> , <unk> Pop <unk> Alexander , John <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> and Christie <unk> , prominent military leaders , whom Octavian <unk> wrote that " in the interwar period , in Cluj in Transylvania , commanders have made a large @-@ scale opera and unanimous praise . " Three divisions were part of 6th Army Corps : 16th ( <unk> ) , 17th ( Oradea ) and 20th Infantry Divisions ( <unk> @-@ Mureş ) . With rapid and marked worsening international situation , especially in neighboring Romania , on 22 September 1939 , the 4th Army , recently founded , became Army Group Command no . 1 of Transylvania . 
 
 = = = World War II = = = 
 
 After General ( later Marshal ) Ion Antonescu took power in September 1940 , Romania signed the <unk> Pact with the Axis Powers and subsequently took part in Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . An expeditionary force invaded the Soviet Union in <unk> and southern Ukraine , alongside the German Wehrmacht . The expeditionary force , ' Army Group Antonescu , ' was composed on 22 June 1941 of the 3rd Army , the 4th Army , the 2nd Army Corps , and the 11th Infantry Division . The 3rd Army comprised the 4th Army Corps ( 6th and 7th Infantry Divisions ) , the Cavalry Corps , the Mountain Corps , two separate artillery battalion , a TA unit , and the Air Force 's 3rd Army Cooperation Command . The 4th Army consisted of the 3rd Army Corps , the 5th Army Corps , the 11th Army Corps ( two fortress brigades ) , and the 4th Army Cooperation Command . The army group @-@ level 2nd Army Corps , under Major General N. <unk> , controlled the 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions and the 7th Cavalry Brigade . Additionally the 1st Armoured Division was formed for service on the Eastern Front . The Army Group 's first offensive , in conjunction with the <unk> Army , Operation <unk> , enabled Romania to retake the territory immediately east of the <unk> , former part of Moldavia . The Romanian Armies saw their first major battles at Odessa and Sevastopol , and in 1942 advanced with other Axis forces deeper into Soviet territory during Operation Blue . 
 The greatest disaster for the Romanian expeditionary force on the Eastern Front came at Stalingrad , where , during the Soviet counter @-@ offensive of November 1942 , the thinly spread forces of the Third Army ( deployed north of Stalingrad ) and of the Fourth Army ( deployed south of Stalingrad ) were attacked by vastly superior Soviet forces and suffered combined losses of some 158 @,@ 000 personnel . 
 During April – May 1944 the Romanian forces led by General Mihai <unk> , together with elements of the German Eighth Army were responsible for defending Northern Romania during the Soviet First <unk> @-@ <unk> Offensive , and took part in the Battles of <unk> <unk> . In late August 1944 , the Red Army entered eastern Romania . On August 23 , 1944 , a coup led by King Michael I of Romania deposed Marshal Antonescu and set up a pro @-@ Soviet government . It has been estimated that the royal coup shortened the war for Romania by six months . Romania soon declared war on Nazi Germany , and the First and Fourth Armies were pressed into action . After the <unk> of the last Wehrmacht remnants from Romania , the Romanian Armies took part in the Siege of Budapest and the Prague Offensive of May 1945 . 
 
 = = = Cold War = = = 
 
 The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganisation of the Romanian Land Forces under the supervision of the Red Army . At the onset , pro @-@ German elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces . In 1944 – 45 , two divisions were formed out of Romanian volunteers — ex @-@ prisoners of war , trained and <unk> in the Soviet Union during the war , but also of many Communist activists . One was the Tudor <unk> First Volunteer Division , under the command of Colonel Nicolae <unk> , and the other the <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> Division , under the command of General <unk> <unk> ( who later served as Minister of Defence from 1946 to 1947 ) . These two units formed the nucleus of the new Romanian Land Forces under Soviet control . The postwar reorganisation of the Land Forces included cavalry but the arm disappeared from the force with the disbandment in November 1954 of the 59th Cavalry Division at Oradea . 
 After the Romanian Communist Party seized political power , the <unk> of the army commenced , under the supervision of the new Minister of Defence , Emil <unk> . Thirty per cent of the officers and <unk> officers ( mostly experienced soldiers , and a potential source of opposition ) were purged from the military . This involved copying the Soviet model of military and political organisation , and changing the military doctrine of combat and defence , also in the context of Romania 's integration in the strategic system of the Soviets , at the beginning of the Cold War . 
 In the early 1950s the <unk> reached a level of 12 rifle , one mechanised , and one tank division . Between 1960 and 1964 the rifle and mechanised divisions were converted to motor rifle divisions , and reductions in strength began ; force size dropped to six motor rifle and two tank divisions by 1970 . From 1970 to 1976 , three more motor rifle divisions were formed , but one was deactivated in 1977 , and the eight motor rifle and three tank division figure remained that way for the rest of the Cold War . 
 From 1947 to 1960 the country seems to have been divided into three major military regions : Cluj , <unk> , and Bucharest in the west , east , and south , respectively . In wartime the land forces in each military region would become an army corps with their headquarters in Cluj @-@ <unk> , <unk> , and Bucharest . Armies seem to have succeeded military regions in 1960 , and three armies seem to have become four in 1980 . What is known is that on 01 @.@ 07 @.@ 1947 Fourth Army became 3rd Military Region , based in Cluj . The 3rd Military Region became the 3rd Army on 30 April 1960 , and the 4th Army on 5 April 1980 . 
 During the 1980s , the land forces numbered 140 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom two thirds were conscripts . In 1989 four armies appeared to exist : the First Army at Bucharest , Second Army at <unk> , Third Army at <unk> , and Fourth Army at <unk> . In 1989 the land forces consisted of eight mechanised ( infantry ) divisions ( 1st , Bucharest , 2nd , <unk> , 9th , <unk> , 10th , <unk> , 11th , Oradea , 18th , <unk> , 67th , and 81st , <unk> Mureş ) two tank divisions ( the 57th Tank Division at Bucharest and the 6th Tank Division at <unk> Mureş ) , four mountain infantry brigades , and three airborne brigades . According to the 165 @-@ year ' History of Modern Romanian Artillery , ' in 1989 the 1st Army consisted of the 1st Mech Div , 57th Tank Div . , and the 2nd Mountain Brigade ; the 2nd Army of the 9th Mech Div , 10th Mech Div , 67th Mech Div , and 32nd <unk> Rocket Bde ; the 3rd Army of the 2nd Mech Div , 18th Mech Div , and the 4th Mountain Bde ; and the 4th Army of the 11th Mech Div , 81st Mech Div , 6th Tank Div . , 1st Mountain Bde , 5th Mountain Bde , and 37th Tactical Missile Brigade . 
 <unk> rifle divisions were organized along the Soviet model with three motorised rifle regiments , one tank regiment , and a full complement of 12 @,@ 000 infantry soldiers . The artillery , <unk> , and air defence regiments of divisions provided specialised fire support that enabled motorised rifle and tank regiments to maneuver . The air defense regiments consisted of two anti @-@ aircraft artillery battalions and one surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( <unk> ) battalion , each composed of several batteries . In the late 1980s the artillery regiments of motorised rifle and tank divisions included two artillery battalions , one multiple rocket launcher battalion , and one surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalion . 
 Surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalions were divided into three or four batteries , each equipped with one missile launcher . They operated thirty FROG @-@ 3 and eighteen <unk> missile launchers . The FROG @-@ 3 , a tactical missile first introduced in 1960 , was being replaced in other non @-@ Soviet Warsaw Pact armies . <unk> to be fairly inaccurate in combat , FROG and <unk> missiles would be ineffective weapons carrying conventional high @-@ explosive warheads . <unk> with nuclear or chemical warheads , however , they could be devastating . According to one former Romanian official writing in 1988 , Romania produced chemical agents that could be delivered by battlefield missiles . 
 
 = = = Post @-@ communist era = = = 
 
 During the early 1990s , some major units were disbanded and a lot of equipment was phased out or scrapped due to a severe shortage of funds . The whole land forces structure was reorganized from armies into territorial corps , and from regiments into battalions . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the situation of the land forces was critical : the military budget was three times lower than in 1989 ( <unk> million dollars ) , 50 % of the equipment was older than 30 years , and 60 % of the armoured vehicles and 85 % of the missile units were non @-@ operational . Due to lack of fuel and training , the level of combat readiness and military capability was extremely low ( only about 30 % of the entire land forces were operational ) . However , after 1996 the government took serious action ; the military budget was increased greatly , and modernisation of equipment commenced . Officially , the program to modernize and <unk> the armed forces began on 11 April 2000 . 
 
 = = Present organisation = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 In 2005 , the army comprised eight combat , four combat support and two logistic brigades , while ten combat , five combat support and two logistic brigades could be further mobilised in case of crisis . Many of these units have been <unk> , however , as part of the 2007 Force Plan . 
 Currently , about 75 @,@ 000 military personnel and 15 @,@ 000 civilians comprise the armed forces , for a total of 90 @,@ 000 men and women . Out of these 75 @,@ 000 , <unk> . 43 @,@ 000 are in the Land Forces . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The Romanian military is undergoing a three @-@ stage restructuring . As of 2007 , the first short @-@ term stage was completed ( reorganisation of the command system , implementation of the voluntary military service ) . The year 2015 marks the end of the second stage ( operational integration in NATO and EU ) , while <unk> is the date when the long @-@ term stage is to be completed ( full technical integration in NATO and EU ) . The stages aim at <unk> the structure of the armed forces , reducing the personnel as well as acquiring newer and improved technology that is compatible with NATO standards . 
 Romania abolished compulsory military service on October 23 , 2006 . This came about due to a 2003 constitutional amendment which allowed the parliament to make military service optional . The Romanian Parliament voted to abolish conscription in October 2005 , with the vote <unk> one of many military modernisation and reform programmes that Romania agreed to when it joined NATO in March 2004 . 
 
 = = = Structure = = = 
 
 In peacetime , the commander of the land forces is the minister of defense , while in wartime , the President of Romania becomes the supreme commander of the armed forces . The main combat formations of Romania are the 2nd Infantry Division <unk> , and the 4th Infantry Division <unk> . Until 2015 the Romanian land forces fielded a third division , namely the 1st Division <unk> . Before June 2008 , the 1st and 4th divisions were known as the 1st Territorial Army Corps and the 4th Territorial Army Corps and in turn they used to be called the 1st Army and 4th Army prior to 2000 . However due to their personnel having been reduced considerably in order to reach compatibility with NATO standards they were renamed and reorganized as divisions . In 2010 , the Joint HQ command was renamed as 2nd Infantry Division <unk> and received units from the 1st and the 4th Infantry divisions . 
 The current chief of the Romanian Land Forces Staff is Major General Nicolae <unk> , who succeeded Major General <unk> <unk> on 7 January 2014 . The Land Forces official day is celebrated each year , on 23 April . 
 
 = = Equipment = = 
 
 The Romanian Land Forces have completely overhauled their equipment in the past few years , replacing it with a more modern one . The <unk> @-@ <unk> " <unk> " main battle tank and the <unk> @-@ <unk> " <unk> " infantry fighting vehicle are the most modern native made equipment of the Romanian Land Forces . Also , 43 ex @-@ German <unk> anti @-@ aircraft systems were commissioned in late @-@ 2004 . 
 The Land Forces ordered about 100 US Army <unk> ; the first eight were delivered to the military police in December 2006 . 31 <unk> III armoured vehicles ( <unk> III variant ) and 60 <unk> <unk> high mobility vehicles were also ordered in 2007 for deployment in Iraq and Afghanistan . 
 Equipment Summary : 
 
 = = Special Forces = = 
 
 The evolution of the special forces within the Romanian Land Forces led to the establishment of the 1st Special Operations Regiment on 1 August 2009 , headquartered at <unk> Mureş . It later became the 6th Special Operations Brigade on 25 October 2011 , composed of a special operations battalion , two paratrooper battalions and a logistic battalion . 
 The most famous and well trained unit is the 1st Special Operations Battalion " <unk> " , which was legally created in late 2005 , after several batches of graduates had already been selected . Members of the special forces battalion have <unk> from courses abroad , such as the US Army Special Forces ( Green <unk> ) course , the United States Marine Corps Force Recon course , as well as other courses . The Special Forces battalion became fully operational during 2007 , after a company had already been commissioned in early @-@ 2006 . 
 The current Romanian reconnaissance battalions ( the <unk> , the <unk> and the <unk> ) are also considered special forces units , and were formed in the 1960s during the communist regime . After the revolution , the units suffered from a lack of funds which resulted in the temporary disbandment of the <unk> Battalion . However , their equipment was completely overhauled in the past few years and the combat readiness and capabilities have regained full strength . 
 <unk> , Rapid Intervention Squad of the Romanian Ministry of Defense is an elite special operations unit currently belonging to the Romanian Military Police . It is a special unit inside the military , formed of highly skilled individuals , a very large percentage of its members being champions in martial arts , <unk> , athletic disciplines and so on . <unk> was , until December 2003 , top secret . 
 
 = = International missions = = 
 
 The following troops are deployed abroad : 
 45 personnel in Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 23 in Sarajevo and 22 in <unk> <unk> ) - as part of <unk> , since 2000 ( to be withdrawn ) 
 150 personnel in <unk> , Kosovo - as part of <unk> 
 1 battalion in <unk> ( <unk> personnel ) , 1 guard detachment in <unk> ( 193 personnel ) , a reconnaissance squad in <unk> Sharif ( 6 personnel ) , Afghanistan - as part of <unk> ; additionally , a special forces squad ( 39 personnel ) and a training detachment ( 47 personnel ) are deployed there 
 
 = = Training = = 
 
 After the Romanian Revolution , many firing ranges and training areas were closed and abandoned due to lack of funds . Currently , the military schools and training units of the Romanian Land Forces are directly subordinated to the central headquarters . There are 3 military high schools ( <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> ) , one military academy ( <unk> ) , one officers school ( <unk> ) , 3 training schools ( <unk> , <unk> , <unk> ) and 9 training battalions . 
 In the past few years , lots of training exercises took place in Romania with other Balkan or Allied countries . Most of these exercises took place at <unk> , which is one of the largest and most modern training firing ranges and military facilities in Europe , with a total surface area of 270 square kilometres . It was announced on December 6 , 2006 that 1 @,@ 500 U.S. troops stationed at <unk> <unk> , which in time will form Joint Task Force East , will be using <unk> as a training base . 
 
 = = <unk> and insignia = = 
 
 The Romanian Land Forces distinguishes four career paths : officers ( <unk> ) , warrant officers ( <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> 's ( <unk> ) and enlisted men ( <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) . The Marshal rank can be given only in wartime by the President of Romania ; in fact , Romania had only three <unk> coming from the <unk> rank in its history : Ion Antonescu , Alexandru <unk> and Constantin Prezan . Kings Ferdinand I , Carol II and Mihai I also held the rank of Marshal of Romania . King Carol I held simultaneous ranks as Russian Marshal and German Field @-@ marshal . 
 
 
 = Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! = 
 
 Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! is a 2008 Australian documentary film about the Australian New Wave of 1970s and ' 80s low @-@ budget cinema . The film was written and directed by Mark Hartley , who interviewed over eighty Australian , American and British actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , including Quentin Tarantino , Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , Jamie Lee Curtis , Dennis Hopper , George <unk> , George Miller , Barry <unk> , Stacy Keach and John <unk> . 
 Hartley spent several years writing a detailed research document , which served to some degree as a script for the film , about the New Wave era of Australian cinema . It focused on the commonly overlooked " Ozploitation " films — mainly filled with sex , horror and violence — which critics and film historians considered vulgar and offensive , often excluded from Australia 's " official film history " . Hartley approached Quentin Tarantino , a longtime " Ozploitation " fan who had dedicated his 2003 film Kill Bill to the exploitation genre , and Tarantino agreed to help get the project off the ground . Hartley then spent an additional five years interviewing subjects and editing the combined 250 hours of interviews and original stock footage into a 100 @-@ minute film . 
 Not Quite Hollywood , which premiered at the 2008 Melbourne International Film Festival , did not perform well at the box office upon its Australia @-@ wide release , but garnered universally positive reviews from critics and a nomination for " Best Documentary " at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards . 
 
 = = Synopsis = = 
 
 Not Quite Hollywood documents the revival of Australian cinema during the Australian New Wave of the 1970s and ' 80s through B @-@ movies including Alvin Purple , Barry <unk> <unk> His Own , Dead @-@ End Drive In , Long Weekend , Mad Max , The Man from Hong Kong , Patrick , Razorback , Road Games , <unk> and Turkey Shoot . From 1971 through to the late 1980s , Australian directors began to take advantage of the newly introduced R @-@ rating which allowed more on @-@ screen nudity , sex and violence for audiences restricted to age 18 and over . " Ozploitation " — writer @-@ director Mark Hartley 's own <unk> of " Australian exploitation " — was a subgenre of the New Wave which accounted for the critically panned " gross @-@ out comedies , sex <unk> , action and road movies , teen films , <unk> , <unk> and horror films " of the era , commonly overlooked in Australia 's " official film history " . The film addresses three main categories of " Ozploitation " films : sex , horror and action . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The actors , directors , screenwriters and producers interviewed for the film were : 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 As a child , Mark Hartley discovered many of the " Ozploitation " B @-@ movies from the 1970s and ' 80s while watching late @-@ night television , but was disappointed when they were completely overlooked in books he read detailing Australian cinema . After becoming an accomplished music video director , his interest in this era of Australian filmmaking grew and he spent years researching a potential documentary film . He was close to giving up on the project when he sent a 100 @-@ page draft of the script to American film director Quentin Tarantino , not expecting to receive a reply . Tarantino was a longtime fan of " Ozploitation " films and had even dedicated his film Kill Bill to Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith 's work . He replied the day after , telling Hartley that he would do whatever he could to get the film made . Hartley traveled to Los Angeles , California to meet with Tarantino , who agreed to sit for hours of interviews as one of the film 's most prominent <unk> . Hartley spent the following five years interviewing other actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , collecting original stock footage , and then cutting the 100 hours of interviews and 150 hours of film footage down into a 100 @-@ minute film . 
 
 = = Release = = 
 
 Not Quite Hollywood had its worldwide premiere at the Melbourne International Film Festival on 28 July 2008 , and was screened at the Australian Centre for the Moving Image . Its Australia @-@ wide release was a month later , on 28 August 2008 , and it had its overseas premiere at the Toronto Film Festival on 7 September 2008 , where distribution rights were secured for the United Kingdom , Canada , France , Russia , Germany and <unk> . The film was also screened at the Austin , <unk> , Warsaw , Helsinki and Stockholm International Film Festivals in 2008 , and featured at the London Film Festival on 25 October 2008 . 
 The film did not perform well at the box office upon its Australian release , taking in a gross of A $ 108 @,@ 330 on its first weekend but only $ 31 @,@ 995 on its second weekend at a screen average of $ <unk> on 47 screens . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 Overall , Not Quite Hollywood received positive reviews from critics . Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 94 % of critics have given the film a positive review , " <unk> Fresh " , based on 63 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 . Margaret <unk> and David Stratton of At the Movies gave the film four and three and a half out of five stars respectively ; <unk> commended Hartley for " the depth of his research and for creating a wildly entertaining film experience " , and claimed that " for those of us who remember the films , Not Quite Hollywood is a blast " . Sandra Hall , writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , gave the film three and a half out of five stars , believing that " Hartley 's own film is much <unk> than most of those he is out to celebrate " . Jake Wilson of The Age similarly gave the film three and a half stars , but called the film " basically a feature @-@ length advertisement for its subject " , saying that it " moves far too rapidly to permit sustained analysis " . The Courier @-@ Mail 's Des <unk> , who gave the film four and a half out of five stars , disagreed , saying that " <unk> editing means the history is lively and fun " , and claimed in homage to The Castle , " <unk> of Hartley 's film should go straight to pool rooms all over Australia when it becomes available on DVD . " Luke <unk> of Empire Magazine <unk> gave Not Quite Hollywood five out of five stars , calling the film " fast , thrilling and often <unk> " , while Leigh <unk> wrote for the Herald Sun that " there is not a single instant where boredom can possibly <unk> " , dubbing the film " an incredibly energetic and <unk> <unk> @-@ up celebration of Australian B @-@ movies " . 
 English director Edgar Wright named Not Quite Hollywood his fourth favourite film of 2008 , and called it " the best documentary ever . " 
 
 = = = Awards and nominations = = = 
 
 
 = = Films referenced = = 
 
 A list of film referenced within Not Quite Hollywood , separated by genre . 
 
 = = Box office = = 
 
 Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! grossed $ 186 @,@ 986 at the box office in Australia , . 
 
 
 = Why Does It Hurt So Bad = 
 
 " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film Waiting to Exhale . It was released on July 7 , 1996 , by <unk> Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack . The song was written and produced solely by Babyface . Musically , it is an R & B ballad , and the lyrics chronicle a <unk> lament . 
 The song garnered positive reviews from critics , who commended Houston 's vocal effort . It charted in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number twenty @-@ six . It also reached a peak position of number twenty @-@ two in the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number six on the Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , the song reached a peak of number forty @-@ five on the RPM Singles chart . Although there is no official music video for the song , a performance of the song at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards was taped and is used as a promotional clip . The song was later included as a medley , in her My Love Is Your Love World Tour ( 1999 ) , along with a few other songs . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Houston starred in the 1995 romance film Waiting to Exhale , directed by Forest Whittaker . Although Houston did not intend to contribute to the film 's soundtrack , when Whittaker hired Babyface to score the soundtrack , she opted in . Babyface , Houston and some other African @-@ American female singers recorded songs for the album . The song was one of the final additions to the soundtrack . " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " was originally written by Babyface for Houston , two years prior to the release of Waiting to Exhale , but Houston refused to record it at that time . " I wasn 't really in the mood for singing about why it <unk> so bad , " said Houston . Two years later , according to Chris <unk> of Entertainment Weekly , the emotions of the movie merged with the real @-@ life circumstances of Houston 's troubled marriage to Bobby Brown . " Now , I 'm ready to sing not only the <unk> of things , but the pains of things , also , " Houston explained . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is an R & B ballad . The song was written and produced by Kenneth Brian Edmonds , popularly known as " Babyface " . According to the sheet music book for The Greatest Hits at <unk> , the song is written in the key of B ♭ major , and moves at a tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is set in time signature of common time and features a basic chord progression of B / E – Em – C ♯ m – G ♯ 7 . Houston 's vocals span from the note of <unk> to the note of D5 . According to Stephen Holden of New York Times , the song is a " <unk> lament with a realistic twist " . He noted that , through the verses , the singer <unk> herself for breaking up with an abusive boyfriend and admits that she is still in love . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 The song garnered mainly positive reviews from critics . Craig <unk> of Allmusic noted that Houston 's voice " sailed " through the song . Christopher John Farley of TIME commented Houston " particularly held her own " , with a " masterly balance of pop , <unk> , and soulful melancholy " . Steve <unk> of Newsday wrote : " It 's lower @-@ key and the singer , who also stars in the film , doesn 't feel compelled to perform constant vocal feats . " A writer for Boston Herald noted that the song was " understated " . Similarly , Larry <unk> of Billboard commented that the song should have been released as the follow @-@ up to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . " Paired with Babyface , Houston is positively luminous on [ this ] <unk> ballad , performing with a perfect blend of theatrical melodrama and guttural soul , " he added . Deborah <unk> of South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel was mixed in her review commenting that the song was a " <unk> <unk> follow @-@ up " to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . But , Nick <unk> of The Spectator was even less enthusiastic , writing " [ ... ] the two guaranteed [ Whitney Houston ] hits – ' Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) ' and ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' – don 't really offer anything new . " Similarly , Cary Darling of Rome News @-@ Tribune gave a negative review . She noted that " [ the ] ballad ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' is [ more ] standard Whitney @-@ fare " . 
 Released as the seventh and final single from the Waiting to Exhale : Original Soundtrack Album , the song debuted at number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated August 3 , 1996 . On the same issue , the song debuted at number 34 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . The song later reached a peak of number 26 on the Hot 100 , and 22 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . It also reached number six on the Adult Contemporary chart , while reaching a peak of 39 on the Adult Pop Songs chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 98 on the RPM Singles chart , on the July 22 , 1996 issue . Later , on the September 15 , 1996 issue , it reached a peak of number 45 . 
 
 = = Music video and live performances = = 
 
 The song was not promoted through an official music video , although Houston appeared at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards held at Walt Disney Studios , Burbank and performed " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " . The performance was directed and taped by Bruce <unk> and was later used as a promotional clip to accompany the song . The performance features Houston sitting on a chair , wearing a white outfit , and singing the song . 
 Houston performed the song on her My Love Is Your Love World Tour , in 1999 . The song was performed as a part of the " Movie Medley " , along with " I Believe in You and Me " , " It <unk> Like Hell " , originally performed by Aretha Franklin , and " I Will Always Love You " . This performance was taped in <unk> , Poland , on August 22 , 1999 and broadcast on Polish television channel , <unk> . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 Retrieved from CD liner notes 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 
 = Hurricane Omar ( 2008 ) = 
 
 Hurricane Omar was a strong hurricane that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during October , 2008 . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea . By October 15 , Omar began to quickly intensify as deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Later that day , an eye developed and the storm began to accelerate to the northeast . Early on October 16 , Omar reached its peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of <unk> mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Shortly after , the hurricane rapidly weakened to Category 1 intensity . After slightly re @-@ strengthening the next day , Omar weakened to a tropical storm before degenerating into a non @-@ convective low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until October 21 at which time it dissipated to the west of the Azores . 
 Throughout the eastern Caribbean , Omar affected numerous islands , most of which only recorded minor impacts . Large swells and heavy rains impacted the ABC islands . Antigua and Barbuda sustained $ 54 million in damages , mainly on Antigua as nine homes were destroyed , several others damaged and many farms were inundated by flood waters . One person died in Puerto Rico after suffering a stress @-@ induced cardiac arrest . The United States Virgin Islands also sustained significant damage , costing roughly $ 6 million . Numerous boats and homes were damaged and over 100 power poles were snapped . Total losses from the storm were estimated at $ 79 million . 
 
 = = Meteorological history = = 
 
 On September 30 , a well @-@ developed tropical wave moved off the eastern coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean . Deep convection formed around a prominent mid @-@ level circulation as it moved towards the west . However , the convection diminished on October 2 before entering the Caribbean Sea a week later . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , shower and thunderstorm activity redeveloped around the low . Continued development followed and the low was designated as Tropical Depression Fifteen at 0600 UTC on October 13 while located about 190 miles ( 305 kilometres ) south of the southeastern tip of the Dominican Republic . The previous steady westward motion that the system took across the Atlantic halted as it entered an area of weak steering currents and significant motion was not expected for another day or two . As the structure of the storm improved , it was upgraded to a tropical storm and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) gave it the name Omar . 
 Located to the southeast of a broad and deep tropospheric trough and to the west of a low to mid @-@ level ridge , Omar took a counter @-@ clockwise turn on October 14 . Upon becoming a tropical storm , Omar began to undergo an extended period of rapid intensification as very deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Wind shear around the storm , which was previously inhibiting quick development , weakened , allowing for further strengthening . Later that day , an 11 @.@ 5 to 17 @.@ 2 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 7 km ) wide eye formed as the storm began to turn towards the northeast due to the trough . With the formation of an eye , the Dvorak technique rendered an intensity of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , signifying that Omar had intensified into a hurricane . The intensification briefly stalled as the eyewall eroded and the center of the storm became slightly elliptical . However , deep convection persisted and strengthening was forecast as the storm neared Puerto Rico . Shortly after , the eye quickly became well @-@ defined and appeared on visible satellite images , an indication the storm was intensifying . The chances of rapid intensification were good as the storm featured well @-@ developed outflow and prominent banding features . 
 With very warm sea surface temperatures , high ocean heat content , low wind shear , and a moist air mass , Omar quickly reached its peak intensity early on October 16 as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . During the intensification phase , the forward motion of the hurricane increased to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Once in the Atlantic Ocean , Omar began to rapidly weaken , with winds decreasing by 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) in 12 hours . Visible satellite images depicted an exposed low @-@ level circulation with convection displaced to the east due to a combination of very high wind shear and dry air . By October 17 , most of the deep convection associated with the system dissipated ; however , a brief decrease in wind shear allowed Omar to re @-@ strengthen to its secondary peak , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . During this phase , convection redeveloped around the center and an eye reformed . Later that day , the trough that caused the rapid northeastern motion bypassed Omar , leading to decreasing movement . 
 A weakening storm , Omar continued towards the northeast due to a mid to upper @-@ level ridge located south of the system and the mid @-@ latitude westerlies to the north . Late on October 17 , wind shear increased once more as Omar tracked over waters below 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Around 0000 UTC on October 18 , Omar weakened to a tropical storm as deep convection associated with it dissipated . Twelve hours later , while still producing tropical storm @-@ force winds , the storm degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until 0600 UTC on October 21 when it dissipated about 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 295 km ) west of the Azores . 
 
 = = Preparations = = 
 
 On October 15 , the governor of the United States Virgin Islands announced the final preparations for Hurricane Omar as he signed a State of Emergency declaration for the territory . Public schools would be closed on October 16 . All non @-@ essential workers would be dismissed at 10 a.m. local time . At 6 p.m. curfew was put in place for the same day . Only those with valid passes would be allowed to be out after the curfew was put in place . That same day , a Hurricane Warning and flash flood watch were put in place in anticipation of hurricane @-@ force winds and torrential rains from Omar . The American Red Cross planned to open shelters throughout the islands before the hurricane struck . <unk> were also being distributed in St. Croix . A large oil refinery , which produces 500 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , was shut down and only necessary workers remained at the refinery . 
 On Sint Maarten , officials advised residents to start all necessary actions to prepare for a hurricane . Residents were told to clear their yards of any debris or lose furniture that could become airborne during the storm , place shutters over windows and doors and assist elderly neighbors with <unk> their homes , and mariners should find a safe haven . A curfew from 10 : 00 p.m. on October 15 to 10 : 00 a.m. on October 16 was put in place . Due to the possibility of flash flooding , residents were to <unk> and free up all waterways around their homes . Officials also warned people to stay away from areas prone to landslides until the " all @-@ clear " was given . <unk> of livestock were advised to have insured that they were secured in holding areas . As a precaution , the water supply would be shut down from 8 : 00 p.m. October 15 to 8 : 00 a.m. October 16 . Four public areas , St. Peters Community Center , Dutch Quarter Community Center , Genevieve de <unk> School , and the <unk> Army building would be used as emergency shelters . 
 All public activities , flights , and schools were either closed or canceled on Puerto Rico . Eighteen shelters were open on the eastern part of the island . Also , on Anguilla , residents in the Sandy Ground , Valley <unk> , <unk> and Mount Fortune areas were placed under evacuation orders . <unk> were opened throughout the island for those in need of shelter . Schools and government offices were also closed and visitors were told to leave the island . 
 
 = = Impact = = 
 
 Omar produced moderate damage throughout numerous islands , amounting to at least $ 60 million ( 2008 USD ) and one death was related to the storm . 
 While it was moving little over the south @-@ central Caribbean , Omar brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to the ABC Islands . Sustained winds to near gale force battered the islands , although peak gusts to 58 mph ( 92 km / h ) were confined to <unk> . In 24 hours , a maximum precipitation total of 4 @.@ 0 in ( 102 mm ) was recorded on <unk> , while 1 @.@ 7 in ( 43 mm ) and 1 @.@ 5 in ( 41 mm ) of rain fell in <unk> and <unk> , respectively . The high winds damaged roofs on all three islands , and rough seas caused beach erosion and significant damage to coastal facilities . Some rain damage also occurred , with significant flooding reported in some parts of <unk> . In the <unk> Islands ( <unk> , St. <unk> , and Sint Maarten ) strong winds from Omar , gusting up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) , and high waves caused significant damage and coastal flooding . On Sint Maarten , rainfall from the storm totaled to 5 @.@ 4 in ( 139 @.@ 4 mm ) . Damage in Sint Maarten was mainly limited to beach erosion and scattered power outages . 
 The island of Dominica suffered severe damage from Hurricane Omar . The village of Scotts Head , with a population of 450 , was cut off from the rest of the country as roads were extensively damaged . The village also suffered water losses , electricity shortage , and <unk> telephones were cut off . Ports throughout the country were severely damaged . All barge access for <unk> sand and stones were destroyed . The airport also sustained some damage . Seven boats ran aground during the storm . Minor damage was reported in Anguilla . Two hotels sustained roof damage , downed treed knocked down power lines causing scattered power outages , and the rough seas caused severe beach erosion . Three cargo ships and seven boats ran aground and two other boats sank . 
 In Antigua and Barbuda , winds from Omar were recorded at 40 mph , with gusts to 48 mph . <unk> <unk> lines brought torrential rains , falling at rates of 2 in ( 50 @.@ 8 mm ) at times , peaking at 2 @.@ 22 in ( 56 @.@ 4 mm ) per hour from <unk> UTC to 1200 UTC on October 16 . The maximum recorded rainfall was 9 @.@ 1 in ( 232 @.@ 6 mm ) however , up to 11 in ( 279 @.@ 4 mm ) was estimated to have fallen in the mountains . Storm <unk> was estimated at 2 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) with waves reaching 5 – 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . Nine homes were destroyed and several landslides were reported . No fatalities were associated with Omar , and only a few sustained minor injuries . The most severe damage was dealt to roads and agriculture due to flooding . Seventy @-@ five people were forced to evacuate to shelters as their homes were flooded . Several farms were washed away , including their livestock . Numerous farmers lost their harvest due to flooding . Damages in Barbuda were estimated at $ 18 million . Agricultural losses in Antigua amounted to around $ 11 million ( 2008 USD ) and property damage amounted to $ 25 million . 
 In Puerto Rico , a man died after he collapsed from cardiac arrest while trying to install storm shutters on his home . As a tropical wave , the precedent to Omar produced heavy rains over the island , causing minor flooding . After passing by Puerto Rico a second time , Omar produced locally heavy rains , which caused minor street flooding . 
 On St. Croix , waves up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) from Omar sank about 47 boats , leading to a large oil spill around the islands . About 400 ships broke lose from the docks , 200 of which lost their anchors . Omar produced upwards of 7 in ( 177 @.@ 8 mm ) of rain on the island within a 24 ‑ hour span . Although St. Croix was brushed by the eyewall , sustained winds reached 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) with gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) . Three people needed to be rescued when their ship struck a reef and began to sink . Most of the islands 55 @,@ 000 residents were without power as over 100 utility poles were destroyed . Damages on the island were estimated at $ 700 @,@ 000 with another $ 1 million in clean @-@ up costs . St. Thomas , one of the hardest hit islands , was left completely without power in the wake of the hurricane . All of the major intersections were shut down as traffic lights were either on the ground or without power . Damages on the island totaled to $ 5 @.@ 3 million . 
 In the <unk> <unk> Quarter on St. Lucia , rough seas damaged a jetty and grounded a yacht . In <unk> , four homes were destroyed by the storm surge , which also made some areas <unk> . The storm surge also flooded parts of the <unk> la <unk> Quarter , leading to officials declaring a mandatory evacuation of the area . On Montserrat , very little damage was reported . A few minor landslides occurred in rural areas ; no impact was caused by them . On <unk> there was relatively little damage although the beachfront part of the Four Seasons Resort was severely damaged and was subsequently closed for an extended period . Throughout St. <unk> and <unk> , damage was estimated at $ 19 million . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 The damage dealt to the agricultural sector of Antigua and Barbuda fueled major concerns for " food security " in 2009 . The government allocated about $ 33 @,@ <unk> @,@ 420 to help develop and repair the industry . Significant expansions of croplands were discussed , 15 @,@ 000 <unk> ( <unk> m2 ) area , to help promote growth of the sector . 
 On October 29 , in the wake of Omar , President George W. Bush signed a major disaster declaration for the United States Virgin Islands , allowing public aid to assist the islands . The Federal Emergency Management Agency or <unk> , had received 60 requests for public assistance throughout the area . <unk> value for the assistance was estimated at $ 3 million and growing . Twenty @-@ five departments and agencies were approved of for federal support , namely the U.S. <unk> Department of Public Works . Several non @-@ profit organizations also received support from <unk> , while those that did not meet the criteria were referred to the Small Business Administration ’ s low @-@ interest loan program . 
 On Dominica , Omar 's close pass to the island left 30 families homeless and severely hampered the fishing community . On December 15 , the Board of Directors of the Caribbean Development Bank approved $ 9 @.@ 16 million for assistance to those affected by Omar on the island and to restore the infrastructure damaged by the hurricane . On December 18 , the government of Dominica invested $ 4 million in aid for the fishing communities impacted by Omar . A total of 140 fishermen were provided with $ 250 per week for a total of four weeks . Sixty @-@ two of which continued to receive funds due to their circumstances . The government also purchased 121 boat engines to distribute to fishers . Another $ 794 @,@ 000 was spent to repair 47 boats and construct another 28 that had been damaged or destroyed by Omar . The government also bought replacement fishing gear . 
 
 
 = Papal conclave , 1769 = 
 
 A papal conclave which lasted from 15 February to 19 May 1769 was <unk> after the death of Pope Clement XIII . It elected as his successor Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , who took the name Clement XIV . 
 
 = = Death of Clement XIII = = 
 
 Clement XIII died suddenly on 2 February 1769 , a day before the date of the <unk> that he had <unk> to examine the demands for the general suppression of the Society of Jesus . The various courts under the House of Bourbon and the Kingdom of Portugal ( under the House of <unk> ) had exerted strong pressure on the Holy See to suppress this order through almost the whole of his <unk> . In 1759 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal , in <unk> from the Kingdom of France , in 1767 from Spain and in 1768 from the Kingdom of Naples , the Kingdom of Sicily and the Duchy of <unk> and <unk> . Clement XIII strongly defended the Society ( e.g. in the bull <unk> <unk> in 1765 ) , but without success . In January 1769 France and Naples seized the papal territories around Avignon , <unk> and <unk> to force the pope to issue a decree for the suppression of the order . The sudden death of 75 @-@ year @-@ old Clement XIII left this difficult decision to his successor . 
 
 = = List of participants = = 
 
 Forty six out of fifty seven cardinals participated in the conclave : 
 Carlo Alberto <unk> <unk> ( created cardinal on September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of <unk> e <unk> ; Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; pro @-@ <unk> of His <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. of <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. of Bishops and <unk> 
 Federico <unk> <unk> ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Porto e Santa <unk> ; Sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; prefect of the S.C. of the Good Government ; governor of <unk> 
 Gian Francesco Albani ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of <unk> ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Poland 
 Henry Benedict Stuart ( July 3 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of <unk> ; <unk> of S. Lorenzo in <unk> ; Vice @-@ Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church ; archpriest of the patriarchal Vatican Basilica 
 <unk> <unk> ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of <unk> 
 Giovanni Francesco Stoppani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of <unk> 
 Giuseppe Pozzobonelli ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria <unk> Minerva ; archbishop of Milan 
 Carlo <unk> Amedeo <unk> <unk> ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; titular archbishop of <unk> 
 <unk> <unk> ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . <unk> e Pietro ; archbishop of Bologna 
 Antonio <unk> ( April 22 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; archbishop of Naples 
 Francisco de <unk> <unk> de <unk> ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Seville ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Spain 
 Paul d <unk> de <unk> ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> in <unk> ; archbishop of <unk> 
 Carlo Rezzonico ( September 11 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; <unk> of the Holy Roman Church 
 Antonio Maria <unk> ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Marco ; bishop of Padua 
 Fernando Maria de Rossi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Cecilia ; prefect of the S.C. of the <unk> Council ; Latin Patriarch of Constantinople 
 <unk> <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; legate in <unk> 
 Giuseppe Maria <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. for the <unk> of Faith 
 Gaetano Fantuzzi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pietro in <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. of the <unk> <unk> 
 Pietro <unk> <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . <unk> al Monte <unk> ; <unk> of the Sacred College of Cardinals 
 Pietro <unk> de <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> al Monte <unk> 
 Lorenzo Ganganelli , <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . XII <unk> 
 Marcantonio Colonna ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria della Pace ; <unk> General of Rome ; prefect of the S.C. of the Residence of the Bishops ; archpriest of the patriarchal <unk> Basilica 
 <unk> de <unk> <unk> de la <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of the West Indies ; vicar general of the Spanish army and fleet 
 Giovanni <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of <unk> 
 Simone <unk> ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Giovanni a <unk> <unk> 
 Giovanni <unk> <unk> ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria <unk> <unk> ; archbishop of Ancona 
 Giovanni Carlo <unk> ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Giovanni e <unk> ; Grand <unk> ; prefect of the Congregation for the correction of the books of the Oriental Church 
 <unk> <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. of the <unk> and Sacred Relics 
 Antonio Colonna <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Via 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . <unk> ed <unk> ; legate in Bologna 
 <unk> <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in <unk> ; legate in <unk> 
 Pietro <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in <unk> 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Callisto ; archbishop of <unk> 
 Filippo Maria Pirelli ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> 
 Alessandro Albani ( July 16 , 1721 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Via <unk> ; <unk> of S. Maria in <unk> ; <unk> of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; <unk> of the Holy Roman Church ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia 
 <unk> Maria Corsini ( August 14 , 1730 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. <unk> ; archpriest of the patriarchal Lateran Basilica ; secretary of the Supreme S.C. of the Roman and Universal Inquisition ; prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Justice ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Portugal 
 <unk> Orsini d <unk> ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria ad <unk> ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of Naples 
 <unk> II Chigi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. of <unk> 
 Luigi Maria <unk> ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. <unk> in <unk> ; Cardinal Secretary of State 
 François @-@ Joachim de Pierre de Bernis ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon [ no <unk> assigned ] ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of France ; archbishop of <unk> 
 Giovanni <unk> <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. <unk> in <unk> ; prefect of the Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Grace 
 Nicola <unk> ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. <unk> in <unk> 
 Andrea Corsini ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Angelo in <unk> 
 Andrea <unk> ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . <unk> e <unk> ; secretary of the Apostolic <unk> 
 <unk> <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria della <unk> ; <unk> abbot of <unk> 
 <unk> <unk> ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . <unk> e <unk> ; prefect of the S.C. of Index 
 Twenty nine electors were created by Clement XIII , while fifteen by Pope Benedict XIV . Alessandro Albani received the red hat from Innocent XIII , and <unk> Maria Corsini from Clement XII . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Giacomo <unk> ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Lorenzo in <unk> ; <unk> of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; archbishop of <unk> e <unk> 
 Carlo Francesco <unk> ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . IV <unk> ; archbishop of <unk> 
 Luis Fernández de <unk> ( December 18 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Toledo 
 <unk> @-@ René <unk> de <unk> ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> <unk> le <unk> ; bishop of <unk> 
 Franz Konrad Casimir von <unk> ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria del <unk> ; bishop of Constance 
 Francisco de <unk> da Gama ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of Lisbon 
 Christoph Anton von <unk> von <unk> und <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Vienna ; administrator of the see of <unk> 
 Antoine <unk> de <unk> de <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of <unk> 
 Jean @-@ François @-@ Joseph de <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. <unk> ; bishop of <unk> 
 Franz Christoph Freiherr von <unk> <unk> <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of <unk> 
 Louis @-@ César @-@ Constantine de <unk> @-@ <unk> ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of <unk> 
 
 = = Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy = = 
 
 The papal conclave in 1769 was almost completely dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus . The Sacred College of Cardinals was divided into two <unk> : pro @-@ Jesuits and anti @-@ Jesuits , but several cardinals were neutral . The pro @-@ Jesuit faction , called Zelanti , grouped Italian <unk> cardinals who opposed the secular influences on the Church . Their leaders were Gian Francesco and Alessandro Albani and cardinal @-@ nephew of the deceased pope Carlo Rezzonico . The anti @-@ Jesuit bloc ( called also " court faction " ) grouped crown @-@ cardinals of the Catholic Powers : France , Spain and Naples . <unk> ruled at the time by Louis XV of France , Charles III of Spain and Ferdinand III of Sicily / Ferdinand IV of Naples . In spite of the national divisions they worked together for the main goal – suppression of the Society of Jesus . The Bourbon courts had decided to put the official leadership of this bloc in the hands of the French Cardinal de Bernis . He and his colleagues were instructed to block every pro @-@ Jesuit candidature , even with the official exclusion if necessary . Several cardinals , among them Lorenzo Ganganelli , did not belong to either faction . 
 The Spanish and Neapolitan governments had classified forty three Italian cardinals into five categories : " good " ( eleven cardinals ) , " indifferent " ( eight ) , " doubtful " ( three ) , " bad " ( fifteen ) and " very bad " ( six ) : 
 Cardinal Orsini , the official representative of the Neapolitan court , and all the foreigners , were not classified because it was certain that none of them would be ever elected pope . 
 The French government was more <unk> than Spanish and Neapolitan . Only three cardinals were considered good candidates : <unk> , <unk> and Ganganelli 
 Out of these 43 cardinals only 27 or 28 were actually considered <unk> , while the remaining 15 were excluded due to their age or health . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The conclave began on February 15 , 1769 . Initially only 27 cardinals participated . Zelanti , taking advantage of the small number of the electors and the absence of the French and Spanish cardinals , tried to achieve a quick election of Cardinal <unk> Chigi . In one ballot he was only two votes short of being elected . The efforts of Zelanti met with strong protests from the ambassadors of France and Spain , but , <unk> for them , Cardinal Orsini , protector of the Kingdom of Naples and the only crown @-@ cardinal present in the early ballots , was able to join some neutral cardinals to block Chigi ’ s candidature . 
 An unprecedented event was the visit of Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , who arrived <unk> in Rome on March 6 and was allowed to enter the conclave . He stayed there two weeks , freely debating with the electors . Fortunately , he did not press them but only expressed the wish for the election of a pope who would be able to carry out his duties with the proper respect for the secular rulers . 
 Cardinal de Bernis entered the conclave at the end of March and took the leadership of the anti @-@ Jesuit faction from the hands of Cardinal Orsini , who could have blocked Zelanti ’ s actions only with the great difficulties . Bernis immediately established a regular correspondence with French ambassador Marquis d <unk> , which was in violation of the fundamental law of the conclave . <unk> of France and Spain urged Bernis to insist that the election of the future pope be made to depend on his written engagement to suppress the Jesuits . Bernis refused , answering that demanding from the future pope a written or oral promise to destroy the Society of Jesus would be in violation of the canon law . In spite of this refusal , during the next few weeks Bernis consecutively rejected all candidates proposed by Zelanti as too devoted to the Jesuits . In this way twenty @-@ three out of twenty @-@ eight <unk> were eliminated , among them strongly pro @-@ Jesuit Cardinal Fantuzzi , who at some point was very close to achieving election to the papal throne , as well as <unk> , Colonna , Stoppani , Pozzobonelli , <unk> , and several others . 
 The arrival of Spanish cardinals Solis and de la <unk> on April 27 strengthened the anti @-@ Jesuit party . They also violated the law of the conclave by establishing regular correspondence with Spanish ambassador <unk> . The Spaniards had fewer <unk> than Bernis and , supported by Cardinal <unk> , took the matter into their own hands . They paid attention to the only friar in the Sacred College , Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , <unk> The attitude of Ganganelli towards the Jesuits was a great mystery – he had been educated by the Jesuits and it was said that he received the red hat at the instance of Father Lorenzo <unk> , general of the Society of Jesus , but during the <unk> of Clement XIII he did not engage himself in the defence of the Order . Cardinal Solis began by sounding him out as to his willingness to give the promise required by the Bourbon princes as an indispensable condition for election . Ganganelli answered that " he recognized in the sovereign <unk> the right to extinguish , with good conscience , the Society of Jesus , provided he observed the canon law ; and that it was desirable that the pope should do everything in his power to satisfy the wishes of the Crowns " . It is not certain whether it was a written or only an oral promise , but this declaration fully satisfied the ambassadors . 
 In the same time Zelanti , also began to incline to give their support to Ganganelli , looking upon him as indifferent or even favourable to the Jesuits . It seems that the attitude of Zelanti was decided by the secret negotiations between their leaders Alessandro and Gian Francesco Albani and the Spanish cardinals . Cardinal de Bernis , the nominal leader of the court faction , probably did not play any role in the appointment of Ganganelli and only followed the instructions of Marquis d <unk> when all had been already known . 
 
 = = = Results of the ballots = = = 
 
 The results of the ballots between April 27 and May 18 were following ( only the leading candidates are included ) : 
 April 27 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5 
 April 28 – Fantuzzi – 9 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 April 29 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 April 30 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 May 1 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 May 2 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 May 3 – Colonna – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 May 4 – Colonna – 10 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 2 
 May 5 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3 
 May 6 – Fantuzzi – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Colonna – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 
 May 7 – Colonna – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 
 May 8 – Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3 
 May 9 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 3 
 May 10 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 
 May 11 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 3 
 May 12 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 
 May 13 – Colonna – 13 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 5 
 May 14 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4 
 May 15 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 5 
 May 16 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 8 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4 
 May 17 – Colonna – 12 ; Pozzobonelli – 12 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 1 
 May 18 – Ganganelli – 19 ; Colonna – 13 ; Pozzobonelli – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 1 
 
 = = Election of Clement XIV = = 
 
 In the final ballot on May 19 , 1769 Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli was elected to the papacy receiving all votes except of his own , which he gave to Carlo Rezzonico , nephew of Clement XIII and one of the leaders of Zelanti . He took the name of Clement XIV , in honour of Clement XIII , who had elevated him to the <unk> . 
 On May 28 the new pope was consecrated to the episcopate by Cardinal Federico <unk> <unk> , bishop of Porto e Santa <unk> and sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals , assisted by Cardinals Gian Francesco Albani , bishop of <unk> and Henry Benedict Stuart , bishop of <unk> . On June 4 he was solemnly crowned by Cardinal Alessandro Albani , <unk> of S. Maria in Via <unk> 
 
 
 = West Hendford Cricket Ground , Yeovil = 
 
 West Hendford Cricket Ground was a first @-@ class cricket ground located in Yeovil , Somerset . The land for the ground was first leased by Yeovil Cricket Club in 1874 , and was also used for a range of other sports , most significantly hosting Yeovil Rugby Club in the 1890s , and then again from 1935 until the ground was closed . Significant improvements were made to the ground during the 1930s , including the opening of a new pavilion , jointly funded by the Rugby and Cricket clubs . The ground was demolished in 1944 when Westland Aircraft extended their factory , and both Yeovil Cricket Club and Rugby Club moved to Johnson Park . 
 Between 1935 and 1939 , the ground hosted five annual Somerset County Cricket Club matches in July or August ; the first of which nearly broke a county record for ticket sales on the gate . Somerset only won one of the five matches , the 1936 contest against Worcestershire . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Yeovil and County Cricket Club was formed in 1865 , and was the first attempt at setting up a county cricket team for Somerset . The attempt was unsuccessful , and the club broke up . In 1874 , the club was re @-@ formed with the lesser remit , as Yeovil Cricket Club . As part of the club 's resuscitation , the committee purchased the use of a field in West Hendford in Yeovil , from a local farmer , Mr Brook . The field , part of Key Farm , was leased for £ 10 . There is record of a match being played on the ground the following year between two sets of members of the Yeovil Cricket Club . During the late 19th @-@ century , the ground was used for other sports as well as cricket ; it had a grass athletics track , and also hosted Yeovil Football Club , who at the time played both association and rugby football . The football club played at West Hendford on an irregular basis during the late 19th @-@ century , but returned in 1935 , by which time they only played rugby , and had changed their name accordingly to Yeovil Rugby Club . In 1895 , the cricket club committee announced that there was provision for a longer lease , of five or seven years , and that they would make improvements to the ground to enable it to host first @-@ class cricket . The ground was also used for field hockey in the early 20th @-@ century , hosting a Yeovil Hockey Club . 
 Somerset County Cricket Club played their first of five annual first @-@ class matches on the ground in 1935 . The match , against Surrey , was a significant event in the town , and a series of festivities were arranged to run alongside the three @-@ day contest , including a dance and a smoking concert . Entry for the match , which took place from 17 to 19 August was one shilling , and attracted over 5 @,@ 000 people , raising around £ 400 . Surrey won the match by eight wickets . The takings from this match helped the Yeovil Cricket Club make further improvements to the ground , expanding it and adding further seating . The following year , Somerset played Worcestershire at the ground , in what the Western Gazette described as " Yeovil Cricket Festival " . The captain of Yeovil Cricket Club , Richard <unk> , was included in the Somerset team , which won the match by 170 runs . The takings were slightly lower than the previous year due to poor weather , but still described as " <unk> " . 
 In 1937 , Sussex beat Somerset at the ground , in a match that once again drew a crowd of around 5 @,@ 000 . The Yorkshire Evening Post described the wicket as " crumbling " towards the end of the match , favouring the bowlers . In 1938 Hampshire visited , and the report in the Western Daily Press lamented the state of the wicket , which meant that the game , like the three first @-@ class matches at the ground before it , was completed in two days , rather than the scheduled three . That winter , a new pavilion costing £ 550 was erected on the ground for the shared use of the cricket club and the rugby club . The final first @-@ class match on the ground was played in July 1939 against Lancashire , but torrential rain limited the match to only three hours of play . The takings for the full three days of the match were only £ 87 , and the Taunton Courier estimated that the losses for the match could be hundreds of pounds . Despite the weather , almost 2 @,@ 000 people attended the match , and the Taunton Courier report praised the alterations that had been made to the ground ; the removal of a hedge made the ground lighter , while the ground itself had been well looked after , and drained quickly . The Second World War suspended the County Championship from 1940 to 1945 , and during that time , Westland Aircraft took over the ground to expand their factory , and informed Yeovil Cricket Club that it was no longer available , forcing them to search for a new ground in 1946 . They eventually relocated to the newly opened Johnson Park in 1948 . The rugby club also moved to Johnson Park , <unk> itself into Yeovil Sports Club . After a short break , Somerset County Cricket Club returned to Yeovil , playing fourteen fixtures at Johnson Park between 1951 and 1970 , and eight matches at <unk> Sports Ground from 1971 to 1978 . 
 
 = = Records = = 
 
 During its limited use as a first @-@ class cricket ground , only one century was scored on the ground , by Jim Parks . During the 1937 match , he scored 140 runs for Sussex . The most wickets taken by a bowler in a match at West Hendford was achieved in 1938 , when Hampshire 's Stuart <unk> took twelve wickets , including nine in the first innings . Somerset 's only success on the ground was in 1936 against Worcestershire , who they dismissed for 60 runs in the first innings , and 77 in the second . 
 
 
 = New Year 's Eve ( Up All Night ) = 
 
 " New Year 's Eve " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Up All Night . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . It was written by Erica <unk> and was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . The episode also featured a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Chris and Reagan 's neighbor and Ava 's boyfriend , Kevin . 
 During Reagan ( Christina Applegate ) and Chris 's ( Will <unk> ) first New Year 's Eve game night , Reagan 's competitiveness comes out causing Chris to become embarrassed . Meanwhile , Missy ( Jennifer Hall ) brings an unexpected date along to the party and , Kevin ( Jason Lee ) starts to feel as though Ava ( Maya Rudolph ) may be <unk> of him . 
 " New Year 's Eve " received mostly positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " New Year 's Eve " drew 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . It ranked third in its timeslot and was the second highest @-@ rated NBC program of the night after The Office . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 After not being able to find a baby @-@ sitter for Amy , Reagan suggests that the two throw a game night , an idea Chris doesn 't react well to . They invite Ava , Kevin , Missy , but Chris attempts to hide the games due to Reagan 's competitive nature . He tries to make her promise that she won 't be too competitive , but she does which makes the party awkward . While playing Rock Band the two get in a fight when Chris loses the beat on the drums because he was looking at his " drumming arm " . Reagan decide to a make a list of " Things We Are Going to Stop Doing That <unk> Each Other in 2012 " , which features annoying habits that the two want each other to give up . However , before 2011 comes to an end the two erase every thing from the list except for Chris 's <unk> impression and <unk> 's competitive nature . 
 Meanwhile , Ava is asked to be the grand marshal to a New Year 's Day parade . This makes her boyfriend , Kevin , feel like he can 't live up to her lifestyle . He then starts thinking she may be <unk> of him , especially after he isn 't invited to sit with her during the parade . Eventually , Kevin confronts Ava on this and she reveals that if she <unk> up their relationship she doesn 't wanted to be reminded of it while <unk> her name . He assures her that their relationship won 't end badly and the two go to the parade . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 " New Year 's Eve " was written by supervising producer Erica <unk> , marking her third writing credit for the series after " Mr. Bob 's <unk> <unk> " and " Parents " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , who previously worked with creator Emily Spivey and executive producer Lorne Michaels on Saturday Night Live as director for 11 years . The episode features a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Kevin , Ava 's boyfriend . He first appeared in the eighth episode , " First Night Away " and is currently set to appear in a recurring role for the series . Lee had previously worked with Spivey and Michaels after hosting an episode of Saturday Night Live on November 12 , 2005 . This is the first time the series aired in the 9 : 30 pm timeslot for the first season after The Office ; the series previously aired in the 8 : <unk> timeslot on Wednesday . The series switched <unk> with another NBC comedy series , Whitney . Some media critics have said that the goal for moving the series was in order to make it more of a ratings success , like The Office . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Ratings = = = 
 
 " New Year 's Eve " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 24 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . The episode finished third in its time slot along with The Office , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode , however , did manage to beat the Fox drama series The <unk> and the CW drama series The Secret Circle . <unk> with <unk> viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 0 rating to the original viewership . 
 
 = = = Critical reviews = = = 
 
 " New Year 's Eve " received several positive reviews from critics . New York writer Steven Heisler praised the episode for avoiding " sitcom @-@ y territory " with the emotional ending . He also called the series a better choice to follow The Office then Whitney . The A.V. Club reviewer Margaret <unk> complemented the <unk> of the main <unk> @-@ Chris plot . Despite this , she criticized the Ava @-@ Kevin subplot comparing it to a storyline from Sex and The City . She also noted the plotline didn 't stay true to the characters following their plotline in the previous episode , " First Christmas " . She ultimately rated the episode with a B. Adam <unk> of Paste called the episode a perfect transition from the previous episodes and allowed Ava to be " a <unk> third wheel to a completely strong duo in Chris and Reagan " . He also reacted positively for the scenes featuring Missy , comparing her scenes to " early Ava , but less <unk> " . He ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 calling it " <unk> " . Bradford Evans of <unk> praised Jennifer Hall 's performance calling her the " <unk> hero " of the series . He also reacted positively towards the episode 's ability to <unk> the show and " keep all of the characters on the same turf " . He concluded that he hoped the series could make itself a vital part of the network 's lineup . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall called the episode " one its [ the series ] strongest episodes to date " . He wrote that the addition of Jason Lee <unk> Ava more and gave her a more natural reason to visit Reagan and Chris at home . He also wrote that the episode worked on a " character level " . 
 
 
 = World War Z = 
 
 World War Z : An Oral History of the Zombie War ( 2006 ) is an apocalyptic horror novel by Max Brooks . The novel is a collection of individual accounts narrated by an agent of the United Nations Postwar Commission , following the devastating global conflict against the zombie plague . Other passages record a decade @-@ long desperate struggle , as experienced by people of various <unk> . The personal accounts also describe the resulting social , political , religious , and environmental changes . 
 World War Z is a follow @-@ up to Brooks ' " survival manual " The Zombie Survival Guide ( 2003 ) , but its tone is much more serious . It was inspired by The Good War : An Oral History of World War Two ( 1984 ) by Studs Terkel , and by the zombie films of George A. Romero . Brooks used World War Z to comment on government <unk> and American <unk> , while also examining <unk> and uncertainty . The novel was a commercial hit and was praised by most critics . 
 Its audiobook version , performed by a full cast including Alan <unk> , Mark <unk> , and John <unk> , won an <unk> Award in 2007 . A film inspired by the novel , directed by Marc Forster and starring Brad Pitt , was released in 2013 . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 The story is told in the form of a series of interviews conducted by the narrator , Max Brooks , an agent of the United Nations Postwar Commission . Although the exact origin of the plague is unknown , a young boy from a village in China is identified as the plague 's official patient zero . The boy 's case marks the point where the Chinese government begins to take measures to cover up the disease , including generating a crisis with Taiwan to mask their activities . Nevertheless , the plague still manages to spread to various nations by human <unk> , refugees and the black market organ trade . Initially , these nations were able to cover up their smaller outbreaks , until a much larger outbreak in South Africa brings the plague to public attention . 
 As the infection spreads , Israel abandons the Palestinian territories and initiates a nationwide quarantine , closing its borders to everyone except uninfected Jews and Palestinians . Its military then puts down an ultra @-@ Orthodox uprising , which is later referred to as an Israeli civil war . The United States does little to prepare because it is <unk> in its ability to suppress any threat . Although special forces teams contain initial outbreaks , a widespread effort never starts : the nation is deprived of political will by " <unk> wars " , and a widely distributed and marketed <unk> vaccine creates a false sense of security . 
 As many more areas around the globe fall to infection , a period known as the " Great Panic " begins . Pakistan and Iran destroy each other in a nuclear war , after the Iranian government attempts to stem the flow of refugees fleeing through Pakistan into Iran . After zombies overrun New York City , the U.S. military sets up a high @-@ profile defense in the nearby city of <unk> . The " Battle of <unk> " is a disaster ; modern weapons and tactics prove ineffective against zombies , as the enemy has no self @-@ preservation instincts and can only be stopped if shot through the head . The unprepared and <unk> soldiers are routed on live television . Other countries suffer similarly disastrous defeats , and human civilization <unk> on the brink of destruction . 
 In South Africa , the government adopts a <unk> plan drafted by apartheid @-@ era intelligence consultant Paul <unk> . It calls for the establishment of small sanctuaries , leaving large groups of survivors abandoned in special zones in order to distract the undead and allowing those within the main safe zone time to regroup and <unk> . Governments worldwide assume similar plans or relocate the populace to safer foreign territory , such as the attempted complete evacuation of the Japanese archipelago to <unk> . Because zombies freeze solid in severe cold , many civilians in North America flee to the <unk> of northern Canada and the Arctic , where eleven million people die of starvation and <unk> . It is implied that some turn to cannibalism to survive ; further interviews from other sources imply that cannibalism occurred in areas of the United States where food shortages occurred . The three remaining astronauts in the International Space Station survive the war by salvaging supplies from the abandoned Chinese space station and maintain some military and civilian satellites using an orbital fuel station . A surviving member of the <unk> crew describes " mega " <unk> of zombies on the American Great Plains and Central Asia , and how the crisis affected Earth 's atmosphere . 
 The U.S. eventually establishes safe zones west of the Rocky Mountains and spends much of the next decade <unk> zombies in that region . All aspects of civilian life are devoted to supporting the war effort against the pandemic . Much of it resembles total war strategies : rationing of fuel and food , cultivation of private gardens , and civilian neighborhood patrols . The U.S. government also initiates a " Re @-@ education Act " to train the civilian population for the war effort and restore order ; the people with skills such as carpentry and construction find themselves more valuable than people with managerial skills . 
 Seven years after the outbreak began , a conference is held off the coast of Honolulu , aboard the USS Saratoga , where most of the world 's leaders argue that they can <unk> the zombie plague if they stay in their safe zones . The U.S. President , however , argues for going on the offensive . <unk> to lead by example , the U.S. military <unk> itself to meet the specific strategic requirements of fighting the undead : using semi @-@ automatic , high @-@ power rifles and volley firing , focusing on head shots and slow , steady rates of fire ( a tactic " re @-@ invented " by the Indian Army during the Great Panic ) ; and <unk> a multipurpose hand tool , the " <unk> " or " <unk> " ( described as a combination of a shovel and a battle axe ) , for close @-@ quarters combat . The military , backed by a <unk> American wartime economy , began the three @-@ year @-@ long process of retaking the contiguous United States from both the undead as well as groups of hostile human survivors . <unk> military tactics and equipment are mentioned as being employed to deal with sometimes well @-@ armed and organized human criminal or rebel opposition . 
 Ten years after the official end of the zombie war , millions of zombies are still active , mainly on the ocean floor or on snow line islands . A democratic Cuba has become the world 's most thriving economy . Following a civil war that saw use of nuclear weapons , China has become a democracy and is now known as the " Chinese Federation " . <unk> is freed from Chinese rule and hosts <unk> , the world 's most populated city . Following a religious revolution and the revival of Russian <unk> , Russia is now an <unk> <unk> known as the Holy Russian Empire . Owing to the fact that many young Russians either became zombies , were infected with HIV , or died due to drugs , the government has initiated a " breeding " program , with the remaining fertile women implied to be <unk> impregnated to raise the <unk> . North Korea is completely empty , with the entire population presumed to have disappeared into underground bunkers . 
 The situation in the British Isles is not entirely clear in the novel , although Ireland may have escaped the worst of the outbreak . Members of the British Royal Family had fled to Ireland and the Isle of Man , following the military retreat to the <unk> Wall , and now exports oil from a reserve under Windsor Castle where the Queen held out for the war 's duration , refusing to flee with her relatives . The <unk> established a wartime refuge in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh . In France , the Palace of Versailles was the site of a massacre and has been burned to the ground ; military losses were particularly high while clearing the catacombs underneath Paris because the catacombs housed nearly a quarter of a million refugees during the early stages of the war , all of whom became zombies . Iceland has been completely <unk> and remains the world 's most heavily infested country . 
 The <unk> and Palestinians have made peace , and the former occupied territories have been renamed " Unified Palestine " . Mexico is now known as " <unk> " . Several countries are described as having revised borders due to the " dumping " of convicts into infected zones ; these convicts rose to command " powerful <unk> " that later became independent states . A so @-@ called " Pacific Continent " appears to encompass previously uninhabited islands as well as ships rendered immobile due to lack of fuel . For unknown reasons , the Saudi Royal Family destroyed the oil fields in Saudi Arabia . 
 The United Nations fields a large military force to eliminate the remaining zombies from overrun areas , defeat hordes that surface from the ocean floor , and kill frozen zombies before they <unk> . It is stated that previously eradicated diseases have made a comeback and that global life expectancy is greatly reduced as the world starts over from where it began . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 Brooks designed World War Z to follow the " laws " set up in his earlier work , The Zombie Survival Guide ( 2003 ) , and explained that the guide may exist in the novel 's fictional universe . The zombies of The Zombie Survival Guide are human bodies <unk> by an <unk> virus ( <unk> ) , devoid of intelligence , <unk> solely of consuming living flesh , and cannot be killed unless the brain is destroyed . <unk> will eventually set in , but this process takes longer than for an uninfected body and can be slowed by effects such as freezing . Although zombies do not tire and are as strong as the humans they infect , they are slow @-@ moving and incapable of planning or cooperation in their attacks . Zombies usually reveal their presence by moaning . 
 Brooks discussed the cultural influences on the novel . He claimed inspiration from " The Good War " : An Oral History of World War Two ( 1984 ) by Studs Terkel , stating : " [ Terkel 's book is ] an oral history of World War II . I read it when I was a teenager and it 's sat with me ever since . When I sat down to write World War Z : An Oral History of the Zombie War , I wanted it to be in the vein of an oral history . " Brooks also cited renowned zombie film director George A. Romero as an influence and criticized The Return of the Living Dead films : " They <unk> zombies , make them silly and <unk> . They 've done for the living dead what the old Batman TV show did for The Dark Knight . " Brooks acknowledged making several references to popular culture in the novel , including one to alien robot franchise <unk> , but declined to identify the others so that readers could discover them independently . 
 Brooks conducted copious research while writing World War Z. The technology , politics , economics , culture , and military tactics were based on a variety of reference books and <unk> with expert sources . Brooks also cites the U.S. Army as a reference on <unk> statistics . 
 
 = = Analysis = = 
 
 
 = = = Social commentary = = = 
 
 Reviewers have noted that Brooks uses World War Z as a platform to criticize government <unk> , corporate corruption , and human short @-@ <unk> . At one point in the book , a Palestinian refugee living in Kuwait refuses to believe the dead are rising , fearing it is a trick by Israel . Many American characters blame the United States ' inability to counter the zombie threat on low confidence in their government due to conflicts in the Middle East . 
 Brooks shows his particular dislike of government bureaucracy . For example , one character in the novel tries to justify lying about the zombie outbreak to avoid widespread panic , while at the same time failing to develop a solution for fear of <unk> public ire . He has also criticized American <unk> : 
 
 = = = Themes = = = 
 
 
 = = = = <unk> = = = = 
 
 <unk> and disaster preparation are prevalent themes in the novel . Several interviews , especially those from the United States , focus on policy changes designed to train the surviving Americans to fight the zombies and rebuild the country . For example , when cities were made to be as efficient as possible in order to fight the zombies , the <unk> could hold a higher status than the former <unk> ; when the ultra @-@ rich hid in their homes , which had been turned into fortified compounds , they were overwhelmed by others trying to get in , leading to mass slaughter . Throughout the novel , characters demonstrate the physical and mental requirements needed to survive a disaster . Brooks described the large amount of research needed to find optimal methods for fighting a worldwide zombie outbreak . He also pointed out that Americans like the zombie genre because they believe they can survive anything with the right tools and talent . 
 
 = = = = Fear and uncertainty = = = = 
 
 Brooks considers the theme of uncertainty central to the zombie genre . He believes that zombies allow people to deal with their own anxiety about the end of the world . Brooks has expressed a deep fear of zombies : 
 This <unk> is connected to the context in which Brooks was writing . He declared : " at this point we 're pretty much living in an irrational time " , full of human suffering and lacking reason or logic . When asked in a subsequent interview about how he would compare terrorists with zombies , Brooks said : 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 Reviews for the novel have been generally positive . Gilbert Cruz of Entertainment Weekly gave the novel an " A " rating , commenting that the novel shared with great zombie stories the use of a central metaphor , describing it as " an <unk> readable oral history . " Steven H. Silver identified Brooks ' international focus as the novel 's greatest strength and commented favorably on Brooks ' ability to create an appreciation for the work needed to combat a global zombie outbreak . Silver 's only complaint was with " Good @-@ <unk> " — the final chapter — in which characters get a chance to give a final closing statement . Silver felt that it was not always apparent who the <unk> , undifferentiated characters were . The Eagle described the book as being " unlike any other zombie tale " as it is " sufficiently terrifying for most readers , and not always in a blood @-@ and @-@ <unk> way , either . " Keith <unk> of The A.V. Club stated that the format of the novel makes it difficult for it to develop momentum , but found the novel 's individual episodes gripping . Patrick Daily of the Chicago Reader said the novel <unk> the " <unk> " of The Zombie Survival Guide by " touching on deeper , more somber aspects of the human condition . " In his review for Time Out Chicago , Pete Coco declared that " [ b ] ending horror to the form of alternative history would have been novel in and of itself . Doing so in the mode of Studs Terkel might constitute <unk> . " 
 Ron <unk> Jr. named World War Z one of his favorite apocalyptic novels and praised Brooks for illustrating " the tacit agreement between writer and reader that is essential to the success of stories about the end of the world ... [ both ] agree to pretend that this is not fiction , that in fact the horrific tales of a war between humans and zombies are based in reality . " Drew Taylor of the Fairfield County Weekly credited World War Z with making zombies more popular in mainstream society . 
 The hardcover version of World War Z spent four weeks on the New York Times Best <unk> list , peaking at number nine . By November 2011 , according to Publishers Weekly , World War Z had sold one million copies in all formats . 
 
 = = Audiobook = = 
 
 Random House published an abridged audiobook in 2007 , directed by John <unk> <unk> and produced by Dan <unk> , with sound editing by Charles De <unk> . The book is read by Brooks but includes other actors taking on the roles of the many individual characters who are interviewed in the novel . Brooks ' previous career in voice acting and voice @-@ over work meant he could recommend a large number of the cast members . 
 On May 14 , 2013 , Random House Audio released a <unk> audiobook titled World War Z : The Complete Edition ( Movie <unk> @-@ in Edition ) : An Oral History of the Zombie War . It contains the entirety of the original , abridged audiobook , as well as new recordings of each missing segment . A separate , additional audiobook containing only the new recordings not found in the original audiobook was released simultaneously as World War Z : The Lost Files : A Companion to the <unk> Edition . 
 
 = = = Cast = = = 
 
 * <unk> edition 
 
 = = = Reception = = = 
 
 In her review of the audiobook for Strange Horizons , <unk> Carroll called the story " gripping " and found the listening experience evocative of Orson Welles 's famous radio narration of The War of the Worlds ( broadcast October 30 , 1938 ) . Carroll had mixed opinions on the voice acting , commending it as " solid and understated , <unk> free of ' special effects ' and ' scenery chewing ' overall " , but lamenting what she perceived as undue <unk> on the part of Max Brooks and <unk> in Steve Park 's Chinese accent . Publishers Weekly also criticized Brooks ' narration , but found that the rest of the " all @-@ star cast deliver their parts with such fervor and intensity that listeners cannot help but <unk> with these characters " . In an article in Slate concerning the mistakes producers make on publishing <unk> , Nate <unk> used World War Z as an example of <unk> whose full casts contributed to making them " great listens " and described the book as a " <unk> @-@ than @-@ it @-@ has @-@ any @-@ right @-@ to @-@ be zombie novel " . The World War Z audiobook won the 2007 <unk> Award for Multi @-@ <unk> Performance and was nominated for Audiobook of the Year . 
 
 = = Film adaptation = = 
 
 In June 2006 , Paramount Studios secured the film rights for World War Z for Brad Pitt 's production company , Plan B Entertainment , to produce . The screenplay was written by J. Michael <unk> , with Marc Forster directing and Pitt starring as the main character , UN employee Gerry Lane . Despite being the draft that got the film green @-@ lit , <unk> 's script was tossed aside , so that production , which was to begin at the start of 2009 , was delayed while the script was completely re @-@ written by Matthew Michael <unk> to set the film in the present , leaving behind much of the book 's premise to make it more of an action film . In a 2012 interview , Brooks claimed the film now had nothing in common with the novel other than the title . Filming commenced mid @-@ 2011 , and the film was released in June 2013 . 
 
 
 = Sentence spacing = 
 
 Sentence spacing is the horizontal space between sentences in typeset text . It is a matter of typographical convention . Since the introduction of movable @-@ type printing in Europe , various sentence spacing conventions have been used in languages with a Latin alphabet . These include a normal word space ( as between the words in a sentence ) , a single enlarged space , and two full spaces . 
 Until the 20th century , publishing houses and printers in many countries used additional space between sentences . There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method — some printers used spacing between sentences that was no wider than word spacing . This was French spacing — a term synonymous with single @-@ space sentence spacing until the late 20th century . With the introduction of the typewriter in the late 19th century , typists used two spaces between sentences to mimic the style used by traditional typesetters . While wide sentence spacing was phased out in the printing industry in the mid @-@ twentieth century , the practice continued on typewriters and later on computers . Perhaps because of this , many modern sources now incorrectly claim that wide spacing was created for the typewriter . 
 The desired or correct sentence spacing is often debated but many sources now say additional space is not necessary or desirable . From around 1950 , single sentence spacing became standard in books , magazines and newspapers and the majority of style guides that use a Latin @-@ derived alphabet as a language base now prescribe or recommend the use of a single space after the concluding punctuation of a sentence . However , some sources still state that additional spacing is correct or acceptable . The debate continues on the World Wide Web . Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type . There is a debate on which convention is more readable ; the few recent direct studies conducted since 2002 have produced inconclusive results . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Traditional typesetting = = = 
 
 Shortly after the invention of movable type , highly variable spacing was created that could create spaces of any size , and allowed for perfectly even justification . Early American , English , and other European typesetters ' style guides ( also known as printers ' rules ) specified spacing standards that were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards . These guides — e.g. , Jacobi in the UK ( 1890 ) and <unk> , <unk> , and De <unk> ( 1866 – 1901 ) in the U.S. — indicated that sentences should be em @-@ spaced , and that words should be 1 / 3 or 1 / 2 em @-@ spaced ( illustration right ) . The relative size of the sentence spacing would vary depending on the size of the word spaces and the justification needs . For most countries , this remained the standard for published work until the 20th century . Yet , even in this period , there were publishing houses ( notably in France ) that used a standard word space between sentences — a technique called French spacing ( illustration below ) . 
 
 = = = Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriter = = = 
 
 Mechanical type systems introduced near the end of the 19th century , such as the <unk> and <unk> machines , allowed for some variable sentence spacing similar to hand composition . Just as these machines revolutionized the mass production of text , the advent of the typewriter around the same time revolutionized the creation of personal and business documents . But the typewriters ' mechanical limitations did not allow variable spacing — typists could only choose the number of times they pressed the space bar . <unk> in some English @-@ speaking countries initially learned to insert three spaces between sentences to approximate the wider sentence spacing used in traditional printing , but later settled on two spaces , a practice that continued throughout the 20th century . This became known as English spacing , and marked a divergence from French typists , who continued to use French spacing . 
 
 = = = Transition to single spacing = = = 
 
 In the early 20th century , some printers began using one and a half <unk> spaces ( an " en <unk> " ) to separate sentences . This standard continued in use , to some extent , into the 1990s . 
 <unk> , newspapers , and books began to adopt the single space convention in the United States in the 1940s and in the United Kingdom in the 1950s . <unk> did not move to single spacing simultaneously . The average writer still relied on the typewriter to create text — with its inherent mechanical spacing limitations . 
 <unk> advances began affecting sentence spacing methods . In 1941 , IBM introduced the Executive , a typewriter capable of proportional spacing — which had been used in professional typesetting for hundreds of years . This innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had on the typewriter — reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations . By the 1960s , electronic <unk> systems ignored runs of white space in text . This was also true of the World Wide Web , as HTML normally ignores additional spacing , although in 2011 the CSS 2 @.@ 1 standard officially added an option that can preserve additional spaces . In the 1980s , desktop publishing software provided the average writer with more advanced formatting tools . By the late 20th century , literature on the written word had begun to adjust its guidance on sentence spacing . 
 
 = = Modern literature = = 
 
 
 = = = Typography = = = 
 
 Early positions on typography ( the " arrangement and appearance of text " ) supported traditional spacing techniques in English publications . In 1954 , Geoffrey <unk> 's book , <unk> Points in the <unk> and Arrangement of Type , <unk> the widespread shift from a single enlarged em space to a standard word space between sentences . 
 With the advent of the computer age , <unk> began deprecating double spacing , even in monospaced text . In 1989 , Desktop Publishing by Design stated that " typesetting requires only one space after periods , question marks , exclamation points , and <unk> " , and identified single sentence spacing as a typographic convention . Stop <unk> <unk> & Find Out How Type Works ( 1993 ) and <unk> with Type : The Essential Guide to Typography ( 2006 ) both indicate that uniform spacing should be used between words , including between sentences . 
 More recent works on typography weigh in strongly . <unk> <unk> , founder of the Type Studio , says , " Forget about <unk> differences of opinion : <unk> speaking , typing two spaces before the start of a new sentence is absolutely , unequivocally wrong . " The Complete Manual on Typography ( 2003 ) states that " The typewriter tradition of separating sentences with two word spaces after a period has no place in typesetting " and the single space is " standard typographic practice " . The Elements of <unk> Style ( 2004 ) advocates a single space between sentences , noting that " your typing as well as your typesetting will benefit from <unk> this quaint [ double spacing ] Victorian habit . " 
 David Jury 's book , About Face : <unk> the Rules of Typography ( 2004 ) — published in Switzerland — <unk> the contemporary typographic position on sentence spacing : 
 Word spaces , preceding or following punctuation , should be <unk> adjusted to appear to be of the same value as a standard word space . If a standard word space is inserted after a full point or a comma , then , <unk> , this produces a space of up to 50 % wider than that of other word spaces within a line of type . This is because these punctuation marks carry space above them , which , when added to the adjacent standard word spaces , combines to create a visually larger space . Some argue that the " additional " space after a comma and full point serves as a " pause signal " for the reader . But this is unnecessary ( and visually disruptive ) since the pause signal is provided by the punctuation mark itself . 
 
 = = = Style and language guides = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Style guides = = = = 
 
 Early style guides for typesetting used a wider space between sentences than between words – " traditional spacing " , as shown in the illustration to the right . During the 20th century , style guides commonly mandated two spaces between sentences for <unk> manuscripts , which were used prior to professionally typesetting the work . As computer desktop publishing became commonplace , <unk> manuscripts became less relevant and most style guides stopped making distinctions between manuscripts and final typeset products . In the same period , style guides began changing their guidance on sentence spacing . The 1969 edition of the Chicago Manual of Style used em spaces between sentences in its text ; by the 2003 edition it had changed to single sentence spacing for both manuscript and print . By the 1980s , the United Kingdom 's Hart 's Rules ( 1983 ) had shifted to single sentence spacing . Other style guides followed suit in the 1990s . Soon after the beginning of the 21st century , the majority of style guides had changed to indicate that only one word space was proper between sentences . 
 Modern style guides provide standards and guidance for the written language . These works are important to writers since " virtually all professional editors work closely with one of them in editing a manuscript for publication . " Late editions of comprehensive style guides , such as the Oxford Style Manual ( 2003 ) in the United Kingdom and the Chicago Manual of Style ( 2010 ) in the United States , provide standards for a wide variety of writing and design topics , including sentence spacing . The majority of style guides now prescribe the use of a single space after terminal punctuation in final written works and publications . A few style guides allow double sentence spacing for draft work , and the Gregg Reference Manual makes room for double and single sentence spacing based on author preferences . Web design guides do not usually provide guidance on this topic , as " HTML refuses to recognize double spaces altogether . " These works themselves follow the current publication standard of single sentence spacing . 
 The European Union 's <unk> Style Guide ( 2008 ) indicates that single sentence spacing is to be used in all European Union publications — encompassing 23 languages . For the English language , the European Commission 's English Style Guide ( 2010 ) states that sentences are always single @-@ spaced . The Style Manual : For Authors , Editors and <unk> ( 2007 ) , first published in 1966 by the Commonwealth Government <unk> Office of Australia , <unk> that only one space is used after " sentence @-@ closing punctuation " and that " <unk> for word processing and desktop publishing offer more sophisticated , variable spacing , so this practice of double spacing is now avoided because it can create distracting gaps on a page . " 
 National languages not covered by an authoritative language academy typically have multiple style guides — only some of which may discuss sentence spacing . This is the case in the United Kingdom . The Oxford Style Manual ( 2003 ) and the Modern Humanities Research Association 's <unk> Style Guide ( 2002 ) state that only single spacing should be used . In Canada , both the English and French language sections of the Canadian Style , A Guide to Writing and Editing ( 1997 ) , prescribe single sentence spacing . In the United States , many style guides — such as the Chicago Manual of Style ( 2003 ) — allow only single sentence spacing . The most important style guide in Italy , Il <unk> <unk> di <unk> ( 2009 ) , does not address sentence spacing , but the <unk> di <unk> <unk> ( 2010 ) , the official guide for Microsoft translation , tells users to use single sentence spacing " instead of the double spacing used in the United States " . 
 
 = = = = Language guides = = = = 
 
 Some languages , such as French and Spanish , have academies that set language rules . Their publications typically address <unk> and grammar as opposed to matters of typography . Style guides are less relevant for such languages , as their academies set <unk> rules . For example , the <unk> française publishes the <unk> de l <unk> française for French speakers worldwide . The 1992 edition does not provide guidance on sentence spacing , but is single @-@ sentence @-@ spaced throughout — consistent with historical French spacing . The Spanish language is similar . The most important body within the Association of Spanish Language Academies , the Real <unk> <unk> , publishes the <unk> de la <unk> <unk> , which is viewed as <unk> for the Spanish language worldwide . The 2001 edition does not provide sentence spacing guidance , but is itself single sentence spaced . The German language manual <unk> des <unk> für Deutsche <unk> ( " <unk> of the Council for German <unk> " ) ( 2006 ) does not address sentence spacing . The manual itself uses one space after terminal punctuation . Additionally , the <unk> , the German language dictionary most commonly used in Germany , indicates that double sentence spacing is an error . 
 
 = = = Grammar guides = = = 
 
 A few reference <unk> address sentence spacing , as increased spacing between words is punctuation in itself . Most do not . Grammar guides typically cover terminal punctuation and the proper construction of sentences — but not the spacing between sentences . Moreover , many modern grammar guides are designed for quick reference and refer users to comprehensive style guides for additional matters of writing style . For example , the Pocket <unk> 's Guide to Grammar and <unk> ( 2005 ) points users to style guides such as the MLA Style Manual for consistency in formatting work and for all other " editorial concerns " . The Grammar Bible ( 2004 ) states that " The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple . A book that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight and anyone interested in such a resource is advised to consult the Chicago Manual of Style . " 
 
 = = Digital age = = 
 
 In the computer era , spacing between sentences is handled in several different ways by various software packages . Some systems accept whatever the user types , while others attempt to alter the spacing , or use the user input as a method of detecting sentences . Computer @-@ based word processors , and typesetting software such as troff and <unk> , allow users to arrange text in a manner previously only available to professional typesetters . 
 The text editing environment in <unk> uses a double space following a period to identify the end of sentences unambiguously ; the double space convention prevents confusion with periods within sentences that signify abbreviations . How <unk> recognizes the end of a sentence is controlled by the settings sentence @-@ end @-@ double @-@ space and sentence @-@ end . The vi editor also follows this convention ; thus , it is relatively easy to manipulate ( jump over , copy , <unk> ) whole sentences in both <unk> and vi . 
 The <unk> <unk> program troff uses two spaces to mark the end of a sentence . This allows the <unk> to distinguish sentence endings from abbreviations and to typeset them differently . Early versions of troff , which only typeset in fixed width fonts , would automatically add a second space between sentences , which were detected based on the combination of terminal punctuation and a line feed . 
 Microsoft Word does not treat sentences differently by default , but the grammar checking can be set to prefer a specific number of spaces between sentences . 
 On some modern touch @-@ screen platforms , including <unk> and iOS , typing two spaces in a row is automatically interpreted to mean the end of a sentence , and a period is automatically inserted . However , only one space is retained . 
 Multiple spaces are eliminated by default in most World Wide Web content , regardless of whether they are associated with sentences or not . There are options for preserving spacing , such as the CSS white @-@ space property , and the < pre > tag . Twitter retains extra spaces in user input on their website . HTML also includes several other space entities which are not collapsed , such as an em space , an en space , and a non @-@ breaking space . Some <unk> space characters are also not collapsed on the web . 
 
 = = Controversy = = 
 
 James <unk> , author of the Complete Manual of Typography , says that the topic of sentence spacing is " the debate that refuses to die ... In all my years of writing about type , it 's still the question I hear most often , and a search of the web will find threads <unk> on the subject " . This subject is still widely debated today . 
 Many people are opposed to single sentence spacing for various reasons . Some state that the habit of double spacing is too deeply <unk> to change . Others claim that additional space between sentences improves the aesthetics or readability of text . Proponents of double sentence spacing also state that some publishers may still require double @-@ spaced manuscript submissions from authors . A key example noted is the screenwriting industry 's monospaced standard for screenplay manuscripts , Courier , 12 @-@ point font , although some works on screenwriting indicate that Courier is merely preferred – proportional fonts may be used . Some reliable sources state simply that writers should follow their particular style guide , but proponents of double spacing caution that publishers ' guidance takes precedence , including those that ask for double sentence spaced manuscripts . 
 One of the most popular arguments against wider sentence spacing is that it was created for monospaced fonts of the typewriter , and is no longer needed with modern proportional fonts . However , proportional fonts existed together with wide sentence spacing for centuries before the typewriter , and remained for decades after its invention . When the typewriter was first introduced , typists were most commonly taught to use three spaces between sentences . This gradually shifted to two spaces , while the print industry remained unchanged in its wide em @-@ spaced sentences . Some sources now state it is acceptable for monospaced fonts to be single spaced today , although other references continue to specify double spacing for monospaced fonts . The double space typewriter convention has been taught in schools in typing classes , and that remains the practice in many cases . Some voice concerns that students will later be forced to <unk> how to type . 
 Most style guides indicate that single sentence spacing is proper for final or published work today , and most publishers require manuscripts to be submitted as they will appear in publication — single sentence spaced . Writing sources typically recommend that prospective authors remove extra spaces before submitting manuscripts , although other sources state that publishers will use software to remove the spaces before final publication . 
 
 = = Effects on readability and legibility = = 
 
 Claims <unk> regarding the legibility and readability of the single and double sentence spacing methods — by proponents on both sides . Supporters of single spacing assert that familiarity with the current standard in books , magazines , and the Web enhances readability , that double spacing looks strange in text using proportional fonts , and that the " rivers " and " holes " caused by double spacing <unk> readability . Proponents of double sentence spacing state that the extra space between sentences enhances readability by providing clearer breaks between sentences and making text appear more <unk> , particularly noting the very small visual difference between a dot and a comma . 
 However , typographic opinions are typically <unk> with no basis in evidence . " Opinions are not always safe guides to legibility of print " , and when direct studies are conducted , <unk> opinions — even those of experts — can turn out to be false . Text that seems <unk> ( visually pleasing at first glance ) may be shown to actually <unk> reading effectiveness when subjected to scientific study . 
 
 = = = Studies = = = 
 
 Direct studies on sentence spacing include those by <unk> , Branch , <unk> , and Ali ( 2002 ) ; Clinton , Branch , <unk> , and <unk> ( 2003 ) ; and Ni , Branch , and Chen ( 2004 ) , with results favoring neither single , double , nor triple spacing . The 2002 study tested participants ' reading speed for single and double sentence spaced passages of on @-@ screen text . The authors stated that " the ' double space group ' consistently took longer time to finish than the ' single space ' group " but concluded that " there was not enough evidence to suggest that a significant difference exists . " The 2003 and 2004 studies analyzed on @-@ screen single , double , and triple spacing . In both cases , the authors stated that there was insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion . Ni , Branch , Chen , and Clinton conducted a similar study in 2009 using identical spacing variables . The authors concluded that the " results provided insufficient evidence that time and comprehension differ significantly among different conditions of spacing between sentences " . 
 
 
 = The Crab with the Golden Claws = 
 
 The Crab with the Golden Claws ( French : Le <unk> aux <unk> d <unk> ) is the ninth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised weekly in Le Soir Jeunesse , the children 's supplement to Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from October 1940 to October 1941 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Partway through serialisation , Le Soir Jeunesse was cancelled and the story began to be serialised daily in the pages of Le Soir . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who travel to Morocco to pursue a gang of international opium smugglers . 
 The Crab with the Golden Claws was published in book form shortly after its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The <unk> Star , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1943 , Hergé coloured and <unk> the book in his distinctive ligne @-@ claire style for Casterman 's <unk> . The Crab with the Golden Claws introduces the recurring character Captain Haddock , who became a major fixture of the series . The book is the first Tintin adventure published in the United States and the first to be adapted into a motion picture . The Crab with the Golden Claws was adapted for the 1956 <unk> Studios animation Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , for the 1991 <unk> / <unk> animated series The Adventures of Tintin , and for the 2011 film directed by Steven Spielberg . 
 
 = = Synopsis = = 
 
 Tintin is informed by Thomson and Thompson of a case involving the <unk> of a drunken man , later killed , found with a scrap of paper from what appears to be a tin of crab meat with the word " Karaboudjan " <unk> on it . His subsequent investigation and the kidnapping of a Japanese man interested in giving him a letter leads Tintin to a ship called the Karaboudjan , where he is abducted by a syndicate of criminals who have hidden opium in the crab tins . Tintin escapes from his locked room after Snowy <unk> through his bonds and Tintin knocks out a man sent to bring him food , leaving the man bound and gagged in the room . Tintin encounters Captain Haddock , an alcoholic sea captain , who is manipulated by his first mate , Allan , and is unaware of his crew 's criminal activities . Tintin hides in the locker under the bed and defeats Jumbo , the sailor left in the cabin , while Allan thinks Tintin has climbed out of the <unk> back into the <unk> . He blows open the <unk> door , then finding it empty goes back to the Captain 's room , where he finds Jumbo tied to a chair and gagged . <unk> the ship in a lifeboat after sending a radio message to the police about the cargo , a seaplane tries to attack them . Tintin and the Captain <unk> the plane , tie up the pilots , and try to reach Spain . Haddock 's drunken behaviour in a storm causes them to crash @-@ land in the <unk> , where the crew escapes . 
 After <unk> across the desert and nearly dying of <unk> , Tintin and Haddock are rescued and taken to a French outpost , where they hear on the radio the storm sunk the Karaboudjan . They travel to a Moroccan port , and along the way are attacked by <unk> tribesmen , defending themselves with French <unk> @-@ 36 rifles . At the port , members of his old crew kidnap the Captain after he recognises their disguised Karaboudjan . Tintin meets Thomson and Thompson who got his message , and they learn that the wealthy merchant Omar ben Salaad sold the crab tins ; Tintin tells Thomson and Thompson to discreetly investigate . Tintin tracks down the gang and saves the Captain , but they both become intoxicated by the fumes from wine barrels breached in a shootout with the villains . Haddock chases a gang @-@ member from the cellar to an entrance behind a bookcase in Salaad 's house . Upon sobering up , Tintin discovers a necklace of a crab with golden claws on the now @-@ subdued owner of the wine cellar , Omar ben Salaad , and realizes that he is the leader of the drug <unk> . Allan steals a boat and tries escaping , but Tintin captures him . The police arrest the gang and free the Japanese man , who introduces himself as <unk> Kuraki , a police detective who was trying to warn Tintin of the group he was up against . He had been investigating the sailor on Haddock 's crew who drowned ; the sailor was on the verge of bringing him opium before he was eliminated . Turning on the radio , Tintin learns that , thanks to him , the entire organisation of the Crab with the Golden Claws is behind bars . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Background = = = 
 
 As the Belgian army clashed with the invading Germans in May 1940 , Hergé and his wife fled by car to France along with tens of thousands of other Belgians , first staying in Paris and then heading south to <unk> @-@ de @-@ <unk> , where they remained for six weeks . On 28 May , Belgian King Leopold III officially surrendered the country to the German army to prevent further killing ; a move that Hergé agreed with . Germany placed Belgium under occupation . Hergé followed the king 's request that all civilians who had fled the country return ; he arrived back in Brussels on 30 June . There , he found that an officer of the German army 's <unk> occupied his house , and he also faced financial trouble , as he owed back taxes yet was unable to access his financial reserves ( his fee due from Casterman eventually arrived ) . All Belgian publications were now under the control of the German occupying force . The Catholic publication Le Vingtième Siècle and its supplement Le Petit Vingtième , where Hergé had always worked <unk> The Adventures of Tintin , no longer had permission to continue publication . Land of Black Gold , the story that Hergé had been <unk> there , had to be abandoned . Victor <unk> , the <unk> editor of Le Pays <unk> , offered Hergé employment as a cartoonist , but Hergé perceived Le Pays <unk> as an explicitly political publication and thus declined the position . 
 Instead , he accepted a position with Le Soir , Belgium 's largest <unk> daily newspaper . <unk> from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and <unk> anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October , Hergé created its new children 's supplement , Le Soir Jeunesse . Appointed editor of this supplement , he was aided by old friend Paul <unk> and the cartoonist Jacques Van <unk> . The first issue of Le Soir Jeunesse was published with a large announcement across the cover : " Tintin et <unk> <unk> <unk> ! " ( " Tintin and Snowy are Back ! " ) . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration ; he received an anonymous letter from " the father of a large family " asking him not to work for Le Soir , fearing that The Adventures of Tintin would now be used to <unk> children in Nazi ideology , and that as a result " They will no longer speak of God , of the Christian family , of the Catholic ideal ... [ How ] can you agree to collaborate in this terrible act , a real sin against Spirit ? " Hergé however was heavily <unk> by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 , far more than what Le Vingtième Siècle had been able to accomplish . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had <unk> much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to <unk> political types , Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . " 
 
 = = = Publication = = = 
 
 The Crab with the Golden Claws began serialisation in Le Soir Jeunesse on 17 October 1940 . However , on 8 May 1941 , a paper shortage caused by the ongoing war led to the Le Soir Jeunesse being reduced to four pages , with the length of the weekly Tintin strip being cut by two @-@ thirds . Several weeks later , on 3 September 1941 , the supplement disappeared altogether , with The Crab with the Golden Claws being moved into Le Soir itself in September , where it became a daily strip . As a result , Hergé was forced to alter the pace at which his narrative moved , as he had to hold the reader 's attention at the end of every line . As with earlier Adventures of Tintin , the story was later serialised in France in the Catholic newspaper <unk> <unk> from 21 June 1942 . 
 Following serialisation , Casterman collected together and published the story in book form in 1941 ; the last black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin volume to be released . For this collected edition , Hergé thought of renaming the story , initially considering The Red Crab ( to accompany earlier adventures The Blue Lotus and The Black Island ) before re @-@ settling on Le <unk> aux <unk> d <unk> ( The Crab with the Golden Claws ) . Hergé became annoyed that Casterman then sent the book to the printers without his final approval . Nevertheless , as a result of Le Soir 's publicity , book sales markedly increased , to the extent that most of the prior Adventures of Tintin were reprinted as a result . German authorities made two exceptions : No <unk> of Tintin in America or The Black Island because they were set in the United States and Britain respectively , both of which were in conflict with Germany . 
 The serial introduced the character of Captain Haddock . Haddock made his first appearance in Le Soir adjacent to an advert for the anti @-@ Semitic German film , <unk> <unk> . Hergé chose the name " Haddock " for the character after his wife , <unk> <unk> , mentioned " a sad English fish " during a meal . The inclusion of the Japanese police detective <unk> Kuraki as an ally of Tintin 's in this story was probably designed to counterbalance Hergé 's portrayal of the Japanese as the antagonists in his earlier story , The Blue Lotus , particularly given that the occupying government was allied with Japan at the time . The use of Morocco as a setting was likely influenced by The White Squadron by French writer Joseph <unk> , which Hergé had read and seen the film in 1936 . The depiction of the French Foreign Legion in North Africa was possibly influenced by P. C. Wren 's novel Beau Geste ( 1925 ) or its cinematic adaptations in 1926 , 1928 , and 1939 . 
 Whereas Hergé 's use of Chinese in The Blue Lotus was correct , the Arabic script employed in The Crab with the Golden Claws was intentionally fictitious . Many of the place names featured in the series are puns : the town of <unk> was a pun on the French Que <unk> ? ( " what is to be done ? " ) while the port of <unk> derives from the French <unk> ( scrape , or fight ) . The name of Omar ben Salaad is a pun meaning " <unk> <unk> " in French . 
 In February 1942 , Casterman suggested to Hergé that his books be published in a new format ; 62 @-@ pages rather than the former 100 to 130 pages , and now in full colour rather than black @-@ and @-@ white . He agreed to this , and in 1943 The Crab with the Golden Claws was re @-@ edited and coloured for publication as an album in 1944 . Due to the changes in how the adventure had been serialised at Le Soir , the album at this <unk> was only 58 pages long , and thus Hergé filled the missing pages with four full @-@ page colour frames , thus bringing it up to the standard 62 @-@ page format . 
 In the 1960s , The Crab with the Golden Claws , along with King <unk> 's <unk> , became the first Tintin adventures published in the United States , in Little Golden Books . However , Casterman , working with the American publisher Western Publishing , made a number of changes : Jumbo , the sailor who Tintin leaves bound and gagged in Captain Haddock 's cabin , as well as another man who beats Haddock in the cellar , could not be black Africans as depicted in the original ; these were changed to a white sailor and an Arab due to the American publisher 's concerns depicting blacks and whites mixing together . The accompanying text was not changed , however , and Haddock still refers to the man who beat him as a " <unk> " . Also by request of the Americans , scenes of Haddock drinking directly from bottles of whiskey on the lifeboat and the plane were <unk> out , keeping only the text . The edited albums later had their <unk> areas redrawn by Hergé to be more acceptable , and they appear this way in published editions around the world . Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version of the story in 1980 , as part of the fourth volume in their Archives Hergé collection . In 1989 , they then published a facsimile version of that first edition . 
 
 = = Critical analysis = = 
 
 Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters described the story as a " <unk> " for The Adventures of Tintin and described the addition of Haddock as " a formidable narrative element " , one which " profoundly changed the spirit of the series " . Elsewhere , he asserts that it is Haddock 's appearance which " makes this book so memorable " and that he is <unk> to define the book by that character 's <unk> . Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline commented that The Crab with the Golden Claws had " a certain charm " stemming from its use of " <unk> and colonial nostalgia , for the French especially , <unk> their holdings in North Africa . " Michael Farr asserted that the arrival of Haddock was the most " remarkable " element of the story , offering the series " tremendous new potential " . He also thought that the dream sequences reflected the popularity of surrealism at the time , and that the influence of cinema , in particular the films of Alfred Hitchcock , is apparent in the story . 
 Jean @-@ Marc <unk> and Randy <unk> described the story as " a thinly @-@ disguised remake of Cigars of the Pharaoh " , an Adventure of Tintin which had been first serialised in 1934 . Both feature the smuggling of opium , in crab tins and cigars respectively , and " desert <unk> , hostile tribes and , at the end , the infiltrating of a secret underground lair . " They also opined that artistically , the story represented " a turning point in Hergé 's career " , because he had to switch to a daily format in Le Soir , although as a result of this they felt that the final third of the story " seems rushed " . <unk> that the inclusion of a Japanese detective investigating drug smuggling in the Mediterranean makes no sense within the context of 1940s Europe , they ultimately awarded the story three out of five stars . 
 Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University , in a <unk> review of The Crab with the Golden Claws , commented that this book witnessed Tintin 's " real entrance into the community of human beings " as he gains an " older brother " in Haddock . He also believed that the recurring image of alcohol throughout the story was symbolic of sexuality . In particular , he believed that there was a strong <unk> subtext between Haddock and Tintin , represented in the two delirious sequences ; in one , Haddock <unk> Tintin as a <unk> bottle <unk> at the top ( thereby symbolising an <unk> penis ) , while in the other , Tintin dreams that he is trapped inside a bottle , with Haddock about to stick a <unk> into him ( thereby symbolising sexual penetration ) . However , Apostolidès notes , in both instances the pair are prevented from realising their sexual fantasies . Literary critic Tom McCarthy concurred with Apostolidès on this point , also highlighting what he perceived as <unk> undertones to these two scenes . He also noted that in this Adventure , the manner in which a chance finding of a tin can on a Belgian street leads Tintin into the story is representative of the recurring theme of " Tintin the detective " found throughout the series . 
 
 = = Adaptations = = 
 
 In 1947 , the first Tintin motion picture was created : the stop motion @-@ animated feature film The Crab with the Golden Claws , faithfully adapted by producer Wilfried <unk> for Films Claude <unk> . It was first shown at the ABC Cinema on 11 January 1947 for a group of invited guests . It was screened publicly only once , on 21 December of that year , before <unk> declared bankruptcy and fled to Argentina . 
 In 1957 , the animation company <unk> Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . The Crab with the Golden Claws was the fifth such story to be adapted , being directed by Ray <unk> and written by Greg , himself a well @-@ known cartoonist who in later years would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine . 
 In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio <unk> and the Canadian animation company <unk> . <unk> 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long , with most stories spanning two episodes , The Crab with the Golden Claws was the seventh story produced in the series . Directed by <unk> <unk> , critics have praised the series for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book . 
 A motion capture adventure film titled The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson was released in the US on 21 December 2011 and in Europe at the end of October 2011 . Parts of the movie are taken from The Crab with the Golden Claws including the meeting and first adventures of Tintin and Captain Haddock , the Karaboudjan , the flight to <unk> , and the crab cans ( although the plot involving the smuggled opium was not adapted ) . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 . 
 
 = = In popular culture = = 
 
 In The Simpsons episode In the Name of the <unk> Bart Simpson makes a derogatory remark about Belgium , causing his mother Marge to threaten him with " taking his <unk> away " , whereupon Bart clutches a copy of the Tintin album The Crab with the Golden Claws to his chest , promising he 'll behave . 
 
 
 = L.A.M.B. = 
 
 L.A.M.B. is a fashion line by American singer Gwen Stefani , the lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt . The line manufactures apparel and fashion accessories . It was founded in 2003 and made its runway debut in 2004 . The fashion line manufactures accessories like shoes , watches , bags and a fragrance called " L. " The name is an acronym of her debut solo album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . 
 The line is influenced by a variety of <unk> cultures , including <unk> , Japanese , Indian and Jamaican styles . Stefani came from a family of <unk> . This further inspired her to launch her own fashion line . The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Paris Hilton and Stefani herself . The fashion line made a runway debut in the spring collection of 2004 and achieved mainstream success at New York Fashion Week in 2005 . It currently makes an annual gross income of $ 90 million . The line , as well as the fashion shows , were well received by critics and appreciated the indulgence of a celebrity into the fashion world . An additional fashion line was launched by Stefani called Harajuku Lovers . 
 In late 2014 Stefani announced she would be producing an animated series that was based on the characters Love , Angel , Music and Baby . The series , <unk> Harajuku follows the Harajuku Girls , known together as <unk> , as they fight evil and try to pursue their music career . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Stefani first came face to face with designing clothes when she and her mother would <unk> clothes for themselves when she was young . Stefani comes from a long line of <unk> , as even her great @-@ grandmother would <unk> clothes . Stefani made most of the things she wore onstage during concerts . When she became successful and began to tour constantly , she felt she lost her way . Then she met the stylist Andrea Lieberman . Lieberman introduced her to <unk> couture clothing . Later Lieberman became her creative consultant and <unk> <unk> took over as the head designer . <unk> later parted ways with L.A.M.B. 
 L.A.M.B. started out as a collaboration with LeSportsac in 2003 . The name L.A.M.B. is an acronym which stands for Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , which is also the name of Stefani 's first solo album . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The fashion line manufactures clothes , shoes , bags and a fragrance called " L " . The brand started out as a line for women but claims the track items are <unk> . The clothes were manufactured by <unk> Girl LLC , which was founded in 2003 by Ken <unk> , president of L.A.M.B. While for its other products , L.A.M.B has been more of a collaborative fashion line . Now the line is teaming up with another manufacturer , which explains why the official website is down . 
 L.A.M.B joined with Royal <unk> for the shoe line . Stefani is widening her footwear line for adults to include boots and <unk> . L.A.M.B collaborated with Coty Inc. for the fragrance and with LeSportsac for handbags in 2003 . Stefani went on to design a new line of handbags with <unk> and Partners in 2006 . The bags feature LeSportsac 's signature rip @-@ stop nylon along with a variety of <unk> metal hardware , leather <unk> and colorful <unk> . Stefani plans to design lingerie as well as make @-@ up products for L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. partnered with <unk> Group on a line of women 's watches . The line consists of 39 <unk> . 
 L.A.M.B. products are relatively expensive , with apparel priced $ 55 to $ 1100 , handbags priced $ 80 to $ <unk> , and watches priced $ 125 to $ 995 . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Coty Inc. announced a global licensing agreement with Stefani , to develop and market <unk> for L.A.M.B. Catherine Walsh , senior vice president , American <unk> , Coty <unk> , said in a statement - " From the packaging to the bottle design to the distinctive scent itself , we will be working very closely with Stefani to ensure that her signature fragrance captures her rare spirit , style and warmth , " Stefani said , " <unk> a fragrance is one of the most prestigious things a designer can do . " 
 The fragrance called " L " was launched in September , 2007 at <unk> House in New York . Stefani worked with <unk> Harry <unk> to develop the scent . Stefani described the fragrance as " it 's another thing you can wear and another thing I can be part of creatively . I created it for myself -- it 's like me shrunk into a box . " The perfume is a blend of the <unk> of <unk> , white <unk> , fresh pear , violet , <unk> , rose , <unk> , sweet pea , orange blossom , peach , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . The perfume is available in 50 ml and 100 ml bottles . 
 
 = = Promotion and fashion shows = = 
 
 Stefani frequently refers to her clothing line in her music , as one of the brand 's promotional strategies . Stefani refers to her clothing line in her songs " Wind It Up , " " Harajuku Girls , " and " Crash " ( which even incorporates the brand 's slogan , " I want you all over me like L.A.M.B. " ) . Stefani is often seen wearing her own designs , especially when making public appearances . A thirty @-@ second commercial directed by Sophie <unk> was also released to promote the brand 's fragrance . 
 L.A.M.B. has participated in the Spring / Summer 2006 , 2007 , and 2008 New York Fashion Weeks . Stefani described her first line , which debuted on September 16 , 2005 , as " a little Sound of Music , some Orange County <unk> girl , some <unk> , and a bit of The Great <unk> . " The highlights of the show were purple cars bouncing using <unk> while Stefani 's song " Wind It Up " made its debut as the models walked the runway . 
 For Spring / Summer 2007 , Stefani opted for a presentation rather than a catwalk show . The models , all donning identical blond <unk> , wore designs Stefani said were inspired by Michelle Pfeiffer 's role as Elvira Hancock in the 1983 <unk> . The show included some of Stefani 's trademark <unk> and extensively referenced prints from Guatemala , India , and Japan . On September 5 , 2007 , L.A.M.B opened New York 's Spring / Summer 2008 Mercedes @-@ Benz Fashion Week . The collection " looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties " and incorporated influences from Stefani 's <unk> roots . Fashion week organizer Fern <unk> said that celebrity designers provided <unk> and energy to the fashion industry , which made Stefani 's collection a desirable opener . 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 The line was mostly well received by critics and Stefani was appreciated for taking fashion seriously even though she is a celebrity . Fern <unk> of <unk> praised the line and Stefani as well and said , " the L.A.M.B. line is clearly at the top of these lines and is as unique and individual as Gwen herself . " The shoes were well received by the critics , though considered to be <unk> . Desiree <unk> of About.com said , " ... these shoes aren 't for everyone , but will most definitely appeal to fans of Ms. Stefani 's music and fashion - sense . " Tim <unk> of Entertainment Weekly said , " L.A.M.B. ' s embellished <unk> , <unk> @-@ inspired <unk> , and <unk> @-@ heel <unk> deliver the edge " Nicole <unk> of <unk> said , " The collection , which looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties , was altogether more <unk> and on trend . " Fashion journalist <unk> <unk> of The New York Times differed and said , " If ever there was a reason for a pop star to concentrate on her vocal skills , it was Gwen Stefani 's fashion <unk> . " 
 
 = = Commercial success = = 
 
 The brand is sold in 275 stores worldwide and is worn by celebrities including Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Kelly <unk> , Paris Hilton , and Stefani herself . L.A.M.B sales have expanded from $ 40 million in 2005 to a predicted $ 90 million in 2007 . According to a <unk> spokesperson , the debut of L.A.M.B. ' s watch line , which sold out in two days , was the store 's most successful watch launch ever . The brand 's designs have appeared in W , Marie Claire , Elle , Lucky and <unk> . 
 
 
 = First @-@ move advantage in chess = 
 
 The first @-@ move advantage in chess is the inherent advantage of the player ( White ) who makes the first move in chess . Chess players and theorists generally agree that White begins the game with some advantage . Since 1851 , compiled statistics support this view ; White consistently wins slightly more often than Black , usually scoring between 52 and 56 percent . White 's winning percentage is about the same for tournament games between humans and games between computers . However , White 's advantage is less significant in <unk> games and games between <unk> . 
 Chess players and <unk> have long debated whether , given perfect play by both sides , the game should end in a win for White , or a draw . Since approximately 1889 , when World Champion Wilhelm <unk> addressed this issue , the overwhelming consensus has been that a perfectly played game would end in a draw . However , a few notable players have argued that White 's advantage may be sufficient to force a win : Weaver Adams and <unk> <unk> claimed that White is winning after the first move 1.e4 , while Hans Berliner argued that 1.d4 may win for White . 
 Some players , including World Champions such as José <unk> Capablanca , Emanuel Lasker , and Bobby Fischer , have expressed fears of a " draw death " as chess becomes more deeply analyzed . To alleviate this danger , Capablanca and Fischer both proposed chess variants to renew interest in the game , while Lasker suggested changing how draws and stalemate are scored . 
 Since 1988 , chess theorists have challenged previously well @-@ established views about White 's advantage . Grandmaster ( GM ) <unk> Adorján wrote a series of books on the theme that " Black is OK ! " , arguing that the general perception that White has an advantage is founded more in psychology than reality . GM Mihai Suba and others contend that sometimes White 's initiative disappears for no apparent reason as a game progresses . The prevalent style of play for Black today is to seek dynamic , <unk> positions with active <unk> , rather than merely trying to equalize . 
 Modern writers also argue that Black has certain <unk> advantages . The consensus that White should try to win can be a psychological burden for the white player , who sometimes loses by trying too hard to win . Some symmetrical openings ( i.e. those where both players make the same moves ) can lead to situations where moving first is a disadvantage , either for psychological or objective reasons . 
 
 = = Winning percentages = = 
 
 In 1946 , <unk> Streeter examined the results of 5 @,@ <unk> games played in 45 international chess tournaments between 1851 and 1932 . Streeter found that overall White scored 53 @.@ 4 % ( W : 38 @.@ 12 ; D : 30 @.@ 56 ; L : 31 @.@ 31 ) . White scored 52 @.@ 55 % in 1851 – 78 ( W : 45 @.@ 52 ; D : 14 @.@ 07 ; L : 40 @.@ 41 ) , 52 @.@ 77 % in 1881 – 1914 ( W : 36 @.@ 89 ; D : 31 @.@ 76 ; L : 31 @.@ 35 ) , and 55 @.@ 47 % in 1919 – 32 ( W : 36 @.@ 98 ; D : 36 @.@ 98 ; L : 26 @.@ 04 ) . Streeter concluded , " It thus appears that it is becoming increasingly difficult to win with Black , but somewhat easier to draw . " 
 Two decades later , <unk> Arthur M. Stevens concluded in The Blue Book of Charts to Winning Chess , based on a survey of 56 @,@ 972 master games that he completed in 1967 , that White scores 59 @.@ 1 % . However , Stevens assembled his games from those that had been published in chess magazines , rather than complete collections of all the games played in particular events . 
 More recent sources indicate that White scores approximately 54 to 56 percent . In 2005 , GM Jonathan Rowson wrote that " the conventional wisdom is that White begins the game with a small advantage and , holding all other factors constant , scores approximately 56 % to Black 's 44 % " . International Master ( IM ) John Watson wrote in 1998 that White had scored 56 % for most of the 20th century , but that this figure had recently slipped to 55 % . The website <unk> holds regularly updated statistics on its games database . As of January 12 , 2015 , White had won 37 @.@ 50 % , 34 @.@ 90 % were drawn , and Black had won 27 @.@ 60 % out of <unk> @,@ <unk> games , resulting in a total White winning percentage of 54 @.@ 95 % . 
 New In Chess observed in its 2000 <unk> that of the 731 @,@ 740 games in its database , White scored 54 @.@ 8 % overall ; with the two most popular opening moves , White scored 54 @.@ 1 % in 349 @,@ <unk> games beginning 1.e4 , and 56 @.@ 1 % in 296 @,@ 200 games beginning <unk> The main reason that 1.e4 was less effective than 1.d4 was the Sicilian Defence ( 1.e4 c5 ) , which gave White only a 52 @.@ 3 % score in 145 @,@ 996 games . 
 <unk> Jeff <unk> , in examining data from 266 @,@ 000 games played between 1994 and 2001 , concluded that White scored 54 @.@ 1767 % plus 0 @.@ <unk> times White 's Elo rating advantage , treating White 's rating advantage as + 390 if it is better than + 390 , or − 460 if it is worse than − 460 . He found that White 's advantage is equivalent to 35 rating points , i.e. if White has a rating 35 points below Black 's , each player will have an expected score of 50 % . <unk> also found that White 's advantage is smaller ( 53 % ) in rapid games than in games at a slower ( " classical " ) time control . In the 462 games played at the 2009 World Blitz Chess Championship , White scored only 52 @.@ 16 % ( <unk> <unk> L 34 @.@ 63 ) . 
 Other writers conclude that there is a positive correlation between the players ' ratings and White 's score . According to GM <unk> Sveshnikov , statistics show that White has no advantage over Black in games between <unk> , but " if the players are stronger , White has the lead " . An analysis of the results of games in <unk> 's Mega 2003 database between players with similar Elo ratings , commissioned by GM <unk> Adorján , showed that as the players ' ratings went up , the percentage of draws increased , the proportion of decisive games that White won increased , and White 's overall winning percentage increased . For example , taking the highest and lowest of Adorján 's rating categories of 1669 games played by the highest @-@ rated players ( Elo ratings <unk> and above ) , White scored 55 @.@ 7 % overall ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , whereas of 34 @,@ <unk> games played by the lowest @-@ rated players ( Elo ratings below 2100 ) , White scored 53 @.@ 1 % overall ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) . Adorján also analyzed the results of games played at the very highest level : World Championship matches . Of <unk> games played in 34 matches between 1886 and 1990 , White won 234 ( 31 @.@ 0 % ) , drew <unk> ( 52 @.@ 6 % ) , and lost 124 ( 16 @.@ 4 % ) , for a total white winning percentage of 57 @.@ 3 % . In the last five matches in <unk> 's survey , all between <unk> <unk> and Garry Kasparov , White won 31 ( 25 @.@ 8 % ) , drew 80 ( 66 @.@ 7 % ) , and lost 9 ( 7 @.@ 5 % ) , for a total white winning percentage of 59 @.@ 2 % . 
 Chess <unk> Grand Tournament ( <unk> ) tests computer chess engines by playing them against each other , with time controls of forty moves in one hundred and twenty minutes per player ( 40 / 120 ) , and also 40 / 20 and 40 / 4 , and uses the results of those games to compile a rating list for each time control . At the slowest time control ( 40 / 120 ) , White has scored 55 @.@ 4 % ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) in games played among 38 of the strongest chess engines ( as of May 27 , 2009 ) . At 40 / 20 , White has scored 54 @.@ 6 % ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) in games played among <unk> engines ( as of May 24 , 2009 ) . At the fastest time control ( 40 / 4 ) , White has scored 54 @.@ 8 % ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , in games played among 128 programs ( as of May 28 , 2009 ) . 
 
 = = Drawn with best play = = 
 
 Joseph Bertin wrote in his <unk> textbook The Noble Game of Chess , " He that plays first , is understood to have the attack . " This is consistent with the traditional view that White , by virtue of the first move , begins with the initiative and should try to extend it into the <unk> , while Black should strive to neutralize White 's initiative and attain equality . Because White begins with the initiative , a minor mistake by White generally leads only to loss of the initiative , while a similar mistake by Black may have more serious consequences . Thus , Sveshnikov wrote in 1994 , " Black players cannot afford to make even the slightest mistake ... from a theoretical point of view , the tasks of White and Black in chess are different : White has to strive for a win , Black — for a draw ! " 
 Chess theorists have long debated how enduring White 's initiative is and whether , if both sides play perfectly , the game should end in a win for White or a draw . George Walker wrote in 1846 that , " The first move is an advantage , ... but if properly answered , the first move is of little worth " . <unk> , the first World Champion , who is widely considered the father of modern chess , wrote in 1889 , " It is now conceded by all experts that by proper play on both sides the legitimate issue of a game ought to be a draw . " Lasker and Capablanca , the second and third World Champions , agreed . <unk> Fine , one of the world 's leading players from 1936 to 1951 , wrote that White 's opening advantage is too <unk> to be sufficient for a win without an error by Black . 
 The view that a game of chess should end in a draw given best play prevails . Even if it cannot be proved , this assumption is considered " safe " by Rowson and " logical " by Adorján . Watson agrees that " the proper result of a perfectly played chess game ... is a draw . ... Of course , I can 't prove this , but I doubt that you can find a single strong player who would disagree . ... I remember Kasparov , after a last @-@ round draw , explaining to the waiting reporters : ' Well , chess is a draw . ' " World Champion Bobby Fischer thought that was almost definitely so . 
 Lasker and Capablanca both worried that chess would suffer a " draw death " as top @-@ level players drew more and more of their games . More recently , Fischer agreed , saying that the game has become played out . All three advocated changing the rules of chess to minimize the number of drawn games . Lasker suggested scoring less than half a point for a draw , and more than half a point for <unk> the opponent 's king . Capablanca in the 1920s proposed Capablanca chess , a chess variant played on a larger board and with additional pieces . Fischer advocated Fischer Random Chess , another chess variant , in which the initial position of the pieces is determined at random . 
 Today some of the <unk> opening variations have been analyzed so deeply that they are often used as drawing weapons . For example , at the highest levels , Black often uses the Marshall Attack in the Ruy Lopez , a line where Black sacrifices a pawn for strong attacking chances , to obtain an endgame where Black is still a pawn down but is able to draw with correct play . 
 In 2007 , <unk> <unk> Georgiev and <unk> Kolev asserted that much the same was true of the so @-@ called <unk> <unk> Variation of the <unk> Sicilian , which arises after 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 <unk> cxd4 <unk> Nf6 <unk> a6 6.Bg5 e6 <unk> <unk> ! ? This has long been considered one of the <unk> and most problematic , or even <unk> , opening lines . The game usually continues <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> . Georgiev and Kolev stated that 6.Bg5 is seldom seen at the highest level because the main line of this variation leads , with best play , to a draw by perpetual check . They wrote that the following game " will probably remain the last word of theory " : 
 Francisco <unk> <unk> – Kasparov , Moscow 2004 : 1 @.@ e4 c5 2 . Nf3 d6 3 @.@ d4 cxd4 4 . <unk> Nf6 5 . Nc3 a6 6 . <unk> e6 7 @.@ <unk> <unk> 8 . <unk> <unk> 9 . Rb1 <unk> 10 @.@ <unk> Nc6 11 @.@ fxe6 fxe6 12 . <unk> <unk> 13 @.@ e5 <unk> 14 . <unk> <unk> 15 . Ne4 <unk> 16 . <unk> Be7 17 . <unk> 0 @-@ 0 18 . 0 @-@ 0 <unk> 19 . <unk> <unk> 20 . <unk> <unk> 21 . <unk> <unk> 22 . <unk> <unk> + 23 . <unk> <unk> 24 . <unk> <unk> 25 . <unk> <unk> + 26 . <unk> <unk> + 27 . <unk> <unk> + 28 . <unk> <unk> + 29 . <unk> <unk> + 30 . <unk> <unk> + 31 . <unk> <unk> + 32 . <unk> <unk> + 33 . <unk> <unk> + 34 . <unk> 1 / 2 – 1 / 2 ( After 34 ... <unk> + , White cannot escape the checks . ) 
 However , Georgiev and Kolev 's pessimistic assessment of 6.Bg5 has since been called into question , as White succeeded with <unk> ( another critical line ) in several later high @-@ level games . GM <unk> <unk> wrote in 2013 that after <unk> , " a forced draw results " , but that after <unk> , " we reach a very sharp position , with mutual chances . " 
 
 = = White wins = = 
 
 
 = = = White wins with 1.e4 = = = 
 
 Although it is very much a minority view , three prominent twentieth @-@ century masters claimed that White 's advantage should or may be decisive with best play . Weaver Adams , then one of the leading American masters , was the best @-@ known proponent of this view , which he introduced in his 1939 book White to Play and <unk> , and continued to expound in later books and articles until shortly before his death in 1963 . Adams opined that 1.e4 was White 's strongest move , and that if both sides played the best moves thereafter , " White ought to win . " Adams ' claim was widely ridiculed , and he did not succeed in demonstrating the validity of his theory in tournament and match practice . The year after his book was published , at the finals of the 1940 U.S. Open tournament , he scored only one draw in his four games as White , but won all four of his games as Black . Adams also lost a match to IM <unk> Horowitz , who took the black pieces in every game . 
 According to Sveshnikov , <unk> <unk> , a leading Soviet player and <unk> during the 1930s , likewise " claimed in the [ 1930s ] : ' 1.e4 — and White wins ! ' and he managed to prove it quite often " . 
 
 = = = White wins with 1.d4 = = = 
 
 More recently , IM Hans Berliner , a former World Champion of <unk> Chess , claimed in his 1999 book The System that 1.d4 gives White a large , and possibly decisive , advantage . Berliner asserted that with best play White wins against the <unk> Defense , the Modern <unk> , the <unk> Gambit and other ( unnamed ) " major defences " , and achieves at least a large advantage in many lines of the Queen 's Gambit <unk> . However , he allowed that , " It is possible that the rules of chess are such that only some number of plausible @-@ appearing defences to 1.d4 can be refuted . " Berliner wrote that Adams ' " theories , though looked upon with <unk> by most top chess players , made an immediate and lasting impression on me . Weaver W. Adams was the first person I met who actually had theories about how chess should be played . " 
 Berliner 's thesis , like Adams ' , has been sharply criticized . 
 
 = = Modern perspectives = = 
 
 As explained below , chess theorists in recent decades have continued to debate the size and nature of White 's advantage , if any . Apart from Berliner , they have rejected the idea that White has a forced win from the opening position . Many also reject the traditional paradigm that Black 's objective should be to neutralize White 's initiative and obtain equality . 
 
 = = = White has an enduring advantage = = = 
 
 In 2004 , GM Larry Kaufman expressed a more <unk> view than Adams and Berliner , arguing that the initiative stemming from the first move can always be transformed into some sort of enduring advantage , albeit not necessarily a decisive one . Kaufman writes , " I don 't believe that White has a forced win in Chess . I do however believe that with either 1.e4 or 1.d4 , White should be able to obtain some sort of advantage that persists into the endgame . If chess were scored like boxing , with drawn games awarded by some point system to the player ( if any ) who came ' closer ' to winning , then I believe White would indeed have a forced win in theory . " 
 
 = = = Black is OK ! = = = 
 
 Starting in 1988 , Adorján has argued in a series of books and magazine articles that " Black is OK ! " Alone amongst modern writers , Adorján claims that White starts the game with essentially no advantage . He writes , " In my opinion , the only obvious advantage for White is that if he or she plays for a draw , and does so well , then Black can hardly avoid this without taking obvious risks . " Adorján goes so far as to claim that , " The tale of White 's advantage is a delusion , belief in it is based on mass <unk> . " Rowson writes that Adorján 's " contention is one of the most important chess ideas of the last two decades ... because it has shaken our assumption that White begins the game with some advantage , and revealed its ideological nature " . However , Rowson rejects Adorján 's claim that White has essentially no advantage , reasoning that " ' White is better ' and ' Black is OK ' need not be mutually exclusive claims " . 
 In one of Adorján 's books , GM <unk> Portisch opined that " at least two @-@ thirds of all ' tested ' openings give White an apparent advantage . " According to Portisch , for Black , " The root of the problem is that very few people know which are the openings where Black is really OK . Those who find these lines have nothing to fear , as Black is indeed OK , but only in those variations ! " Rowson considers this an important point , noting that " 1.d4 players struggle to get anywhere against main @-@ line <unk> and 1.e4 players find the <unk> and Sveshnikov <unk> particularly tough . " 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Modern writers often think of Black 's role in more dynamic terms than merely trying to equalize . Rowson writes that " the idea of Black trying to ' equalize ' is questionable . I think it has limited application to a few openings , rather than being an opening <unk> for Black in general . " Evans wrote that after one of his games against Fischer , " Fischer <unk> his ' secret ' to me : unlike other masters , he sought to win with the Black pieces from the start . The revelation that Black has dynamic chances and need not be satisfied with mere equality was the turning point in his career , he said . " Likewise , Watson surmised that Kasparov , when playing Black , bypasses the question of whether White has an opening advantage " by thinking in terms of the concrete nature of the dynamic imbalance on the board , and seeking to seize the initiative whenever possible " . Watson observes that " energetic opening play by Black may ... lead to a position so complex and unclear that to speak of equality is meaningless . Sometimes we say ' dynamically balanced ' instead of ' equal ' to express the view that either player is as likely as the other to emerge from complications with an advantage . This style of opening play has become prevalent in modern chess , with World Champions Fischer and Kasparov as its most visible practitioners . " 
 Modern writers also question the idea that White has an enduring advantage . Suba , in his influential 1991 book Dynamic Chess Strategy , rejects the notion that the initiative can always be transformed into an enduring advantage . He contends that sometimes the player with the initiative loses it with no logical explanation , and that , " Sometimes you must lose it , just like that . If you try to <unk> to it , by forcing the issue , your dynamic potential will become exhausted and you won 't be able to face a vigorous counter @-@ attack . " Rowson and Watson <unk> . Watson also observes , " Because of the <unk> of White being better , the <unk> of the game at which Black frees his game or <unk> White 's plans has often been automatically assumed to give him equality , even though in dynamic openings , the exhaustion of White 's initiative very often means that Black has seized it with advantage . " 
 
 = = = <unk> advantages = = = 
 
 Rowson argues that both White and Black have certain advantages : 
 
 = = = = White 's advantages = = = = 
 
 According to Rowson , White 's first advantage is that , " The advantage of the first move has some similarities with the serve in tennis in that White can score an ' ace ' ( for instance with a powerful opening novelty ) , he has more control over the pace and direction of the game , and he has a ' second serve ' in that when things go wrong his position is not usually losing . " Second , White begins the game with some initiative , although Rowson regards this as a psychological rather than a positional advantage , " and whether it leads to a positional advantage depends on the relative skill of the players . " Third , some players are able to use the initiative to " play a kind of powerful ' serve and volley ' chess in which Black is flattened with a mixture of deep preparation and attacking prowess . " Fourth , " If White wants to draw , it is often not so easy for Black to prevent this . This advantage is particularly acute in cases where there is a possible threefold repetition , because White can begin the repetition without committing to a draw and Black has to decide whether to deviate before he knows whether White is <unk> . " 
 Rowson cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well @-@ regarded Zaitsev Variation of the Ruy Lopez . After 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 <unk> a6 <unk> Nf6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 <unk> b5 <unk> 0 @-@ 0 <unk> d6 <unk> Bb7 <unk> Re8 ( initiating the Zaitsev Variation ) , White can repeat moves once with <unk> Rf8 <unk> This puts Black in an awkward situation , since he must either ( a ) insist on the Zaitsev with 12 ... Re8 , which allows White to choose whether to draw by threefold repetition with <unk> Rf8 <unk> , or play on with a different move , or ( b ) play a different ( and possibly inferior ) variation by playing something other than 12 ... Re8 . 
 
 = = = = Black 's advantages = = = = 
 
 Rowson argues that Black also has several advantages . First , " White 's alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win , and Black can often use this to his advantage . " Second , " White 's ' extra move ' can be a burden , and sometimes White finds himself in a mild form of <unk> ( ' <unk> Lite ' ) . " Third , although White begins the game with the initiative , if " Black retains a flexible position with good reactive possibilities , this initiative can be absorbed and often passes over to Black . " Fourth , " The fact that White moves before Black often gives Black useful information " . Suba likewise argues that White 's advantage is actually less than a move , since White must tip his hand first , allowing Black to react to White 's plans . Suba writes , " In terms of the mathematical games theory , chess is a game of complete information , and Black 's information is always greater — by one move ! " 
 Rowson also notes that Black 's chances increase markedly by playing good openings , which tend to be those with flexibility and latent potential , " rather than those that give White fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely . " He also emphasizes that " White has ' the initiative ' , not ' the advantage ' . Success with Black depends on seeing beyond the initiative and thinking of positions in terms of ' potential ' . " These ideas are exemplified by the Hedgehog , a dynamic modern system against the English Opening that can arise from various move orders . A typical position arises after 1.c4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6 <unk> b6 <unk> Bb7 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 e6 <unk> Be7 <unk> cxd4 <unk> d6 <unk> a6 . White has a spatial advantage , while Black often maneuvers his pieces on the last two ranks of the board , but White " has to keep a constant eye on the possible liberating pawn <unk> ... b5 and ... d5 . " Watson remarks , " Black 's goal is to remain elastic and flexible , with many options for his pieces , whereas White can become <unk> at some point by the need to protect against various dynamic pawn breaks . " He also observes that , " White tends to be as much tied up by Black 's latent activity as Black himself is tied up by White 's space advantage . " Moreover , attempts by White to overrun Black 's position often rebound <unk> . An example of this is the following <unk> game : 
 Lev <unk> – <unk> Ftáčnik , <unk> <unk> 1982 : 1 . Nf3 Nf6 2 @.@ c4 c5 3 . Nc3 e6 4 @.@ g3 b6 5 . Bg2 Bb7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 Be7 7 @.@ d4 cxd4 8 . <unk> d6 9 . <unk> a6 10 @.@ <unk> <unk> 11 @.@ e4 <unk> 12 . <unk> 0 @-@ 0 Suba wrote of a similar Hedgehog position , " White 's position looks ideal . That 's the naked truth about it , but the ' ideal ' has by definition one drawback — it cannot be improved . " 13 . <unk> <unk> 14 @.@ <unk> <unk> 15 . <unk> <unk> 16 . <unk> <unk> 17 @.@ <unk> ? According to Ftáčnik , <unk> <unk> <unk> is <unk> <unk> ! 18 @.@ <unk> <unk> 19 . Nf3 Now Black breaks open the position in typical Hedgehog <unk> d5 ! 20 @.@ <unk> ? ! Ftáčnik considers <unk> or <unk> <unk> <unk> ! 21 . <unk> <unk> 22 @.@ <unk> <unk> 23 @.@ <unk> fxe6 24 @.@ e5 ? Ftáčnik recommends instead <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> + 25 . <unk> <unk> ! 26 . <unk> <unk> 27 . <unk> Other moves get mated immediately : <unk> <unk> # ; <unk> <unk> # ; <unk> <unk> # . <unk> 28 . <unk> <unk> + ! 29 . <unk> <unk> + If <unk> ( the only legal response to the double check ) , <unk> + <unk> Rf8 + forces mate . 0 – 1 
 An examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates White 's and Black 's respective advantages : 
 
 = = = = = <unk> openings = = = = = 
 
 In a " reversed opening " , White plays an opening typically played by Black , but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo . Evans writes of such openings , " If a defense is considered good for Black , it must be even better for White with a move in hand . " Former World Champion Mikhail <unk> reportedly expressed the same view . Watson questions this idea , citing Suba 's thesis that Black , by moving second , has more complete information than White . He writes , " everyone has such difficulties playing as White against a Sicilian Defence ( 1.e4 c5 ) , but ... leading masters have no qualms about answering 1.c4 with 1 ... e5 . " To explain this paradox , Watson discusses several different reversed Sicilian lines , showing how Black can exploit the disadvantages of various " extra " moves for White . He concludes , " The point is , Black 's set @-@ up in the Sicilian is fine as a reactive system , but not worth much when trying to claim the initiative as White . This is true because Black is able to react to the specific plan White chooses ; in Suba 's terms , his information is indeed a move greater ! Furthermore , he is able to take advantage of dead equal positions which White ( hoping to retain the advantage of the first move ) would normally avoid . " 
 Watson also observes , " Similarly , the Dutch Defence looks particularly sterile when White achieves the reversed positions a tempo up ( it turns out that he has nothing useful to do ! ) ; and indeed , many standard Black openings are not very inspiring when one gets them as White , tempo in hand . " GM Alex <unk> likewise notes that GM Vladimir <unk> , a successful exponent of the Leningrad Dutch ( 1.d4 <unk> <unk> g6 ) at the highest levels , " once made a deep impression on me by <unk> <unk> someone 's suggestion that he should try <unk> as White . He <unk> and said , ' That extra move 's gonna hurt me . ' " 
 <unk> also agrees with Alekhine 's criticism of <unk> e5 2.Nf3 , a reversed Alekhine 's Defense , in <unk> – Alekhine , Baden @-@ Baden 1925 , writing that Alekhine " understood the difference in opening philosophies for White and Black , and realized they just can 't be the same ! White is supposed to try for more than just obtaining a comfortable game in reversed colour opening set @-@ ups , and , as the statistics show — surprisingly for a lot of people , but not for me — White doesn 't even score as well as Black does in the same positions with his extra tempo and all . " Howard <unk> , generally considered to have been the strongest player in the world from 1843 to 1851 , made a similar point over 160 years ago , writing that Owen 's Defense ( 1.e4 b6 ) is playable for Black , but that <unk> is inferior to " the more customary [ first ] moves , from its being essentially defensive " . The current view is that Owen 's Defense is slightly better for White , while <unk> is playable but less likely to yield an opening advantage than 1.e4 or <unk> 
 Watson concludes that ( a ) " most moves have disadvantages as well as advantages , so an extra move is not always an <unk> blessing " ; ( b ) " with his extra information about what White is doing , Black can better react to the new situation " ; and ( c ) because a draw is likely to be more acceptable to Black than to White , White is <unk> to avoid lines that allow <unk> <unk> , while Black may not object to such lines . 
 
 = = = = = Symmetrical openings = = = = = 
 
 Rowson writes that " in general one would assume that whatever advantage White has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions . " Accordingly , Watson , Suba , Evans , and the eminent player and theorist <unk> <unk> ( 1886 – 1935 ) have all argued that it is in Black 's interest to avoid symmetry . Nonetheless , even symmetrical opening lines sometimes illustrate the tenuous nature of White 's advantage , in several respects . 
 It is often difficult for White to prove an advantage in symmetrical opening lines . As GM Bent Larsen wrote , <unk> a game that began 1.c4 c5 <unk> b6 , " In symmetrical openings , White has a theoretical advantage , but in many of them it is only theoretical . " GM Andrew Soltis wrote in 2008 that he hates playing against the symmetrical <unk> 's Defense ( 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 ) , and accordingly varies with <unk> , the Vienna Game . However , there too he has been unable to find a way to an advantage after the symmetrical 2 ... Nc6 <unk> g6 <unk> Bg7 , or after <unk> Nf6 ( <unk> to the Four Knights Game ) <unk> <unk> 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 <unk> d6 <unk> <unk> <unk> Nd4 <unk> <unk> , or <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> d5 , when <unk> ? ! e4 ! may even favor Black . 
 Moreover , symmetrical positions may be <unk> to White in that he has to commit himself first . Watson notes that it is even difficult for White to play <unk> in a symmetrical position , since almost every move has certain drawbacks . Fischer once went so far as to claim that after <unk> Nf6 <unk> g6 <unk> Bg7 4 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 <unk> d6 ( Reinhard – Fischer , Western Open 1963 ) , " ' Believe it or not , ' Black stands better ! Now , whatever White does , Black will vary it and get an asymmetrical position and have the superior position due to his better pawn structure ! " However , GM Paul <unk> responded in <unk> magazine , " We just don 't believe it ! " In symmetrical positions , as the Hodgson – <unk> and Portisch – Tal games discussed below illustrate , Black can continue to imitate White as long as he finds it feasible and desirable to do so , and deviate when that ceases to be the case . 
 Further , a particular extra move is sometimes more of a liability than an asset . For example , Soltis notes that the Exchange French position arising after 1.e4 e6 <unk> d5 <unk> <unk> <unk> Nf6 " is pretty equal . " The same position , but with Black 's knight moved to e4 , arises in <unk> 's Defense after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 <unk> d6 <unk> <unk> <unk> d5 . That position offers White better chances precisely because Black 's extra move ( ... Ne4 ) allows the advanced knight to become a target for attack . 
 Finally , symmetrical positions may be difficult for the white player for psychological reasons . Watson writes that anyone who tries the Exchange French , " even if he thinks he is playing for a win , assume [ s ] a psychological burden . White has already ceded the advantage of the first move , and knows it , whereas Black is challenged to find ways to seize the initiative . " Two famous examples of White losses in the Exchange French are M. Gurevich – Short and <unk> – Korchnoi . In M. Gurevich – Short , a game between two of the world 's leading players , White needed only a draw to qualify for the Candidates <unk> , while Black needed to win . Gurevich played passively and was <unk> by Short , who achieved the necessary win , qualified for the Candidates , and ultimately went on to challenge Kasparov for the World Championship . In <unk> – Korchnoi , the Italian IM fell victim to Korchnoi 's <unk> mating attack , losing in just 14 moves . 
 Rowson gives the following example of Black <unk> White from the Symmetrical Variation of the English Opening . He remarks , " there is something compelling about Black 's strategy . He seems to be saying : ' I will copy all your good moves , and as soon as you make a bad move , I won 't copy you any more ! ' " 
 Hodgson – <unk> , Newcastle 2001 : 1 @.@ c4 c5 2 @.@ g3 g6 3 . Bg2 Bg7 4 . Nc3 Nc6 5 @.@ <unk> a6 6 . Rb1 Rb8 7 @.@ <unk> <unk> 8 @.@ <unk> b5 9 @.@ <unk> <unk> Here Rowson remarks , " Both sides want to push their d @-@ pawn and play <unk> / ... <unk> , but White has to go first so Black gets to play ... d5 before White can play d4 . This doesn 't matter much , but it already points to the challenge that White faces here ; his most natural <unk> allow Black to play the moves he wants to . I would therefore say that White is in ' <unk> Lite ' and that he remains in this state for several moves . " 10 . Nf3 d5 10 ... Nf6 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 <unk> d6 <unk> <unk> would <unk> to the Portisch – Tal game below . 11 @.@ d4 Nf6 12 . <unk> <unk> 13 . 0 @-@ 0 <unk> 14 . <unk> 0 @-@ 0 15 . <unk> Ne4 16 @.@ <unk> <unk> ! ? Finally breaking the symmetry . 17 . <unk> The position is still almost symmetrical , and White can find nothing useful to do with his extra move . Rowson <unk> suggests <unk> ! ? , forcing Black to be the one to break the symmetry . 17 ... Re8 ! Rowson notes that this is a useful waiting move , covering <unk> , which needs protection in some lines , and possibly supporting an eventual ... e5 ( see Black 's twenty @-@ second move ) . White cannot copy it , since after <unk> ? Nxf2 Black would win a pawn . 18 . <unk> ? ! <unk> ! 19 @.@ <unk> <unk> ! Rowson notes that with his more active pieces , " It looks like Black has some initiative . " If now <unk> , <unk> " is at least equal for Black " . 20 . <unk> <unk> ! 20 ... Nxf2 ? <unk> ! wins . 21 . Nd4 <unk> 22 . <unk> e5 Rowson writes , " Now both sides have their <unk> , but I think Black has some advantage , due to his extra central control , imposing knight and prospects for a <unk> attack . " 23 @.@ b5 Rc8 24 . <unk> d4 Now White has a difficult game : Rowson <unk> <unk> ? ! <unk> <unk> Bc2 <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ! , winning ; <unk> hxg4 <unk> Nxf2 ! <unk> Bc2 , winning ; <unk> ! ? <unk> ! with advantage ; and <unk> ( risky @-@ looking , but perhaps best ) Nc3 ! <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , and Black is better . 25 @.@ b6 ? <unk> Black 's threat . 25 ... Nxf2 ! 26 . <unk> If <unk> , Bc2 forks White 's queen and <unk> . 26 ... Ne4 27 @.@ <unk> Rb8 28 @.@ <unk> hxg4 29 @.@ hxg4 <unk> 30 . <unk> Nf6 ! 31 . <unk> <unk> 32 . <unk> <unk> 33 @.@ <unk> <unk> + 0 – 1 
 The opening of the following game between two world @-@ class players , another Symmetrical English , took a similar course : 
 <unk> Portisch – Mikhail Tal , Candidates Match 1965 : 1 . Nf3 c5 2 @.@ c4 Nc6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 @.@ g3 g6 5 . Bg2 Bg7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 7 @.@ <unk> a6 8 @.@ <unk> Rb8 9 . Rb1 b5 10 @.@ <unk> <unk> 11 @.@ <unk> <unk> 12 @.@ <unk> d6 13 . <unk> <unk> Once again , White is on move in a symmetrical position , but it is not obvious what he can do with his first @-@ move initiative . Soltis writes , " It 's ridiculous to think Black 's position is better . But Mikhail Tal said it is easier to play . By moving second he gets to see White 's move and then decide whether to match it . " <unk> Here , Soltis writes that Black could maintain equality by keeping the symmetry : 14 ... <unk> <unk> <unk> . Instead , he plays to prove that White 's queen is <unk> . 14 ... Rc8 ! <unk> Nd4 ! <unk> 16 ... <unk> + . <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> Rc8 Although the pawn structure is still symmetrical , Black 's control of the c @-@ file gives him the advantage . Black ultimately reached an endgame two pawns up , but White managed to hold a draw in 83 moves . 
 Tal himself lost a famous game as White from a symmetrical position in Tal – <unk> , USSR Championship 1974 . 
 
 = = Tournament and match play = = 
 
 In chess tournaments and matches , the frequency with which each player receives white and black is an important consideration . In matches , the players ' colors in the first game are determined by drawing lots , and alternated thereafter . In round robin tournaments with an odd number of players , each player receives an equal number of whites and blacks ; with an even number of players , each receives one extra white or black . Where one or more players withdraws from the tournament , the tournament director may change the assigned colors in some games so that no player receives two more blacks than whites , or vice versa . The double @-@ round robin tournament is considered to give the most reliable final standings , since each player receives the same number of whites and blacks , and plays both White and Black against each opponent . 
 In Swiss system tournaments , the tournament director tries to ensure that each player receives , as nearly as possible , the same number of games as White and Black , and that the player 's color alternates from round to round . After the first round , the director may deviate from the otherwise prescribed <unk> in order to give as many players as possible their <unk> or due colors . More substantial deviations are permissible to avoid giving a player two more blacks than whites ( for example , three blacks in four games ) than vice versa , since extra whites " cause far less player distress " than extra blacks , which impose " a significant handicap " on the affected player . <unk> with an even number of rounds cause the most problems , since if there is a <unk> , it is greater ( e.g. , a player receiving two whites and four blacks ) . 
 
 = = <unk> chess = = 
 
 <unk> tablebases have solved a very limited area of chess , determining perfect play in a number of endgames , including all non @-@ trivial endgames with no more than six pieces or pawns ( including the two kings ) . Seven @-@ piece endgames were solved in 2012 and released as " Lomonosov tablebases " . 
 Jonathan Rowson has speculated that " in principle it should be possible for a machine to ... develop 32 @-@ piece tablebases . This may take decades or even centuries , but unless runaway global warming or nuclear war gets in the way , I think it will eventually happen . " However , information theorist Claude Shannon argued that it is not feasible for any computer to actually do this . In his 1950 paper " Programming a Computer for Playing Chess " he writes : 
 With chess it is possible , in principle , to play a perfect game or construct a machine to do so as follows : One considers in a given position all possible moves , then all moves for the opponent , etc . , to the end of the game ( in each variation ) . The end must occur , by the rules of the games after a finite number of moves ( remembering the 50 move drawing rule ) . Each of these variations ends in win , loss or draw . By working backward from the end one can determine whether there is a forced win , the position is a draw or is lost . It is easy to show , however , even with the high computing speed available in electronic calculators this computation is impractical . In typical chess positions there will be of the order of 30 legal moves . The number holds fairly constant until the game is nearly finished as shown ... by De <unk> , who averaged the number of legal moves in a large number of master games . Thus a move for White and then one for Black gives about 103 possibilities . A typical game lasts about 40 moves to resignation of one party . This is conservative for our calculation since the machine would calculate out to <unk> , not resignation . However , even at this figure there will be <unk> variations to be calculated from the initial position . A machine operating at the rate of one variation per <unk> would require over <unk> years to calculate the first move ! 
 It is thus theoretically possible to " solve " chess , determining with certainty whether a perfectly played game should end in a win for White , a draw , or even a win for Black . However , according to Shannon the time frame required puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasible technology . 
 Hans @-@ Joachim <unk> , a professor of mathematics and <unk> at the University of California at Berkeley , further argued in a 1965 paper that the " speed , memory , and processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by certain physical barriers : the light barrier , the quantum barrier , and the <unk> barrier . These limitations imply , for example , that no computer , however constructed , will ever be able to examine the entire tree of possible move sequences of the game of chess . " Nonetheless , <unk> did not <unk> the possibility that a computer would someday be able to solve chess . He wrote , " In order to have a computer play a perfect or nearly perfect game [ of chess ] it will be necessary either to analyze the game completely ... or to analyze the game in an approximate way and combine this with a limited amount of tree searching . ... A theoretical understanding of such <unk> programming , however , is still very much wanting . " 
 Recent scientific advances have not significantly changed that assessment . The game of checkers was solved in 2007 , but it has roughly the square root of the number of positions in chess . Jonathan <unk> , the scientist who led the effort , said a breakthrough such as quantum computing would be needed before solving chess could even be attempted , but he does not rule out the possibility , saying that the one thing he learned from his 16 @-@ year effort of solving checkers " is to never <unk> the advances in technology " . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 " You will win with either color if you are the better player , but it takes longer with Black . " – Isaac <unk> 
 
 
 = Frederick Reines = 
 
 Frederick Reines ( <unk> @-@ ness ) ; ( March 16 , 1918 – August 26 , 1998 ) was an American physicist . He was awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics for his co @-@ detection of the neutrino with Clyde Cowan in the neutrino experiment . He may be the only scientist in history " so intimately associated with the discovery of an elementary particle and the subsequent thorough investigation of its fundamental properties " . 
 A graduate of the Stevens Institute of Technology and New York University , Reines joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in 1944 , working in the Theoretical Division in Richard Feynman 's group . He became a group leader there in 1946 . He participated in a number of nuclear tests , culminating in his becoming the director of the Operation Greenhouse test series in the Pacific in 1951 . 
 In the early 1950s , working in <unk> and Savannah River Sites , Reines and Cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly undetectable neutrinos in June 1956 . Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino 's properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for many researchers to come . This included the detection of neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays , and the 1987 detection of neutrinos emitted from Supernova <unk> , which inaugurated the field of neutrino astronomy . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Frederick Reines was born in Paterson , New Jersey , one of four children of <unk> ( Cohen ) and Israel Reines . His parents were Jewish emigrants from the same town in Russia , but only met in New York City , where they were later married . He had an older sister , Paula , who became a doctor , and two older brothers , David and William , who became lawyers . He said that his " early education was strongly influenced " by his <unk> siblings . He was the great @-@ nephew of the Rabbi <unk> <unk> Reines , the founder of <unk> , a religious Zionist movement . 
 The family moved to <unk> , New York , where his father ran the general store , and he spent much of his childhood . He was an Eagle Scout . Looking back , Reines said : " My early childhood memories center around this typical American country store and life in a small American town , including Independence Day July celebrations marked by fireworks and patriotic music played from a pavilion <unk> . " 
 Reines sang in a chorus , and as a soloist . For a time he considered the possibility of a singing career , and was instructed by a vocal coach from the Metropolitan Opera who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them . The family later moved to North Bergen , New Jersey , residing on Kennedy Boulevard and 57th Street . Because North Bergen did not have a high school , he attended Union Hill High School in Union Hill , New Jersey , from which he graduated in 1935 . 
 From an early age , Reines exhibited an interest in science , and liked creating and building things . He later recalled that : 
 The first <unk> of interest in science that I remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school , when , looking out of the window at <unk> through a hand curled to simulate a telescope , I noticed something peculiar about the light ; it was the phenomenon of <unk> . That began for me a fascination with light . 
 Ironically , Reines excelled in literary and history courses , but received average or low marks in science and math in his freshman year of high school , though he improved in those areas by his junior and senior years through the encouragement of a teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory . This cultivated a love of science by his senior year . In response to a question seniors were asked about what they wanted to do for a <unk> quote , he responded : " To be a physicist <unk> . " 
 Reines was accepted into the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , but chose instead to attend Stevens Institute of Technology in <unk> , New Jersey , where he earned his Bachelor of Science ( <unk> ) degree in mechanical engineering in 1939 , and his Master of Science ( <unk> ) degree in mathematical physics in 1941 , writing a thesis on " A Critical Review of Optical <unk> Theory " . He married Sylvia <unk> on August 30 , 1940 . They had two children , Robert and <unk> . He then entered New York University , where he earned his Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) in 1944 . He studied cosmic rays there under Serge A. <unk> , but wrote his thesis under the supervision of Richard D. Present on " Nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus " . Publication of the thesis was delayed until after the end of World War II ; it appeared in Physical Review in 1946 . 
 
 = = Los Alamos Laboratory = = 
 
 In 1944 Richard Feynman recruited Reines to work in the Theoretical Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where he would remain for the next fifteen years . He joined Feynman 's T @-@ 4 ( <unk> Problems ) Group , which was part of Hans Bethe 's T ( Theoretical ) Division . <unk> was an important aspect of critical mass calculations . In June 1946 , he became a group leader , heading the T @-@ 1 ( Theory of Dragon ) Group . An outgrowth of the " <unk> the Dragon 's tail " experiment , the Dragon was a machine that could attain a critical state for short bursts of time , which could be used as a research tool or power source . 
 Reines participated in a number of nuclear tests , and writing reports on their results . These included Operation Crossroads at <unk> Atoll in 1946 , Operation <unk> at <unk> Atoll in 1948 , and Operation Ranger and Operation <unk> – <unk> at the Nevada Test Site . In 1951 he was the director of Operation Greenhouse series of nuclear tests in the Pacific . This saw the first American tests of boosted fission weapons , an important step towards thermonuclear weapons . He studied the effects of nuclear blasts , and co @-@ authored a paper with John von Neumann on <unk> stem formation , an important aspect of an air blast wave . 
 In spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests , Reines was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests , and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing . In the wake of the <unk> crisis , he participated in John Archibald Wheeler 's Project 137 , which evolved into <unk> . He was also a delegate at the <unk> for Peace Conference in Geneva in 1958 . 
 
 = = Discovery of the neutrino and the inner workings of stars = = 
 
 The neutrino was a <unk> particle first proposed theoretically by Wolfgang <unk> on December 4 , 1930 , to explain undetected energy that escaped during beta decay when neutron decayed into a proton and an electron so that the law of conservation of energy was not violated . Enrico Fermi renamed it the neutrino , Italian for " little neutral one " , and in 1934 , proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton , an electron , and a neutrino : 
 <unk> → p + + e − + <unk> 
 e 
 The neutrino accounted for the missing energy , but Fermi 's theory described a particle with little mass and no electric charge that would be difficult to observe directly . In a 1934 paper , Rudolf <unk> and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth , and concluded " there is no practically possible way of observing the neutrino . " In 1951 , at the conclusion of the Greenhouse test series , Reines received permission from the head of T Division , J. Carson Mark , for a leave in residence to study fundamental physics . Reines and his colleague Clyde Cowan decided to see if they could detect neutrinos . " So why did we want to detect the free neutrino ? " he later explained , " Because everybody said , you couldn ’ t do it . " 
 According to Fermi 's theory , there was also a corresponding reverse reaction , in which a neutrino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a positron : 
 <unk> 
 e + p + → <unk> + e + 
 The positron would soon be annihilated by an electron and produce two 0 @.@ 51 MeV gamma rays , while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2 @.@ 2 MeV gamma ray . This would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected . They then realised that by adding cadmium salt to their liquid <unk> to enhance the neutron capture reaction , resulting in a 9 MeV burst of gamma rays . For a neutrino source , they proposed using an atomic bomb . <unk> for this was obtained from the laboratory director , Norris Bradbury . Work began on digging a shaft for the experiment when J. M. B. <unk> convinced them to use a nuclear reactor instead of a bomb . Although a less intense source of neutrinos , it had the advantage in allowing for multiple experiments to be carried out over a long period of time . 
 In 1953 , they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at the <unk> nuclear site in what is now known as the Cowan – Reines neutrino experiment . Their detector now included 300 litres ( 66 imp gal ; 79 US gal ) of <unk> fluid and 90 <unk> tubes , but the effort was frustrated by background noise from cosmic rays . With encouragement from John A. Wheeler , they tried again in 1955 , this time using one of the newer , larger 700 MW reactors at the Savannah River Site that emitted a high neutrino flux of 1 @.@ 2 x 1012 / <unk> <unk> . They also had a convenient , well @-@ shielded location 11 metres ( 36 ft ) from the reactor and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) underground . On June 14 , 1956 , they were able to send <unk> a telegram announcing that the neutrino had been found . When Bethe was informed that he had been proven wrong , he said , " Well , you shouldn ’ t believe everything you read in the papers . " 
 From then on Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino ’ s properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for future researchers to come . Cowan left Los Alamos in 1957 to teach at George Washington University , ending their collaboration . On the basis of his work in first detecting the neutrino , Reines became the head of the physics department of Case Western Reserve University from 1959 to 1966 . At Case , he led a group that was the first to detect neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays . Reines had a booming voice , and had been a singer since childhood . During this time , besides performing his duties as a research supervisor and chairman of the physics department , Reines sang in the Cleveland Orchestra Chorus under the direction of Robert Shaw in performances with George <unk> and the Cleveland Orchestra . 
 In 1966 , Reines took most of his neutrino research team with him when he left for the new University of California , Irvine ( UCI ) , becoming its first dean of physical sciences . At UCI , Reines extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of medical radiation detectors , such as for measuring total radiation delivered to the whole human body in radiation therapy . 
 Reines had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a supernova explosion . Supernova explosions are rare , but Reines thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime , and be able to catch the neutrinos streaming from it in his specially @-@ designed detectors . During his wait for a supernova to explode , he put signs on some of his large neutrino detectors , calling them " Supernova Early Warning Systems " . In 1987 , neutrinos emitted from Supernova <unk> were detected by the Irvine – Michigan – <unk> ( <unk> ) Collaboration , which used an 8 @,@ 000 ton <unk> detector located in a salt mine near Cleveland . Normally , the detectors recorded only a few background events each day . The supernova registered 19 events in just ten seconds . This discovery is regarded as <unk> the field of neutrino astronomy . 
 In 1995 , Reines was honored , along with Martin L. <unk> with the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work with Cowan in first detecting the neutrino . Unfortunately , Cowan had died in 1974 , and the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously . Reines also received many other awards , including the J. Robert <unk> Memorial Prize in 1981 , the National Medal of Science in 1985 , the Bruno Rossi Prize in 1989 , the <unk> – Morley Award in 1990 , the <unk> Prize in 1992 , and the Franklin Medal in 1992 . He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1980 and a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1994 . He remained dean of physical sciences at UCI until 1974 , and became a professor emeritus in 1988 , but he continued teaching until 1991 , and remained on UCI 's faculty until his death . 
 
 = = Death = = 
 
 Reines died after a long illness at the University of California , Irvine Medical Center in Orange , California , on August 26 , 1998 . He was survived by his wife and children . His papers are in the UCI <unk> . Reines Hall at UCI was named in his honor . 
 
 = = Publications = = 
 
 Reines , F. & C. L. Cowan , Jr . " On the <unk> of the Free Neutrino " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( <unk> ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( August 6 , 1953 ) . 
 Reines , F. , Cowan , C. L. Jr . , Carter , R. E. , Wagner , J. J. & M. E. Wyman . " The Free <unk> Absorption Cross Section . Part I. <unk> of the Free <unk> Absorption Cross Section . Part II . <unk> Cross Section from Measurements of <unk> <unk> <unk> Spectrum " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( <unk> ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( June 1958 ) . 
 Reines , F. , <unk> , H. S. , Jenkins , T. L. & J. H. Munsee . " Neutrino Experiments at <unk> " , University of California @-@ Irvine , Case Western Reserve University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 9 , 1968 ) . 
 Roberts , A. , Blood , H. , Learned , J. & F. Reines . " Status and <unk> of the <unk> Neutrino Project : the Ocean as a Neutrino <unk> " , Fermi National <unk> Laboratory ( <unk> ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Energy Research and Development Administration ) , ( July 1976 ) . 
 Reines , F. ( 1991 ) . <unk> and Other Matters : Selected Works of Frederick Reines . <unk> , <unk> : World Scientific . ISBN 978 @-@ <unk> @-@ 02 @-@ <unk> @-@ 4 . 
 
 
 = Lock Haven , Pennsylvania = 
 
 The city of Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Located near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , it is the principal city of the Lock Haven <unk> Statistical Area , itself part of the Williamsport – Lock Haven combined statistical area . At the 2010 census , Lock Haven 's population was 9 @,@ 772 . 
 Built on a site long favored by pre @-@ Columbian peoples , Lock Haven began in 1833 as a timber town and a haven for loggers , <unk> , and other travelers on the river or the West Branch Canal . <unk> extraction and efficient transportation financed much of the city 's growth through the end of the 19th century . In the 20th century , a light @-@ aircraft factory , a college , and a paper mill , along with many smaller enterprises , drove the economy . Frequent floods , especially in 1972 , damaged local industry and led to a high rate of unemployment in the 1980s . 
 The city has three sites on the National Register of Historic Places — Memorial Park Site , a significant pre @-@ Columbian archaeological find ; <unk> House , a Victorian @-@ era museum ; and Water Street District , an area with a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture . A levee , completed in 1995 , protects the city from further flooding . While industry remains important to the city , about a third of Lock Haven 's workforce is employed in education , health care , or social services . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Pre @-@ European = = = 
 
 The earliest settlers in Pennsylvania arrived from Asia between <unk> BCE and 8000 BCE , when the glaciers of the Pleistocene Ice Age were <unk> . <unk> point <unk> from this era , known as the <unk> @-@ Indian Period , have been found in most parts of the state . <unk> discoveries at the Memorial Park Site <unk> near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek collectively span about 8 @,@ 000 years and represent every major prehistoric period from the Middle Archaic to the Late Woodland period . Prehistoric cultural periods over that span included the Middle Archaic starting at <unk> BCE ; the Late Archaic starting at 3000 BCE ; the Early Woodland starting at 1000 BCE ; the Middle Woodland starting at 0 CE ; and the Late Woodland starting at 900 CE . First contact with Europeans occurred in Pennsylvania between 1500 and 1600 CE . 
 
 = = = <unk> century = = = 
 
 In the early 18th century , a tribal confederacy known as the Six Nations of the Iroquois , headquartered in New York , ruled the Indian ( Native American ) tribes of Pennsylvania , including those who lived near what would become Lock Haven . Indian settlements in the area included three Munsee villages on the 325 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 32 km2 ) Great Island in the West Branch Susquehanna River at the mouth of Bald Eagle Creek . Four Indian trails , the Great Island Path , the Great <unk> Path , the Bald Eagle Creek Path , and the <unk> Path , crossed the island , and a fifth , Logan 's Path , met Bald Eagle Creek Path a few miles upstream near the mouth of <unk> Creek . During the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 63 ) , colonial <unk> on the <unk> Expedition destroyed Munsee property on the Great Island and along the West Branch . By 1763 , the Munsee had abandoned their island villages and other villages in the area . 
 With the signing of the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768 , the British gained control from the Iroquois of lands south of the West Branch . However , white settlers continued to appropriate land , including tracts in and near the future site of Lock Haven , not covered by the treaty . In 1769 , <unk> Campbell , the first white settler in the area , built a log cabin near the present site of Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania , and by 1773 William Reed , another settler , had built a cabin surrounded by a stockade and called it Reed 's Fort . It was the westernmost of 11 mostly primitive forts along the West Branch ; Fort Augusta , at what is now Sunbury , was the easternmost and most defensible . In response to settler incursions , and encouraged by the British during the American Revolution ( 1775 – 83 ) , Indians attacked colonists and their settlements along the West Branch . Fort Reed and the other white settlements in the area were temporarily abandoned in 1778 during a general evacuation known as the Big Runaway . Hundreds of people fled along the river to Fort Augusta , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Fort Reed ; some did not return for five years . In 1784 , the second Treaty of Fort Stanwix , between the Iroquois and the United States , transferred most of the remaining Indian territory in Pennsylvania , including what would become Lock Haven , to the state . The U.S. acquired the last remaining tract , the Erie Triangle , through a separate treaty and sold it to Pennsylvania in 1792 . 
 
 = = = <unk> century = = = 
 
 Lock Haven was laid out as a town in 1833 , and it became the county seat in 1839 , when the county was created out of parts of Lycoming and Centre counties . Incorporated as a borough in 1840 and as a city in 1870 , Lock Haven prospered in the 19th century largely because of timber and transportation . The forests of Clinton County and counties upriver held a huge supply of white pine and hemlock as well as oak , ash , maple , <unk> , cherry , beech , and <unk> . The wood was used locally for such things as frame houses , shingles , canal boats , and wooden bridges , and whole logs were floated to Chesapeake Bay and on to Baltimore , to make <unk> for ships . <unk> driving and log rafting , competing forms of transporting logs to sawmills , began along the West Branch around 1800 . By 1830 , slightly before the founding of the town , the lumber industry was well established . 
 The West Branch Canal , which opened in 1834 , ran 73 miles ( 117 km ) from Northumberland to <unk> , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream from Lock Haven . A state @-@ funded extension called the Bald Eagle Cut ran from the West Branch through Lock Haven and Flemington to Bald Eagle Creek . A privately funded extension , the Bald Eagle and Spring Creek Navigation , eventually reached <unk> , 24 miles ( 39 km ) upstream . Lock Haven 's founder , Jeremiah Church , and his brother , Willard , chose the town site in 1833 partly because of the river , the creek , and the canal . Church named the town Lock Haven because it had a canal lock and because it was a haven for loggers , <unk> , and other travelers . Over the next quarter century , canal boats 12 feet ( 4 m ) wide and 80 feet ( 24 m ) long carried passengers and mail as well as cargo such as coal , ashes for <unk> and soap , <unk> , food , furniture , dry goods , and clothing . A rapid increase in Lock Haven 's population ( to 830 by 1850 ) followed the opening of the canal . 
 A Lock Haven log boom , smaller than but otherwise similar to the Susquehanna Boom at Williamsport , was constructed in 1849 . Large <unk> of timbers weighted with tons of stone were arranged in the pool behind the Dunnstown Dam , named for a settlement on the shore opposite Lock Haven . The piers , about 150 feet ( 46 m ) from one another , stretched in a line from the dam to a point 3 miles ( 5 km ) upriver . <unk> by timbers <unk> together with iron <unk> and rings , the piers anchored an enclosure into which the river current forced floating logs . Workers called boom rats sorted the captured logs , branded like cattle , for delivery to sawmills and other owners . Lock Haven became the lumber center of Clinton County and the site of many businesses related to forest products . 
 The Sunbury and Erie Railroad , renamed the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad in 1861 , reached Lock Haven in 1859 , and with it came a building boom . <unk> that the area 's coal , iron ore , white pine , and high @-@ quality clay would produce significant future wealth , railroad investors led by Christopher and John Fallon financed a line to Lock Haven . On the strength of the railroad 's potential value to the city , local residents had invested heavily in housing , building large homes between 1854 and 1856 . Although the <unk> ' coal and iron ventures failed , Gothic Revival , Greek Revival , and Italianate mansions and commercial buildings such as the Fallon House , a large hotel , remained , and the railroad provided a new mode of transport for the ongoing timber era . A second rail line , the Bald Eagle Valley Railroad , originally organized as the Tyrone and Lock Haven Railroad and completed in the 1860s , linked Lock Haven to Tyrone , 56 miles ( 90 km ) to the southwest . The two rail lines soon became part of the network controlled by the Pennsylvania Railroad . 
 During the era of log floating , <unk> sometimes occurred when logs struck an obstacle . <unk> rafts floating down the West Branch had to pass through chutes in canal dams . The rafts were commonly 28 feet ( 9 m ) wide — narrow enough to pass through the chutes — and 150 feet ( 46 m ) to 200 feet ( 61 m ) long . In 1874 , a large raft got <unk> in the <unk> of the Dunnstown Dam and caused a jam that blocked the channel from bank to bank with a pile of logs 16 feet ( 5 m ) high . The jam eventually trapped another 200 log rafts , and 2 canal boats , The <unk> of Newport and The Sarah Dunbar . 
 In terms of board feet , the peak of the lumber era in Pennsylvania arrived in about 1885 , when 1 @.@ 9 million logs went through the boom at Williamsport . These logs produced a total of about 226 million board feet ( 533 @,@ 000 m3 ) of <unk> lumber . After that , production steadily declined throughout the state . Lock Haven 's timber business was also affected by flooding , which badly damaged the canals and destroyed the log boom in 1889 . 
 The Central State Normal School , established to train teachers for central Pennsylvania , held its first classes in 1877 at a site overlooking the West Branch Susquehanna River . The small school , with <unk> below 150 until the 1940s , eventually became Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania . In the early 1880s , the New York and Pennsylvania Paper Mill in Castanea Township near Flemington began paper production on the site of a former sawmill ; the paper mill remained a large employer until the end of the 20th century . 
 
 = = = Twentieth century = = = 
 
 As older forms of transportation such as the canal boat disappeared , new forms arose . One of these , the electric trolley , began operation in Lock Haven in 1894 . The Lock Haven Electric Railway , managed by the Lock Haven Traction Company and after 1900 by the Susquehanna Traction Company , ran passenger trolleys between Lock Haven and Mill Hall , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the west . The trolley line extended from the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad station in Lock Haven to a station of the Central Railroad of Pennsylvania , which served Mill Hall . The route went through Lock Haven 's downtown , close to the Normal School , across town to the trolley car barn on the southwest edge of the city , through Flemington , over the Bald Eagle Canal and Bald Eagle Creek , and on to Mill Hall via what was then known as the Lock Haven , <unk> , and Nittany Valley Turnpike . Plans to extend the line from Mill Hall to <unk> , 3 miles ( 5 km ) miles south of Mill Hall , and to Avis 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lock Haven , were never carried out , and the line remained unconnected to other trolley lines . The system , always financially marginal , declined after World War I. <unk> business to automobiles and buses , it ceased operations around 1930 . 
 William T. Piper , Sr. , built the Piper Aircraft Corporation factory in Lock Haven in 1937 after the company 's Taylor Aircraft manufacturing plant in Bradford , Pennsylvania , was destroyed by fire . The factory began operations in a building that once housed a silk mill . As the company grew , the original factory expanded to include engineering and office buildings . Piper remained in the city until 1984 , when its new owner , Lear @-@ <unk> , moved production to <unk> Beach , Florida . The Clinton County Historical Society opened the Piper Aviation Museum at the site of the former factory in 1985 , and 10 years later the museum became an independent organization . 
 The state of Pennsylvania acquired Central State Normal School in 1915 and renamed it Lock Haven State Teachers College in 1927 . Between 1942 and 1970 , the student population grew from 146 to more than 2 @,@ 300 ; the number of teaching faculty rose from 25 to 170 , and the college carried out a large building program . The school 's name was changed to Lock Haven State College in 1960 , and its emphasis shifted to include the humanities , fine arts , mathematics , and social sciences , as well as teacher education . Becoming Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania in 1983 , it opened a branch campus in <unk> , 48 miles ( 77 km ) west of Lock Haven , in 1989 . 
 An 8 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) industrial area in Castanea Township adjacent to Lock Haven was placed on the National Priorities List of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites ( commonly referred to as <unk> sites ) in 1982 . Drake Chemical , which went bankrupt in 1981 , made ingredients for <unk> and other compounds at the site from the 1960s to 1981 . Starting in 1982 , the United States Environmental Protection Agency began a clean @-@ up of contaminated containers , buildings , and soils at the site and by the late 1990s had replaced the soils . Equipment to treat contaminated groundwater at the site was installed in 2000 and continues to operate . 
 
 = = = Floods = = = 
 
 Pennsylvania 's streams have frequently flooded . According to William H. Shank , the Native Americans of Pennsylvania warned white settlers that great floods occurred on the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers every 14 years . Shank tested this idea by <unk> the highest floods on record at key points throughout the state over a 200 @-@ year period and found that a major flood had occurred , on average , once every 25 years between 1784 and 1972 . Big floods recorded at Harrisburg , on the main stem of the Susquehanna about 120 miles ( 193 km ) miles downstream from Lock Haven , occurred in 1784 , 1865 , 1889 , 1894 , 1902 , 1936 , and 1972 . <unk> from the Williamsport stream gauge , 24 miles ( 39 km ) miles below Lock Haven on the West Branch of the Susquehanna , showed major flooding between 1889 and 1972 in the same years as the Harrisburg station ; in addition , a large flood occurred on the West Branch at Williamsport in 1946 . <unk> flood @-@ crest readings between 1847 and 1979 — based on data from the National Weather Service flood gauge at Lock Haven — show that flooding likely occurred in the city 19 times in 132 years . The biggest flood occurred on March 18 , 1936 , when the river crested at 32 @.@ 3 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) , which was about 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) above the flood stage of 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . 
 The third biggest flood , <unk> at 29 @.@ 8 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in Lock Haven , occurred on June 1 , 1889 , and coincided with the <unk> Flood . The flood demolished Lock Haven 's log boom , and millions of feet of stored timber were swept away . The flood damaged the canals , which were subsequently abandoned , and destroyed the last of the canal boats based in the city . 
 The most damaging Lock Haven flood was caused by the remnants of Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . The storm , just below hurricane strength when it reached the region , made landfall on June 22 near New York City . Agnes merged with a non @-@ tropical low on June 23 , and the combined system affected the northeastern United States until June 25 . The combination produced widespread rains of 6 to 12 inches ( 152 to 305 mm ) with local amounts up to 19 inches ( 483 mm ) in western <unk> County , about 75 miles ( 121 km ) southeast of Lock Haven . At Lock Haven , the river crested on June 23 at 31 @.@ 3 feet ( 9 @.@ 5 m ) , second only to the 1936 crest . The flood greatly damaged the paper mill and Piper Aircraft . 
 Federal , state , and local governments began construction in 1992 of barriers to protect the city . The project included a levee of 36 @,@ 000 feet ( 10 @,@ 973 m ) and a flood wall of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) along the Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , closure structures , retention basins , a pumping station , and some relocation of roads and buildings . Completed in 1995 , the levee protected the city from high water in the year of the Blizzard of 1996 , and again 2004 , when rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Ivan threatened the city . 
 
 = = Geography = = 
 
 Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 2 @.@ 7 square miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km2 ) , 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) of which is land . About 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , 6 percent , is water . 
 Lock Haven is at <unk> feet ( 171 m ) above sea level near the confluence of Bald Eagle Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna River in north @-@ central Pennsylvania . The city is about 200 miles ( 320 km ) by highway northwest of Philadelphia and 175 miles ( 280 km ) northeast of Pittsburgh . U.S. Route 220 , a major transportation corridor , skirts the city on its south edge , intersecting with Pennsylvania Route 120 , which passes through the city and connects it with <unk> in northern Clinton County . Other highways entering Lock Haven include Pennsylvania Route <unk> and Pennsylvania Route 150 , which connects to Avis . 
 The city and nearby smaller communities — Castanea , Dunnstown , Flemington , and Mill Hall — are mainly at valley level in the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley <unk> , a mountain belt characterized by long even valleys running between long continuous ridges . Bald Eagle Mountain , one of these ridges , runs parallel to Bald Eagle Creek on the south side of the city . <unk> of the confluence with Bald Eagle Creek , the West Branch Susquehanna River drains part of the Allegheny Plateau , a region of dissected <unk> ( also called the " Deep <unk> Section " ) generally north of the city . The geologic formations in the southeastern part of the city are mostly limestone , while those to the north and west consist mostly of <unk> and shale . Large parts of the city are flat , but slopes rise to the west , and very steep slopes are found along the river , on the university campus , and along Pennsylvania Route 120 as it approaches U.S. Route 220 . 
 
 = = = Climate = = = 
 
 Under the Köppen climate classification , Lock Haven is in zone <unk> meaning a humid continental climate with hot or very warm summers . The average temperature here in January is 28 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) , and in July it is 73 ° F ( 23 ° C ) . Between 1888 and 1996 , the highest recorded temperature for the city was 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) in 1936 , and the lowest recorded temperature was − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) in 1912 . The average wettest month is June . Between 1926 and 1977 the mean annual precipitation was about 39 inches ( 990 mm ) , and the number of days each year with precipitation of 0 @.@ 1 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) or more was 77 . Annual snowfall amounts between 1888 and 1996 varied from 0 in several years to about 65 inches ( 170 cm ) in 1942 . The maximum recorded snowfall in a single month was 38 inches ( 97 cm ) in April 1894 . 
 
 = = Demographics = = 
 
 As of the census of 2010 , there were 9 @,@ 772 people living in 3 @,@ <unk> housing units spread across the city . The average household size during the years 2009 – 13 was 2 @.@ 38 . During those same years , multi @-@ unit structures made up 57 percent of the housing @-@ unit total . The rate of home ownership was 35 percent , and the median value of owner @-@ occupied units was about $ 100 @,@ 000 . The estimated population of the city in 2013 was 10 @,@ <unk> , an increase of 2 @.@ 6 percent after 2010 . 
 The population density in 2010 was 3 @,@ <unk> people per square mile ( 1 @,@ <unk> per km2 ) . The reported racial makeup of the city was about 93 percent White and about 4 percent African @-@ American , with other categories totaling about 3 percent . People of Hispanic or Latino origin accounted for about 2 percent of the residents . Between 2009 and 2013 , about 2 percent of the city 's residents were foreign @-@ born , and about 5 percent of the population over the age of 5 spoke a language other than English at home . 
 In 2010 , the city 's population included about 16 percent under the age of 18 and about 12 percent who were 65 years of age or older . Females accounted for 54 percent of the total . Students at the university comprised about a third of the city 's population . 
 Between 2009 and 2013 , of the people who were older than 25 , 82 percent had graduated from high school , and 20 percent had at least a bachelor 's degree . In 2007 , 640 businesses operated in Lock Haven . The mean travel time to work for employees who were at least 16 years old was 16 minutes . 
 The median income for a household in the city during 2009 – 13 was about $ 25 @,@ 000 compared to about $ 53 @,@ 000 for the entire state of Pennsylvania . The per capita income for the city was about $ 19 @,@ 000 , and about 40 percent of Lock Haven 's residents lived below the poverty line . 
 
 = = Economy = = 
 
 Lock Haven 's economy , from the city 's founding in 1833 until the end of the 19th century , depended heavily on natural resources , particularly timber , and on cheap transportation to eastern markets . <unk> used the Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek to float timber to sawmills in Lock Haven and nearby towns . The West Branch Canal , reaching the city in 1834 , connected to large markets downstream , and shorter canals along Bald Eagle Creek added other connections . In 1859 , the first railroad arrived in Lock Haven , spurring trade and economic growth . 
 By 1900 , the lumber industry had declined , and the city 's economic base rested on other industries , including a furniture factory , a paper mill , a fire brick plant , and a silk mill . In 1938 , the Piper Aircraft Corporation , maker of the Piper Cub and other light aircraft , moved its production plant to Lock Haven . It remained one of the city 's biggest employers until the 1980s , when , after major flood damage and losses related to Hurricane Agnes in 1972 , it moved to Florida . The loss of Piper Aircraft contributed to an unemployment rate of more than 20 % in Lock Haven in the early 1980s , though the rate had declined to about 9 % by 2000 . Another large plant , the paper mill that had operated since the 1880s in Castanea Township , closed in 2001 . By 2005 , 32 % of the city 's labor force was employed in health care , education , or social services , 16 % in manufacturing , 14 % in retail trade , 13 % in arts , entertainment , recreation , accommodation , and food services , and smaller fractions in other sectors . The city 's biggest employers , Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania and Lock Haven Hospital , are among the seven biggest employers in Clinton County . 
 
 = = Arts , culture , historic sites , and media = = 
 
 Lock Haven University presents public concerts , plays , art exhibits , and student recitals at the Price Performance Center , the Sloan <unk> , and the Sloan Fine Arts Gallery on campus . The <unk> <unk> in Mill Hall has produced plays since 1963 . Summer concerts are held in city parks , and the local Junior Chamber International ( <unk> ) chapter sponsors an annual boat <unk> on the river . The city sponsors a festival called <unk> at the airport in the summer , a Halloween parade in October , and a holiday parade in December . Light @-@ airplane pilots travel to the city in vintage Piper planes to attend <unk> Journey Fly @-@ <unk> , which have been held each summer since 1986 . <unk> of radio @-@ controlled model <unk> meet annually at the William T. Piper Memorial Airport to fly their planes . 
 The central library for Clinton County is the Annie <unk> Ross Library in Lock Haven ; it has about 130 @,@ 000 books , subscriptions to periodicals , electronic resources , and other materials . Stevenson Library on the university campus has additional collections . 
 The Piper Aviation Museum exhibits aircraft and aircraft equipment , documents , photographs , and <unk> related to Piper Aircraft . An eight @-@ room home , the <unk> House , restored to its mid @-@ 19th century appearance , displays Victorian @-@ era collections ; it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and is home to the Clinton County Historical Society . The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission has placed three cast aluminum markers — Clinton County , Fort Reed , and Pennsylvania Canal ( West Branch Division ) — in Lock Haven to commemorate historic places . The Water Street District , a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture near the river , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . Memorial Park Site <unk> , an archaeological site of prehistoric significance discovered near the airport , was added to the National Register in 1982 . 
 The city 's media include The Express , a daily newspaper , and The Eagle Eye , the student newspaper at the university . Radio stations <unk> ( AM ) and <unk> ( FM ) broadcast from the city . A television station , <unk> ( available on @-@ campus only ) , and a radio station , <unk> ( Internet station only , with no FCC broadcast license ) , both managed by students , operate on the university campus . 
 
 = = Parks and recreation = = 
 
 The city has 14 municipal parks and playgrounds ranging in size from the 0 @.@ 75 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 30 ha ) Triangle Park in downtown to the 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) Douglas H. <unk> Memorial Park along Route 120 . Fields maintained by the city accommodate baseball for the Pony League , Little League , and Junior League and <unk> for the Youth Girls League and for adults . In 1948 , a team from the city won the Little League World Series . In 2011 , the <unk> Little League based in Lock Haven advanced to the Little League World Series and placed third in the United States , drawing record crowds . Hanna Park includes tennis courts , and <unk> Park includes a skate park . The Lock Haven City Beach , on the Susquehanna River , offers water access , a sand beach , and a bath house . In conjunction with the school district , the city sponsors a summer recreation program . 
 A 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) trail <unk> and run , the Bald Eagle Mountain <unk> , takes place annually near Lock Haven . The local branch of the Young Men 's Christian Association ( YMCA ) offers a wide variety of recreational programs to members , and the Clinton Country Club maintains a private 18 @-@ hole golf course in Mill Hall . 
 
 = = Government = = 
 
 Lock Haven has a council @-@ manager form of government . The council , the city 's legislative body , consists of six members and a mayor , each serving a four @-@ year term . The council sets policy , and the city manager <unk> day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The mayor is William <unk> , whose term <unk> in 2019 . The manager is Richard W. <unk> . 
 Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County and houses county offices , courts , and the county library . Three elected commissioners serving four @-@ year terms manage the county government . Robert " Pete " <unk> , chairman ; Jeffrey <unk> , vice @-@ chairman , and Paul <unk> , have terms running through 2019 . 
 Michael K. Hanna , a Democrat , represents the 76th District , which includes Lock Haven , in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . Joseph B. <unk> III , a Republican , represents Lock Haven as part of the 25th District of the Pennsylvania State Senate . 
 
 = = Education = = 
 
 The <unk> Central School District serves most of Clinton County , including Lock Haven , as well as parts of Centre County and Potter County . The district 's administration building is in Lock Haven as are three of the district 's elementary schools , Dickey Elementary , <unk> Elementary , and Woodward Elementary , all for children enrolled in kindergarten through fifth grade . The total enrollment of these three schools combined in 2002 – 03 was 790 . Central Mountain Middle School in Mill Hall is the nearest public middle school , for grades six to eight . The nearest public high school , grades nine to twelve , is Central Mountain High School , also in Mill Hall . 
 The city has two private schools , Lock Haven Christian School , with about 80 students in kindergarten through 12th grade , and Lock Haven Catholic School , which had about 190 students in kindergarten through sixth grade as of 2002 – 03 . In 2015 , the Catholic School is completing a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) expansion to include grades seven and eight , which will make it a combined elementary and middle school . 
 Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania , offering a wide range of undergraduate studies as well as continuing @-@ education and graduate @-@ school programs at its main campus , occupies 175 acres ( 71 ha ) on the west edge of the city . <unk> at this campus was about 4 @,@ 400 in 2003 . 
 
 = = Infrastructure = = 
 
 Lock Haven Taxi , based in the central downtown , has <unk> for hire . <unk> <unk> provides daily intercity bus service between Lock Haven and nearby cities including State College , Williamsport , and Wilkes @-@ Barre . Charter and tour buses are available through Susquehanna <unk> , based in Avis , 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lock Haven . Pennsylvania Bicycle Route G follows Pennsylvania Route 150 and links to the Pine Creek Rail Trail at the eastern end of the county near Jersey Shore , Pennsylvania . A 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) walking trail on the levee along the river is restricted to pedestrian use . 
 The Norfolk Southern Railway mainline from Harrisburg to Buffalo , New York , runs through the center of Lock Haven . On the east side of town , it connects to the Nittany and Bald Eagle Railroad , a short line . Trains serving Lock Haven carry only freight . The City of Lock Haven operates the William T. Piper Memorial Airport , a general aviation facility with a paved runway , runway lighting , paved <unk> , a tie @-@ down area , and hangar spaces . No commercial , charter , or freight services are available at this airport . 
 Electric service to Lock Haven residents is provided by PPL ( formerly known as Pennsylvania Power and Light ) , the gas division of which provides natural gas to the city . Verizon Communications handles local telephone service ; long @-@ distance service is available from several providers . <unk> offers high @-@ speed cable <unk> connections to the Internet . Several companies can provide Lock Haven residents with <unk> @-@ up Internet access . One of them , <unk> , has an office in Lock Haven . <unk> also provides cable television . 
 The City of Lock Haven owns the reservoirs and water distribution system for Wayne Township , Castanea Township , and the city . Water is treated at the Central Clinton County Water <unk> Authority Plant in Wayne Township before distribution . The city also provides water to the <unk> Lock Haven Water Authority , which distributes it to surrounding communities . Lock Haven operates a sewage treatment plant for waste water , industrial waste , and <unk> sewage from the city and eight upstream municipalities : Bald Eagle Township , Castanea , Flemington , Lamar , Mill Hall , Porter Township , Woodward Township , and Walker Township in Centre County . Storm water runoff from within the city is transported by city @-@ owned storm sewers . <unk> <unk> of household garbage is provided by a variety of local <unk> licensed by the city ; <unk> are picked up once every two weeks . The Clinton County Solid Waste Authority owns and operates the Wayne Township <unk> , which serves Lock Haven . 
 Lock Haven Hospital is a 77 @-@ bed hospital with a 120 @-@ bed extended @-@ care unit . It offers <unk> , <unk> , and 24 @-@ hour emergency services with heliport access . <unk> @-@ View Home , next to the hospital , offers long @-@ term care to the elderly and other services including speech , physical , and occupational therapy for people of all ages . A 10 @-@ physician community @-@ practice clinic based in the city provides primary care and specialty services . A behavioral health clinic offers programs for children and <unk> and psychiatric <unk> care for all ages . 
 
 = = Notable people = = 
 
 <unk> <unk> , winner of America 's Next Top Model ( cycle 16 ) , is a 2015 graduate of Lock Haven University . Alexander McDonald , a U.S. Senator for Arkansas was born near Lock Haven in 1832 . Artist John French Sloan was born in Lock Haven in 1871 , and cartoonist Alison <unk> , author of Dykes to Watch Out For and Fun Home , was born in Lock Haven in 1960 . Richard <unk> , author of the Donald Strachey mysteries , was born in Lock Haven in 1938 . Other notable residents have included diplomat and Dartmouth College president John Sloan Dickey and federal judge <unk> <unk> of the U.S. Federal First District Court of Appeals . 
 
 
 = Rachel Green = 
 
 Rachel Karen Green is a fictional character , one of the six main characters who appear in the American sitcom Friends . <unk> by actress Jennifer Aniston , the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and appeared in each of the show ’ s 236 episodes during its decade @-@ long run , from its premiere on September 22 , 1994 to its finale on May 6 , 2004 . Introduced in the show 's pilot as a naive runaway bride who reunites with her childhood best friend Monica and <unk> to New York City , Rachel gradually evolves from a spoiled , inexperienced daddy 's girl into a successful <unk> . During the show 's second season , the character becomes romantically involved with her friend Ross , with whom she maintains a complicated on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship throughout the entire series . Together , the characters have a daughter , Emma . 
 The role of Rachel was originally offered to actresses <unk> Leoni , the producer 's first choice , and Courteney Cox , both of whom declined , Leoni in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth , and Cox in favor of playing Rachel 's best friend Monica in Friends . A virtually unknown actress at the time who had previously starred in five short @-@ lived sitcoms , Aniston auditioned for the role of Rachel after turning down an offer as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . After acquiring the role and before Friends aired , Aniston was temporarily at risk of being recast because she had also been involved with another sitcom , Muddling Through , at the time , which was ultimately canceled and allowed Aniston to remain on Friends . 
 Critical reception towards Rachel has remained consistently positive throughout Friends ' decade @-@ long run , with The A. V. Club attributing much of the show 's early success to the character . However , some of her storylines have been criticized , specifically her romantic relationship with her friend Joey during season ten . Rachel 's popularity established her as the show 's breakout character , who has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all @-@ time , while the character 's second season haircut spawned an international phenomenon of its own . Named the " Rachel " after her , the character 's <unk> continues to be imitated by millions of women around the world and remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history , in spite of Aniston 's own resentment towards it . Rachel is also regarded as a style icon due to her influence on <unk> during the 1990s . Meanwhile , the character 's relationship with Ross is often cited among television 's most beloved . 
 Rachel is considered to be Aniston 's breakout role , credited with making her the show 's most famous cast member and for spawning her successful film career . <unk> for her performance as Rachel , Aniston won both an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical . 
 
 = = Role = = 
 
 Rachel <unk> in the pilot episode of Friends as a runaway bride who is distraught after abandoning her fiancé Barry Farber ( Mitchell <unk> ) at the altar . She locates her high school best friend Monica Geller ( Courteney Cox ) , the only person she knows in New York City , who agrees to let Rachel reside with her while she attempts to reorganize her life . Rachel meets and befriends Monica ’ s friends Phoebe <unk> ( Lisa <unk> ) , Joey <unk> ( Matt <unk> ) , and Chandler Bing ( Matthew Perry ) , while reuniting with Monica 's older brother Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) , who has <unk> <unk> romantic feelings for her since high school . Having previously relied on her parents ' money her entire life with a sole goal of marrying wealthy , Rachel attempts to reinvent herself as an independent young woman by <unk> at Central <unk> , a coffeehouse where her new friends regularly <unk> . 
 As season one concludes , Rachel finally confesses her love for Ross , having learned of his feelings for her from Chandler , only to find that he has already begun dating another woman , whom she <unk> . However , Ross eventually chooses Rachel over his girlfriend Julie ( Lauren Tom ) , and the couple dates for the remainder of the second season . However , their relationship rapidly begins to deteriorate towards the end of the third season after Rachel <unk> her job at the coffeehouse in favor of working in fashion . While Rachel becomes increasingly preoccupied with her new job , Ross grows jealous of her companionship with her <unk> Mark ( Steven <unk> ) , ultimately culminating in their break up on their one @-@ year anniversary following a series of heated arguments and disagreements . 
 In the episodes following the break up , Rachel and Ross are initially hostile towards each other . The <unk> continue to harbor feelings for each other . During a beach house vacation with their friends , Rachel and Ross briefly reconcile when he ends his relationship with Bonnie ( Christine Taylor ) , only to break up once again due to a disagreement . During season four , Rachel dates her customer Joshua ( Tate <unk> ) , while Ross dates her boss ' niece Emily ( Helen <unk> ) , to whom he eventually gets engaged . <unk> , Rachel proposes to recent <unk> Joshua , frightening him off . Rachel indirectly contributes to the demise of Ross and Emily 's relationship when he accidentally <unk> Rachel 's name while exchanging their wedding vows . Ross ultimately divorces a jealous Emily , choosing his friendship with Rachel instead . 
 At the end of season five , Ross and Rachel <unk> get married while <unk> with their friends in Las Vegas . In season six , their annulment request is denied because of Rachel having leveled unfounded allegations against Ross , forcing the two to file for a divorce instead . In season seven , Ross and Rachel unwittingly conceive a child when their birth control fails . Rachel gives birth to a girl in season eight , naming the baby Emma Geller @-@ Green ; the name Emma is a gift from Monica , who had previously been reserving the name for her own child . Rachel and Ross live together as non @-@ romantic roommates during the first half of season nine . 
 Rachel eventually finds a job opportunity in France , but has second thoughts when Ross eventually forfeits <unk> and says " I love you " . Rachel ultimately decides to stay and <unk> her relationship with Ross , getting off the plane at the last minute . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 
 = = = Conception and writing = = = 
 
 After their short @-@ lived television series Family Album was canceled , television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman pitched Friends to then @-@ NBC president Warren Littlefield as a sitcom about " that special time in your life when your friends are your family , " basing the show on their own experiences as young people living in New York ; the main characters themselves were inspired by their own friends . <unk> as a young woman who is unprepared for adulthood , the character Rachel Green was originally named Rachel <unk> . Although critics and audiences initially perceived Monica as the show 's main character when Friends premiered , the writers had actually given Rachel the pilot 's most prominent storyline . Before deciding that Rachel and Ross would be an item for the entire series , the writers had originally intended for the show 's defining couple to be Joey and Monica . However , after the success of the pilot , in which Rachel and Ross ' developing romance is first hinted at , and witnessing Aniston and co @-@ star David Schwimmer 's on @-@ screen chemistry for the first time , Crane and Kauffman determined that the entire series relied on " finding all the wonderful roadblocks for them to be with each other . " 
 <unk> began <unk> for Rachel and Ross ' union since the very beginning of Friends , openly voicing their frustration with Rachel ’ s <unk> to Ross ' feelings for her . The episode that would ultimately transform the friends ' relationship for the remainder of the series was the first season finale " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " , in which Rachel finally learns of Ross ' true feelings for her , at the same time discovering she actually feels the same . However , the episode nearly went unwritten because , at the time , few friends writers were expecting the couple 's relationship to <unk> into the phenomenon that it ultimately became . The episode was first suggested by director James Burrows ; the writers felt that it was time to alter the couple 's dynamic in order to avoid the repetitive " he 's pining , she 's oblivious " pattern , using the work of author Jane Austen as inspiration on how to finally shift the pining arc from Ross to Rachel . Because stakes for the episode were <unk> high , " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " became Friends ' most reworked episode . The couple 's first kiss at the end of season two 's " The One Where Ross Finds Out " was met with <unk> applause from the studio audience . Crane admitted that keeping viewers interested in their relationship for ten years was challenging . Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph believes that they accomplished this by " <unk> [ ing ] the possibility of a Ross and Rachel <unk> through several <unk> without ever putting them back together . " According to Encyclopedia of Television author Horace <unk> , Ross and Rachel 's ever @-@ changing relationship " converted the traditional <unk> <unk> of the situation comedy into ones akin to episodic drama . " Meanwhile , writing for The New York Review of Books , Elaine Blair agreed that Friends created " a sense of chemistry between two characters while also putting obstacles in their way , setting us up for a long @-@ deferred union . " 
 After Rachel and Ross <unk> get married while on vacation in Las Vegas during season five , Schwimmer had initially objected to the idea of having his character Ross divorce her – his third divorce – because he felt that it was taking it " too far . " The actor explained that " The whole arc of the relationship was weird then ... because for [ Ross ] to be able to move on enough to marry someone else and then go back to being in love with Rachel later just went a bit too far . " Rachel and Joey 's romantic storyline was conceived because the writers wanted to delay Ross and Rachel 's reunion further . Crane felt that pairing Rachel and Joey during season ten " was for the greater good " because " It was inappropriate . " However , the cast initially protested the idea , fearing that Rachel , Joey , and Ross would ultimately become <unk> characters and audiences would either " resent Joey for going after a pregnant woman , or resent Rachel for rejecting him , or resent Ross for standing between the two of them . " Meanwhile , the writers also approached the concept of Rachel 's pregnancy and baby tentatively , worrying about how they would include it in the show because they did not want Friends " to become a show about a baby " while " On the other hand , we don 't want to pretend that there isn 't one . " According to Robert Bianco of USA Today , the critical success and popularity of Rachel 's pregnancy is ultimately responsible for " propel [ ling ] the show to the top of the ratings " . When it finally came time to write the series finale , " The only thing [ Crane and Kauffman ] absolutely knew from very early on was that we had to get Ross and Rachel together , " deciding , " We had <unk> the audience around for 10 years with their ' will they or won ’ t they , ' and we didn ’ t see any advantage in frustrating them " any longer . However , at one point the writers had <unk> ending the series with Ross and Rachel in " a gray area of where they aren ’ t together , but we hint there ’ s a sense that they might be down the road . " Ultimately , Crane and Kauffman relented in favor of giving the audience what they want . 
 
 = = = Casting = = = 
 
 The final character to be cast , Rachel is portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston , who auditioned for the role shortly after declining a position as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . Her decision was initially ridiculed by both her friends as well as actor Adam Sandler , a Saturday Night Live <unk> . Actress <unk> Leoni , who at the time was being referred to by the media as " the next Lucille Ball " , was offered the role of Rachel as the studio 's first choice , but she declined in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth . Actress Elizabeth Berkley also auditioned for the role prior to being cast in the teen sitcom Saved by the Bell . Other actresses who auditioned for Rachel include Denise Richards , <unk> Rivers , <unk> Sheridan , Parker <unk> , and <unk> <unk> . Originally , the producers wanted to cast actress Courteney Cox as Rachel , who Crane and Kauffman were particularly drawn to because of her " <unk> , upbeat energy . " Additionally , Cox was the most famous cast member at the time amidst an ensemble of relatively unknown actors . However , the actress lobbied for the role of Rachel 's best friend Monica , as whom she was ultimately cast , because she felt that she was not " quirky " enough to play Rachel . At the same time , although <unk> to each other , Aniston was being considered for the role of Monica , but fought to play Rachel because she felt that the character suited her better . At one point , Cox had begun to regret her decision to play Monica until her own character 's storylines started improving . 
 Friends was Aniston 's sixth sitcom ; each of her previous ventures had been canceled prematurely . Feeling vulnerable , Aniston had begun to doubt herself as an actress and personally approached Littlefield for <unk> on her career , who encouraged her to audition for Friends , which was being referred to as Friends Like These at the time . Crane and Kauffman had worked with Aniston prior to this . However , casting her as Rachel posed a challenge for the network because , at the time , Aniston was simultaneously starring in a developing CBS sitcom called Muddling Through , in which she plays a young woman whose mother is returning home from jail after two years . CBS was initially reluctant to release Aniston from her contract , which required the actress to balance both roles simultaneously , traveling back @-@ and @-@ forth between Muddling Through and Friends for two weeks . Meanwhile , NBC risked having to recast the role of Rachel , replace Aniston , and <unk> several episodes if CBS ' series proved successful , which would have potentially cost the network millions of dollars . However , Littlefield remained confident that Muddling Through would fail . Essentially , the producers of Friends hoped that Muddling Through would be canceled before Friends premiered , while Aniston feared that Muddling Through would be the more successful of the two sitcoms in spite of her preference towards Friends . During this time of uncertainty , Aniston was forced not to participate in several Friends @-@ related promotions and photo shoots ; the network excluded her from these in case she would be replaced . Aniston explained , " When we were shooting the first grouping of cast photos ... I was asked to step out of a bunch because they didn 't know if I was going to be still playing Rachel . " Director James Burrows admitted that Aniston had been cast in second position . The producers had already begun auditioning other actresses for the part , while Aniston also received phone calls from her own friends warning her , " I 'm auditioning for your part in Friends . " Ultimately , Muddling Through was canceled after only three months and ten episodes , two weeks before the pilot of Friends aired , thus allowing Aniston to keep her role on the show , becoming its second youngest cast member at the age of 25 . Crane appreciated Aniston 's interpretation of Rachel because " in the wrong hands Rachel is kind of annoying and spoiled and <unk> , " commending the actress for " breathing life into a difficult character . " 
 Crane and Kauffman strongly envisioned Friends as an ensemble comedy , and Warner Bros. initially marketed the show as such by having the cast appear in their entirety for all press , interviews and photo shoots . One of few sitcoms at the time to be neither a workplace comedy , family sitcom or star a famous comedian , Elizabeth <unk> of The New York Times explained that each of the show 's main characters are " of equal importance . " As a writer , Crane preferred it this way because " utilizing six equal players , rather than emphasizing one or two , would allow for myriad story lines . " Kauffman echoed " that Friends worked best when the entire ensemble was onstage . " The only reason Aniston is credited first during the show 's title sequence is because the cast is listed <unk> . The show 's ensemble format is also believed to have prevented jealous conflicts among the cast . <unk> , the Friends cast became the first in television history to negotiate as a group for equal salaries , refusing to work until their demands of $ 100 @,@ 000 per episode were met during season three , which eventually increased to $ 1 million per episode by seasons nine and ten – approximately $ 25 million per year . Alongside Cox and actress Lisa <unk> , who portrays Phoebe , Aniston became the highest @-@ paid television actress of all time . By then , Aniston had surpassed Cox as the show 's most famous cast member due to having launched an international hair trend with the " Rachel " and successfully transitioning into a film career , combined with her high @-@ profile relationship with her then @-@ husband , actor Brad Pitt , who had once guest starred in an episode of the show . At times the producers would use the actress ' popularity to boost the show 's ratings , notably her character 's seventh season kiss with actress <unk> Ryder and pregnancy arc . Aniston had been telling the press that the show 's ninth season would be her last , and was initially hesitant to return to Friends to film its tenth and final season . She explained to NBC 's Matt <unk> , " I wanted it to end when people still loved us and we were on a high . And then I was also feeling like , ‘ How much more of Rachel do I have in me ? ’ ” However , the actress ultimately agreed to complete the tenth season of Friends , which was reduced from 24 to 18 episodes to accommodate Aniston 's busy film schedule . 
 
 = = <unk> and themes = = 
 
 Rachel is the youngest of Friends six main characters . The term " spoiled " is often used to describe the character 's personality during her early appearances . <unk> Britannica describes Rachel as a spoiled and funny character . According to Rachel 's original character description , written by Crane and Kauffman themselves for the show 's pilot , the character is a spoiled yet courageous young woman who " has worked for none of what she has " , unlike best friend Monica , and is initially " equipped to do nothing " . James <unk> of the Hartford Courant identified her as " a spoiled rich kid " , while the Daily News dubbed Rachel an " endearingly spoiled Daddy 's girl . " Author Kim Etingoff wrote about Rachel in her book Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films that the character is " <unk> and sometimes spoiled " , while TV Land called her " naive . " Citing the differences between Rachel and her two female friends , The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey observed that the character " wasn 't <unk> by self @-@ regard , like Monica , or <unk> in <unk> , like Phoebe . " <unk> identified as fitting the " girl next door " <unk> , Anne <unk> of The Telegraph described Rachel as " funny but not too funny , pretty but not too pretty , sexy but not too sexy , <unk> but not too <unk> . " <unk> 's Dominic Wills described the character as " smart but <unk> , determined but <unk> . " Meanwhile , <unk> <unk> , writing for The Huffington Post , <unk> that Rachel is a " beautiful , <unk> , slightly neurotic , borderline <unk> " character . 
 Observing that the show 's main characters are each based on a stereotype , Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Rachel as " the self @-@ absorbed one who goes from riches to <unk> . " According to Reign Magazine , Rachel is " a human being full of vulnerability , humor and strength while <unk> donning an undeniable beauty and <unk> . " Originally depicted as a character who is unprepared for " the world as an adult " , Rachel 's personality was gradually tailored to suit Aniston as the series progressed , becoming " more self @-@ sufficient and sympathetic . " According to Shining in the Shadows : Movie Stars of the 2000s author Murray <unk> , " The more boundary collapsed between the ' real ' Jennifer Aniston and Rachel , the more ' authentic ' Aniston became . " <unk> also noted that the character 's " well @-@ <unk> , normalcy and <unk> " is similar to Aniston 's , while both the character and the actress herself are very expressive , talking " with [ their ] hands a good deal . " In her book How To <unk> For Television , author Madeline <unk> wrote that although " Rachel grew within the context of the series ... she would always struggle with the spoiled , image @-@ conscious Daddy 's girl who fled from her wedding in the pilot . " Similarly , BuddyTV wrote that although Rachel " eventually evolves into being less absorbed in later series , she [ remains ] the most image @-@ centric among the six " , while Vogue 's Edward <unk> opined , " She might have been self @-@ centered and <unk> , but Rachel Green was perhaps the most stylish and <unk> fashion @-@ obsessed character on the show . " TV Land summarized the character 's arc and development in the website 's biography of her , writing , " Rachel is a born <unk> , but … she ’ s not necessarily a born worker . In fact , before moving in with Monica , she ’ s never had to work at all , thanks to the generosity of her parents . <unk> , Rachel is smart , resourceful and <unk> , so her future is bright , both as a member of the workforce and with her newfound tribe . " Examining the character 's sexuality , Splitsider 's Mike D <unk> determined that Rachel has had the third most sexual partners , 14 , as well as the highest percentage of serious monogamous relationships at 71 % . D <unk> opined , " Throughout the whole series Rachel is continually meeting men she wants to impress . Her <unk> typically fail , but she somehow winds up in a serious relationship with them . " Additionally , Rachel is also the only character to admit to having had a homosexual experience . 
 In an interview with the Jewish Telegraph , Kauffman confirmed that Rachel is Jewish . On the character 's " Jewish ties " , Kauffman told <unk> that Rachel had always been Jewish " in our minds " , explaining , " You can ’ t create a character with the name ' Rachel Green ' and not from the get @-@ go make some character choices " . Prior to this , critics and fans had long speculated whether or not Rachel is Jewish ; there are entire websites entirely devoted to discussing this . <unk> 's Lindsey Weber , who identifies herself as Jewish , observed several similarities and Jewish stereotypes she shares with the character , citing the facts that Rachel refers to her grandmother Ida Green as " <unk> " , Long Island origin , and engagement to a Jewish doctor as allusions to the character 's Jewish culture . In her book Changed for Good : A <unk> History of the Broadway Musical , author Stacy Wolf identified Rachel as one of several popular female television characters who embodied Jewish stereotypes during the 1990s and often served as " the butt of the shows ' jokes . " Meanwhile , <unk> 's Rebecca <unk> cited Rachel as one of the earliest and most prominent examples of the Jewish American Princess stereotype on screen . Writing for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Alicia R. <unk> also acknowledged Rachel 's initial Jewish American Princess qualities , describing her as " spoiled , dependent on her father 's money and her <unk> 's , is horrified at the thought of working for a living and generally inept in her attempts to do so , and is eventually revealed to have had a nose job " , which she eventually <unk> as they become less " evident in later seasons of the show " . In his article " <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> Mothers " , Evan Cooper described Rachel as a " de @-@ <unk> " Jew because , aside from her name , " there is never any discussion of experiences of growing up in a Jewish culture , no use of Yiddish , and few , if any , references to family members with <unk> Jewish <unk> " . Cooper continued to write that although Rachel possesses some Jewish American Princess traits , she is more similar to the " little woman " stereotype . The New York Post 's Robert <unk> labeled Rachel " a rehabilitated Jewish American Princess " , in contrast to her sister Amy ( Christina Applegate ) who remains " selfish , condescending and <unk> . " 
 
 = = Reception and legacy = = 
 
 
 = = = Critical response = = = 
 
 Critical reception towards Rachel has remained mostly positive throughout the show 's ten @-@ year run . Writing for The A. V. Club , John Reid holds Rachel responsible for the success of the pilot , explaining , " The story of this group of friends must start with a stranger coming to town , and Rachel is the perfect stranger for this plot " . Reid also believes that Rachel initiated character development in the five other main characters , describing her arrival as " a catalyst for all of them to grow , because unlike the rest of them , Rachel is interested in finding meaning for her life " . Also writing for The A. V. Club , Sonia <unk> was pleased with Rachel and Ross ' first romantic encounter because , for the first time , " Rachel displays a moment of true empathy for another human being " . <unk> went on to describe Rachel as " as a model for women coming of age in the 1990s — the popular , pretty girl dissatisfied with where those illusions have taken her but also unwilling to embrace the more aggressively ' feminist ' career @-@ woman strategy " . The New York Times Joseph <unk> enjoyed Rachel 's telephone conversation with her father during the pilot , describing it as " hilarious . " The Los Angeles Times Bob <unk> admitted that he is attracted to Rachel , joking , " my feelings for Rachel , I say with some embarrassment , mirror those of <unk> " . Cosmopolitan reviewed Rachel as " the best fictional gal pal we 've ever had " , while People called her " spoiled yet <unk> " . USA Today 's Robert Bianco credits Rachel 's pregnancy arc with saving Friends , explaining that it " propel [ led ] the show to the top of the ratings " and ultimately " <unk> [ ed ] the show 's decline in ways ... that no one watching ' The One With Monica & Chandler 's Wedding ' could ever have imagined . " Bianco concluded , " Indeed , without that fortune @-@ altering twist , Friends probably would have ended sooner " . 
 <unk> ranked " The One With The Ball " , " The One With Rachel ’ s <unk> Kiss " , " The One With The Football " , " The One With The Fake Party " , and " The One In Vegas , Part One Rachel 's five best episodes . Meanwhile , TVLine criticized Rachel 's storyline in season one 's " The One With the Evil <unk> " for impulsively sleeping with her ex @-@ fiancé , Barry , <unk> the episode as " <unk> " . TVLine also criticized the character 's arc in season four 's " The One With The Fake Party " . At times the character has generated mild controversy , specifically in 1996 in response to her role in the second season episode " The One Where Dr. <unk> Dies " , in which Rachel and Monica fight over a condom . Aniston revealed that Friends fans would often approach and <unk> her for things Rachel did that they deemed " disagreeable " . 
 Neil <unk> , writing for The Daily Telegraph , hailed Rachel as " one of six <unk> @-@ <unk> young New Yorkers who helped Friends redefine the kind of relationships that could form the heart of a US sitcom " . According to Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff , audiences wanted to see Rachel " figure out life , " allowing the character to become " a favorite of many Friends fans throughout all ten seasons " . Writing for <unk> , Dominic Wills echoed that Rachel " became the general favourite " , while " No one had a bad word to say about Jennifer Aniston " . Rachel would go on to become the show 's breakout character , and is often revered as one of the greatest characters in television history . Us Weekly magazine ranked Rachel the most beloved television character of the past 20 years , citing her as " one of TV 's most <unk> personalities " , while Entertainment Weekly ranked the character sixth on a similar list . AOL TV ranked Rachel among television 's hundred " Greatest Women " at number 23 , with author Kim Potts <unk> , " Rachel became one of viewers ' favorite Friends because she grew from what could have been a one @-@ note character ... into a more independent , caring pal " . CBS News placed Rachel and the cast of Friends at number 31 on its list of the " 50 greatest TV characters " . BuddyTV ranked Rachel the 15th funniest female character in sitcom history . <unk> collectively ranked Rachel , Monica and Phoebe 11th , 12th and 13th on the website 's list of the " Top 16 Female TV Characters of All Time " . Writing for <unk> , <unk> <unk> believes that Rachel 's influence is evident in the character Penny in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory , noting that both characters are " blonde , cute , funny , likeable girls @-@ next @-@ door " . Several baby name books and websites now commonly associate the name " Rachel " with the character . According to <unk> , the name peaked in popularity in 1996 , during the second season of Friends , becoming the ninth most popular female name in the United States that year . 
 Aniston 's performance in Friends has been praised since her first appearance in its pilot . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker wrote that the actress provides Rachel with " prickly intelligence " . Writing for The Baltimore Sun , David <unk> cited Aniston among the show 's " very strong cast " , while Variety 's Tony Scott wrote that " All six of the principals ... appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills " . Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette praised the show 's female cast collectively . TV Guide wrote that the actress " instantly charmed audiences with her perfect looks and endearingly flawed persona " . Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast dubbed Aniston 's performance on Friends " the work of a brilliant character actress . " The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey reviewed that " Aniston was the <unk> member of the ensemble and the one least reliant on <unk> caricature " , concluding , " Playing the only character with whom a <unk> viewer might reasonably identify also meant that she got the lion 's share of attention " . Andrew Collins of Radio Times described Aniston as a " natural comic performer , as adept with a subtle nose <unk> as a full @-@ on <unk> , and fluent in quick @-@ fire patter " . In 2002 , Aniston won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , one of the show 's six wins out of a total of 62 nominations . In 2003 , the actress won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical . Karen Thomas of USA Today dubbed Aniston " our favorite Friend " . According to Turner Classic Movies , Aniston ultimately became " One of the most popular television actresses of her era " . According to Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff , the actress ' own fame " <unk> " those of her co @-@ stars , becoming the first cast member to " rise to prominence " ; the actress continues to experience the most post @-@ Friends success . Aniston 's performance in Friends led to a successful film career . According to The <unk> News , Rachel is " the role that would end up launching [ Aniston 's ] success " , while Bradford Evans of Splitsider believes " that Jennifer Aniston likely wouldn 't have become a major movie star without Friends " . While ranking Aniston the most attractive sitcom star of the 1990s , Josh Robertson of Complex magazine wrote that " With the haircut , the TV fame , and a true gift for comedy ... combined , Aniston became a big star " , replacing Cox as the show 's " established <unk> " . According to Steve <unk> of Yahoo ! Movies , Aniston is " the series ' only main <unk> to become a <unk> <unk> movie star since the end of the show " . While agreeing that Aniston 's film career has been successful , several critics believe that the actress ' filmography remains limited to playing Rachel @-@ like roles in romantic comedies , save for some exceptions . Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian noted that " Consequently , many of Aniston 's movie roles ... have been Rachel in all but name . " Andrew Collins of Radio Times agreed , writing that Aniston " seems trapped , <unk> playing variations of Rachel " . According to TV Guide , Aniston is " usually called upon to play a variation of her neurotic and adorable Friends character " . Aniston cites Rachel as one of three roles for which she is most grateful , to whom she " owe [ s ] everything " . On being typecast , Aniston admits that at times it " gives you more of a challenge , to shape people ’ s perceptions of you " . as audiences struggle " to lose the Rachel tag that has made her one of the world 's most recognisable faces " . 
 
 = = = Relationships = = = 
 
 Rachel has had several romantic relationships throughout Friends decade @-@ long run , the most famous and prominent of which remains her on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with friend Ross . Although wildly popular among audiences , the couple has been met with mixed reviews from critics . Katherine <unk> of the Daily Express described the characters ' relationship as " the heart of the show " . China Daily cited Ross and Rachel 's reunion during the series finale " The Last One " among the episode 's highlights , while Gary <unk> of Rolling Stone believes that audiences would not have been happy had the couple not ultimately reunited . Contrastingly , The Wire 's Joe Reid is of the opinion that the show 's second season is " the only time Ross / Rachel was truly great " . Virgin Media wrote that the couple 's dynamics " had grown <unk> tedious " by season ten . E ! cable network ranked Rachel and Ross the ninth greatest Friends couple , writing that their relationship gave " Friends fans enough iconic quotes to fill a book " , considering Phoebe 's line " See ? [ Ross is ] her lobster ! " to be among show 's most iconic . Ross and Rachel 's season three breakup has spawned a debate among Friends fans , who continue to argue over which of the two was at fault : Rachel for suggesting that they take a break from their relationship , or Ross for sleeping with another woman immediately afterwards . Writing for E ! , Jenna <unk> ruled in favor of Rachel , elaborating , " there is no excuse for Ross sleeping with someone else after his lobster suggested taking a break " , concluding that Ross " blew it " . The Jewish community was particularly receptive to the fact that a Jewish @-@ American couple existed on prime time television , described by Lilith magazine as " a <unk> first " . 
 Rachel and Ross are considered to be among television 's greatest and most beloved couples . <unk> referred to them as " everyone 's favourite on ... off ... on ( a break ! ) duo , " while Us Weekly and <unk> ranked them the first and second best television couple , respectively . TV Guide ranked Ross and Rachel the third greatest television couple , dubbing them " the most iconic TV couple in recent memory " . Extra placed the couple at number eight , writing , " Never did we want two people to get together more than Ross ... and Rachel " . <unk> included Rachel and Ross in the website 's " 16 TV <unk> We Want To Be Together Forever " list . The pair is also often ranked among television 's greatest " will they or won 't they " couples . Naming Ross and Rachel the greatest " will they , won 't they " couple , Network Ten believes they defined the term , while <unk> dubbed them " The quintessential will they / won ’ t they couple . " According to Sarah Doran of Radio Times , the couple " became synonymous with the phrase ' we 're on a break ' " . Phoebe 's line , in which she refers to the couple as each other 's lobsters , has become one of the show 's most popular and oft @-@ quoted . <unk> Reilly of <unk> magazine defined the term as " the person of whom another is meant to be with forever " . Tara <unk> of Complex magazine believes that " Every other person can tell you what exactly a ' Ross and Rachel ' relationship means " . Ultimately , Rachel 's season eight pregnancy arc is credited with reviving the show 's ratings and reviews . 
 Rachel 's brief romantic relationship with friend Joey during season ten drew strong criticism from both critics and fans alike , although viewership was not <unk> . In fact , Joshua <unk> of Splitsider believes that the only reason the show 's final two seasons performed well in spite of lackluster reviews " was because of the Joey / Rachel / Ross love triangle " . Eric Goldman of IGN referred to the Rachel @-@ Joey storyline as " questionable . " Entertainment Tonight Canada ranked " The One After Rachel and Joey Kiss " among the show 's ten worst episodes at number five , with author I. P. Johnson <unk> it as " desperate " , concluding , " <unk> for even <unk> this romantic plot ; cheers for abandoning it " . <unk> also cited the same episode as one of the show 's worst , calling it " the most nonsensical idea to ever be . " <unk> , E ! enjoyed Rachel and Joey as a couple because they brought out positive aspects in each other 's personalities . Their relationship also spawned a debate among fans , who argued over whether making Rachel and Joey a couple was a bad idea . Jenna <unk> of E ! determined that it is because " It was too far into the series to throw these two together . They didn 't make sense and their romantic scenes felt forced " . 
 
 = = = Fashion = = = 
 
 Both Rachel and Aniston have become fashion icons due to their combined influence on <unk> during the 1990s and onwards , particularly among British women . According to Vogue magazine 's Edward <unk> , Rachel 's fashion sense inspired " the cool New York look " . According to <unk> magazine , Rachel " revived [ a ] love of denim shirts and <unk> " , while <unk> Clayton of <unk> believes that the character " managed to dominate every fashion trend that passed by her radar in the most stylish ways possible " . Hailing her as the " <unk> Queen " , Heat magazine observed the character 's influence on <unk> skirts , denim and <unk> . Citing every costume the character wore during the first season of Friends , <unk> determined that Rachel popularized the <unk> dress . TV Guide published a list of " The 17 Ways Rachel from Friends Changed ' 90s Fashion " . 
 Rachel is often ranked among television 's best dressed characters . Elle included Rachel in the magazine 's " 50 Best <unk> Women on TV " list . <unk> ranked Friends 15th on the website 's list of " 50 TV <unk> That Changed the Way We Dress " , citing Rachel 's " impressive " wardrobe . <unk> ranked Friends the 36th most fashionable television show of all @-@ time , praising Rachel , Monica and Phoebe 's costumes . <unk> ranked Rachel among " The 50 Most <unk> TV Characters Of All Time " at number 28 . Cosmopolitan magazine compiled a list of " 16 things Rachel Green wore to work that we 'd totally wear today " , while Virgin Media ranked the character among television 's <unk> . <unk> magazine ranked Rachel 's wedding dress among " The Best TV Wedding <unk> " . 
 
 = = = = The " Rachel " haircut = = = = 
 
 Named after the character , the " Rachel " refers to a <unk> layered <unk> inspired by the way in which Aniston wore her hair on Friends between 1994 and 1996 , during the first and second seasons of the series . The " Rachel " debuted in the show 's 20th episode , " The One With the Evil <unk> " . Aniston believes that her hair stylist , Chris McMillan , created the haircut while he was " <unk> " . The " Rachel " immediately became popular among women , launching an international hair trend . The popularity of the " Rachel " coincided with the popularity of Friends during the mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 1990s . Marie Claire estimates that 11 million women <unk> the hairstyle throughout the decade , while the Daily Express determined that the hairstyle was most popular among British women , who went to hair salons " clutching magazine pictures of Aniston " and asking <unk> to give them the look . 
 According to Vanity Fair , the hairstyle 's " widespread popularity ... in the show ’ s very first year cemented the sitcom early on as heavily influential when it came to style . " The " Rachel " remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history , and became the most popular hairstyle in the United States since actress <unk> <unk> 's . Hair <unk> credit its appeal and popularity to its medium length and volume , combined with its tendency to frame the face <unk> . <unk> Mark Woolley described it as " a cut that <unk> almost everyone , designed to make women look beautiful " . The " Rachel " is often ranked among the greatest and most iconic hairstyles of all @-@ time , with <unk> placing it at number four and Time ranking it ninth . The Huffington Post determined that the hairstyle is one of " The Most Famous TV <unk> Of All Time " . US Weekly ranked the " Rachel " the 17th most iconic hairstyle . <unk> magazine ranked the " Rachel " fourth on the magazine 's list of " The 100 Best <unk> of All Time " . Meanwhile , <unk> also cited it among " The very best hair to have graced the small screen " , while ranking it the most memorable hairstyle in television history . The Sydney Morning Herald ranked it the second greatest television hairstyle , while Metro ranked the " Rachel " the character 's second @-@ best hairstyle . Ranked sixth on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 25 Fashion <unk> That Changed Entertainment " , the haircut was declared the most " desired " hairstyle of the Clinton era . 
 <unk> Barnes of Self magazine joked that the character 's hair was the " true star of the show " , while its popularity led to Virgin Media coining Rachel " the one with the hair " . <unk> the " Rachel " as one of television 's greatest hairstyles , Sarah <unk> of Elle magazine believed that its popularity " helped make Friends the phenomenon it was " . <unk> that Friends spawned few memorable <unk> in comparison to its contemporaries , Tom <unk> of The Baltimore Sun attributed much of the show 's legacy to the hairstyle , calling it the show 's " only cultural trend " . Josh Robertson of Complex magazine felt that " With the haircut , the TV fame , and a true gift for comedy ... combined , Aniston became a big star " , replacing Courteney Cox . According to Jim <unk> of Paste magazine , " ' the Rachel ' hairstyle became the decade ’ s defining ' do , calling it " the definition of influence " . 
 In the second season episode " The One With The <unk> Wedding " , Rachel complains that her overbearing mother ( Marlo Thomas ) is trying to pattern her own life after hers , lamenting , " Couldn 't she just copy my haircut ? " Although Aniston eventually abandoned the " Rachel " for a <unk> , longer look , the hairstyle remained popular nonetheless . Despite her association with the cut , Aniston disliked the hairstyle . She found maintaining the hairstyle without McMillan 's help difficult , stating " I 'd curse Chris every time I had to <unk> . It took three <unk> — it was like doing surgery ! " and that she would rather shave her head than have to wear it for the rest of her life . 
 Since Aniston , several other celebrities have worn variations of the " Rachel " , among them actresses Cameron <unk> , Rachel <unk> , Emma Watson , Reese Witherspoon , Julia Roberts , comedian Tina Fey , model <unk> Banks , and singer Lily Allen . 
 
 
 = Krak des Chevaliers = 
 
 Krak des Chevaliers ( French pronunciation : <unk> [ <unk> de <unk> ] ; Arabic : حصن <unk> ) , also Crac des Chevaliers , <unk> al @-@ Akrād ( حصن <unk> ) , Castle <unk> , formerly Crac de l 'Ospital , is a Crusader castle in Syria and one of the most important preserved medieval castles in the world . The site was first inhabited in the 11th century by a settlement of Kurdish troops dispatched there by the <unk> ; as a result it was known as Hisn al @-@ Akrad , meaning the " Castle of the Kurds " . In 1142 it was given by Raymond II , Count of Tripoli , to the Knights Hospitaller . It remained in their possession until it fell in 1271 . It became known as Crac de l 'Ospital ; the name Krak des Chevaliers was coined in the 19th century . 
 The Hospitallers began rebuilding the castle in the <unk> and were finished by 1170 when an earthquake damaged the castle . The order controlled a number of castles along the border of the County of Tripoli , a state founded after the First Crusade . Krak des Chevaliers was among the most important , and acted as a center of administration as well as a military base . After a second phase of building was undertaken in the 13th century , Krak des Chevaliers became a concentric castle . This phase created the outer wall and gave the castle its current appearance . The first half of the century has been described as Krak des Chevaliers ' " golden age " . At its peak , Krak des Chevaliers housed a garrison of around 2 @,@ 000 . Such a large garrison allowed the Hospitallers to extract tribute from a wide area . From the 1250s the fortunes of the Knights Hospitaller took a turn for the worse and in 1271 Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured Krak des Chevaliers after a siege lasting 36 days , supposedly by way of a forged letter purportedly from the Hospitallers ' Grand Master that caused the Knights to surrender . 
 Renewed interest in Crusader castles in the 19th century led to the investigation of Krak des Chevaliers , and architectural plans were drawn up . In the late 19th or early 20th century a settlement had been created within the castle , causing damage to its fabric . The 500 inhabitants were moved in 1933 and the castle was given over to the French state , which carried out a program of clearing and restoration . When Syria declared independence in 1946 , it assumed control . Today , a village called al @-@ Husn exists around the castle and has a population of nearly 9 @,@ 000 . Krak des Chevaliers is located approximately 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) west of the city of Homs , close to the border of Lebanon , and is administratively part of the Homs <unk> . Since 2006 , the castles of Krak des Chevaliers and <unk> <unk> <unk> El @-@ Din have been recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . It was partially damaged in the Syrian civil war from shelling : the full extent of the damage is unknown , but there have been reports of hasty repairs . 
 
 = = Etymology = = 
 
 The modern Arabic word for a castle is <unk> ( <unk> ) , but Krak des <unk> is known as a " <unk> " ( حصن ) , or " fort " . This derives from the name of an earlier fortification on the same site called <unk> al @-@ Akrād ( حصن <unk> ) , meaning " fort of the Kurds " . It was called by the Franks Le <unk> and then by a confusion with <unk> ( fortress ) , Le Crac . <unk> was probably the Frankish version of Akrād , the word for Kurds . After the Knights Hospitaller took control of the castle , it became known as Crac de l 'Ospital ; the name Crac des Chevaliers ( alternatively spelt Krak des Chevaliers ) was introduced by Guillaume Rey in the 19th century . 
 
 = = Location = = 
 
 The castle sits atop a 650 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) hill east of <unk> , Syria , in the Homs Gap . On the other side of the gap , 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) away , was the 12th @-@ century <unk> Castle . The route through the strategically important Homs Gap connects the cities of Tripoli and Homs . To the north of the castle lies the <unk> <unk> , and to the south Lebanon . The surrounding area is fertile , <unk> from streams and abundant rainfall . Compared to the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the other Crusader states had less land suitable for farming ; however , the limestone peaks of Tripoli were well @-@ suited to defensive sites . 
 Property in the County of Tripoli , granted to the Knights Templar in the <unk> , included the Castle of the Kurds , the towns of <unk> and <unk> , and the <unk> <unk> plain separating Homs and Tripoli . Homs was never under Crusader control , so the region around the Castle of the Kurds was vulnerable to expeditions from the city . While its proximity caused the Knights problems with regard to defending their territory , it also meant Homs was close enough for them to raid . Because of the castle 's command of the plain , it became the Knights ' most important base in the area . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 According to 13th @-@ century Arab historian Ibn Shaddad , the <unk> <unk> of Aleppo , <unk> ad @-@ <unk> , established a settlement of Kurdish tribesmen at the site of the future castle in <unk> CE , hence the castle 's Arabic name " Hisn al @-@ Akrad " ( Castle of the Kurds ) . The site was strategically located at the southern edge of the <unk> al @-@ <unk> mountain range and dominated the road between Homs and Tripoli . When building castles , Muslims often chose elevated sites such as hills and mountains that provided natural obstacles . 
 In January 1099 on the journey to Jerusalem during the First Crusade , the company of Raymond IV of Toulouse came under attack from the garrison of Hisn al @-@ Akrad , the forerunner of the Krak , who <unk> Raymond 's <unk> . The following day Raymond marched on the castle and found it deserted . The crusaders briefly occupied the castle in February of the same year but abandoned it when they continued their march towards Jerusalem . Permanent occupation began in <unk> when <unk> , Prince of Galilee took control of the site . The early castle was substantially different from the extant remains and no trace of this first castle survives at the site . 
 The origins of the Knights Hospitaller are unclear , but the order probably emerged around the <unk> in Jerusalem . It started as a religious order which cared for the sick , and later looked after pilgrims to the Holy Land . After the success of the First Crusade in capturing Jerusalem in 1099 , many crusaders donated their new property in the Levant to the Hospital of St John . Early donations were in the newly formed Kingdom of Jerusalem , but over time the order extended its holdings to the Crusader states of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch . Evidence suggests that in the <unk> the order became <unk> when Fulk , King of Jerusalem , granted the newly built castle at <unk> to the order in 1136 . A papal bull from between 1139 and <unk> may indicate the order hiring people to defend pilgrims . There were also other military orders , such as the Knights Templar , which offered protection to pilgrims . 
 Between 1142 and <unk> Raymond II , Count of Tripoli , granted the order property in the county . According to historian Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith , the Hospitallers effectively established a " palatinate " within Tripoli . The property included castles with which the Hospitallers were expected to defend Tripoli . Along with Krak des Chevaliers , the Hospitallers were given four other castles along the borders of the state which allowed the order to dominate the area . The order 's agreement with Raymond II stated that if he did not accompany knights of the order on campaign , the spoils belonged entirely to the order , and if he was present it was split equally between the count and the order . Raymond II could further not make peace with the Muslims without the permission of the Hospitallers . The Hospitallers made Krak des Chevaliers a center of administration for their new property , undertaking work at the castle that would make it one of the most elaborate Crusader fortifications in the Levant . 
 After acquiring the site in 1142 , they began building a new castle to replace the former Kurdish fortification . This work lasted until 1170 , when an earthquake damaged the castle . An Arab source mentions that the quake destroyed the castle 's chapel , which was replaced by the present chapel . In <unk> the Crusaders emerged victorious over Nur ad @-@ Din in the Battle of al @-@ <unk> near Krak des Chevaliers . 
 Drought conditions between 1175 and 1180 prompted the Crusaders to sign a two @-@ year truce with the Muslims , but without Tripoli included in the terms . During the <unk> raids by Christians and Muslims into each other 's territory became more frequent . In 1180 , Saladin ventured into the County of Tripoli , <unk> the area . Unwilling to meet him in open battle , the Crusaders retreated to the relative safety of their fortifications . Without capturing the castles , Saladin could not secure control of the area , and once he retreated the Hospitallers were able to <unk> their damaged lands . The Battle of <unk> in 1187 was a disastrous defeat for the Crusaders : Guy of <unk> , King of Jerusalem , was captured , as was the True Cross , a relic discovered during the First Crusade . Afterwards Saladin ordered the execution of the captured Templar and Hospitaller knights , such was the importance of the two orders in defending the Crusader states . After the battle , the Hospitaller castles of <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> fell to Muslim armies . Following these losses , the Order focused its attention on its castles in Tripoli . In May <unk> Saladin led an army to attack Krak des Chevaliers , but on seeing the castle decided it was too well defended and instead marched on the Hospitaller castle of Margat , which he also failed to capture . 
 Another earthquake struck in <unk> , and it may have been after this event that the castle was remodelled . The 13th @-@ century work was the last period of building at Krak des Chevaliers and gave it its current appearance . An enclosing stone circuit was built between 1142 and 1170 ; the earlier structure became the castle 's inner court or ward . If there was a circuit of walls surrounding the inner court that pre @-@ dated the current outer walls , no trace of it has been discovered . 
 The first half of the 13th century has been characterized as Krak des Chevaliers ' " golden age " . While other Crusader strongholds came under threat , Krak des Chevaliers and its garrison of 2 @,@ 000 soldiers dominated the surrounding area . It was effectively the center of a principality which remained in Crusader hands until 1271 and was the only major inland area to remain constantly under Crusader control during this period . Crusaders who passed through the area would often stop at the castle , and probably made donations . King Andrew II of Hungary visited in 1218 and proclaimed the castle the " key of the Christian lands " . He was so impressed with the castle that he gave a yearly income of 60 marks to the Master and 40 to the brothers . <unk> de Joinville , uncle of the noted chronicler of the <unk> Jean de Joinville , died at Krak des Chevaliers in 1203 or 1204 and was buried in the castle 's chapel . 
 The main contemporary accounts relating to Krak des Chevaliers are of Muslim origin and tend to emphasize Muslim success while overlooking setbacks against the Crusaders although they suggest that the Knights Hospitaller forced the settlements of Hama and Homs to pay tribute to the Order . This situation lasted as long as Saladin 's successors <unk> between themselves . The proximity of Krak des Chevaliers to Muslim territories allowed it to take on an offensive role , acting as a base from which neighboring areas could be attacked . By 1203 the garrison were making raids on <unk> ( which was under Muslim control ) and Hama , and in 1207 and 1208 the castle 's soldiers took part in an attack on Homs . Krak des Chevaliers acted as a base for expeditions to Hama in 1230 and 1233 after the <unk> refused to pay tribute . The former was unsuccessful , but the 1233 expedition was a show of force that demonstrated the importance of Krak des Chevaliers . 
 In the 1250s , the fortunes of the Hospitallers at Krak des Chevaliers took a turn for the worse . A Muslim army estimated to number 10 @,@ 000 men ravaged the countryside around the castle in <unk> after which the Order 's finances declined sharply . In 1268 Master Hugh Revel complained that the area , previously home to around 10 @,@ 000 people , now stood deserted and that the Order 's property in the Kingdom of Jerusalem produced little income . He also noted that by this point there were only 300 of the Order 's brethren left in the east . On the Muslim side , in 1260 Baibars became Sultan of Egypt , following his overthrow of the incumbent ruler <unk> , and went on to unite Egypt and Syria . As a result , Muslim settlements that had previously paid tribute to the Hospitallers at Krak des Chevaliers no longer felt intimidated into doing so . 
 Baibars ventured into the area around Krak des Chevaliers in 1270 and allowed his men to <unk> their animals on the fields around the castle . When he received news that year of the Eighth Crusade led by King Louis IX of France , Baibars left for Cairo to avoid a confrontation . After Louis died in 1271 Baibars returned to deal with Krak des Chevaliers . Before he marched on the castle the Sultan captured the smaller castles in the area , including <unk> Blanc . On 3 March , Baibars ' army arrived at Krak des Chevaliers . By the time the Sultan appeared on the scene , the castle may already have been blockaded by Mamluk forces for several days . Of the three Arabic accounts of the siege only one was contemporary , that of Ibn Shaddad , although he was not present at the siege . <unk> who lived in the area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward . As soon as Baibars arrived he erected <unk> , powerful siege weapons which he would later turn on the castle . In a probable reference to a walled suburb outside the castle 's entrance , Ibn Shaddad records that two days later the first line of defences fell to the besiegers . 
 Rain interrupted the siege , but on 21 March , immediately south of Krak des Chevaliers , <unk> 's forces captured a triangular <unk> possibly defended by a timber palisade . On 29 March , the attackers undermined a tower in the southwest corner causing it to collapse whereupon Baibars ' army attacked through the breach . In the outer ward they encountered the peasants who had sought refuge in the castle . Though the outer ward had fallen , with a handful of the garrison killed in the process , the Crusaders retreated to the more formidable inner ward . After a lull of ten days , the besiegers conveyed a letter to the garrison , supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli , which granted permission for them to surrender . Although the letter was a forgery , the garrison <unk> and the Sultan spared their lives . The new owners of the castle undertook repairs , focused mainly on the outer ward . The Hospitaller chapel was converted to a mosque and two <unk> were added to the interior . 
 
 = = Later history = = 
 
 After the Franks were driven from the Holy Land in <unk> , European familiarity with the castles of the <unk> declined . It was not until the 19th century that interest in these buildings was renewed , so there are no detailed plans from before 1837 . Guillaume Rey was the first European researcher to scientifically study Crusader castles in the Holy Land . In 1871 he published the work <unk> sur les monuments de l <unk> <unk> des <unk> en <unk> et dans l <unk> de <unk> ; it included plans and drawings of the major Crusader castles in Syria , including Krak des Chevaliers . In some instances his drawings were inaccurate , however for Krak des <unk> they record features which have since been lost . 
 Paul Deschamps visited the castle in February 1927 . Since Rey had visited in the 19th century a village of 500 people had been established within the castle . Renewed <unk> had damaged the site : underground vaults had been used as rubbish tips and in some places the <unk> had been destroyed . Deschamps and fellow architect François <unk> attempted to clear some of the <unk> ; General Maurice <unk> assigned 60 <unk> soldiers to help . Deschamps left in March 1927 , and work resumed when he returned two years later . The culmination of <unk> 's work at the castle was the publication of Les <unk> des <unk> en <unk> <unk> I : le Crac des Chevaliers in 1934 , with detailed plans by <unk> . The survey has been widely praised , described as " brilliant and <unk> " by military historian D. J. <unk> King in 1949 and " perhaps the finest account of the archaeology and history of a single medieval castle ever written " by historian Hugh Kennedy in 1994 . 
 As early as 1929 there were suggestions that the castle should be taken under French control . On 16 November 1933 Krak des Chevaliers was given into the control of the French state , and cared for by the <unk> des <unk> @-@ Arts . The villagers were moved and paid F1 million between them in compensation . Over the following two years a programme of cleaning and restoration was carried out by a force of 120 workers . Once finished , Krak des Chevaliers was one of the key tourist attractions in the French Levant . Pierre <unk> , who had undertaken similar work at the Tower of the Lions and the two castles at Sidon , <unk> the work . Despite the restoration , no archaeological excavations were carried out . The French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon , which had been established in 1920 , ended in 1946 with the declaration of Syrian independence . The castle was made a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , along with <unk> ’ at <unk> El @-@ Din , in 2006 , and is owned by the Syrian government . 
 Several of the castle 's former residents built their houses outside the fortress and a village called al @-@ Husn has since developed . Many of the al @-@ Husn 's roughly 9 @,@ 000 Muslim residents benefit economically from the tourism generated by the site . 
 
 = = = Syrian Civil War = = = 
 
 During the Syrian Civil War which began in 2011 , UNESCO voiced concerns that the war might lead to the damage of important cultural sites such as Krak des Chevaliers . It has been reported that the castle was shelled in August 2012 by the Syrian Arab Army , and the Crusader chapel has been damaged . The castle was reported to have been damaged in July 2013 by an <unk> during the Siege of Homs , and once more on the 18th of August 2013 it was clearly damaged yet the amount of destruction is unknown . The Syrian Arab Army recaptured the castle and the village of al @-@ <unk> from rebel forces on March 20 , 2014 , although the extent of damage from earlier mortar hits remained unclear . 
 
 = = Architecture = = 
 
 Writing in the early 20th century , T. E. Lawrence , popularly known as Lawrence of Arabia , remarked that Krak des Chevaliers was " perhaps the best preserved and most wholly admirable castle in the world , [ a castle which ] forms a fitting commentary on any account of the <unk> buildings of Syria " . <unk> in Europe provided <unk> accommodation for their owners and were centers of administration ; in the Levant the need for defence was paramount and was reflected in castle design . Kennedy suggests that " The castle scientifically designed as a fighting machine surely reached its <unk> in great buildings like Margat and Crac des Chevaliers . " 
 Krak des Chevaliers can be classified both as a spur castle , due to its site , and after the 13th @-@ century expansion a fully developed concentric castle . It was similar in size and layout to <unk> Jacob , a Crusader castle built in the late <unk> . Margat has also been cited as Krak des Chevaliers ' sister castle . The main building material at Krak des Chevaliers was limestone ; the ashlar facing is so fine that the mortar is barely noticeable . Outside the castle 's entrance was a " walled suburb " known as a <unk> , no trace of which remains . To the south of the outer ward was a triangular <unk> and the Crusaders may have intended to build stone walls and towers around it . It is unknown how it was defended at the time of the 1271 siege , though it has been suggested it was surrounded by a timber palisade . South of the castle the spur on which it stands is connected to the next hill , so that siege engines can approach on level ground . The inner defences are strongest at this point , with a cluster of towers connected by a thick wall . 
 
 = = = Inner ward = = = 
 
 Between 1142 and 1170 the Knights Hospitaller undertook a building programme on the site . The castle was defended by a stone curtain wall studded with square towers which projected slightly . The main entrance was between two towers on the eastern side , and there was a <unk> gate in the northwest tower . At the center was a courtyard surrounded by vaulted chambers . The lay of the land dictated the castle 's irregular shape . A site with natural defences was a typical location for Crusader castles and steep slopes provided Krak des Chevaliers with defences on all sides bar one , where the castle 's defences were concentrated . This phase of building was incorporated into the later castle 's construction . 
 When Krak des Chevaliers was remodelled in the 13th century , new walls surrounding the inner court were built . They followed the earlier walls , with a narrow gap between them in the west and south which was turned into a gallery from which defenders could <unk> missiles . In this area , the walls were supported by a steeply sloping glacis which provided additional protection against both siege weapons and earthquakes . Four large , round towers project vertically from the glacis ; they were used as accommodation for the Knights of the garrison , about 60 at its peak . The southwest tower was designed to house the rooms of the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller . Though the defences which once crested the walls of the inner wards no longer survive in most places , it seems that they did not extend for the entire circuit . <unk> were absent from the southern face . The area between the inner court and the outer walls was narrow and not used for accommodation . In the east , where the defences were weakest , there was an open cistern filled by an <unk> . It acted both as a <unk> and water supply for the castle . 
 At the north end of the small courtyard is a chapel and at the southern end is an esplanade . The esplanade is raised above the rest of the courtyard ; the vaulted area beneath it would have provided storage and could have acted as <unk> and shelter from missiles . <unk> the west of the courtyard is the hall of the Knights . Though probably first built in the 12th century , the interior dates from the 13th @-@ century <unk> . The tracery and delicate decoration is a sophisticated example of Gothic architecture , probably dating from the 1230s . 
 
 = = = Chapel = = = 
 
 The current chapel was probably built to replace the one destroyed by an earthquake in 1170 . Only the east end of the original chapel , which housed the apse , and a small part of the south wall survive from the original chapel . The later chapel had a barrel vault and an <unk> apse ; its design would have been considered <unk> by contemporary standards in France , but bears similarities to that built around <unk> at Margat . It was divided into three roughly equal bays . A <unk> runs round the chapel at the point where the vault ends and the wall begins . <unk> roughly east to west , it was 21 @.@ 5 metres ( 71 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) wide with the main entrance from the west and a second smaller one in the north wall . When the castle was remodelled in the early 13th century , the entrance was moved to the south wall . The chapel was lit by windows above the <unk> , one at the west end , one on either side of the east bay , and one on the south side of the central bay , and the apse at the east end had a large window . In 1935 a second chapel was discovered outside the castle 's main entrance , however it no longer survives . 
 
 = = = Outer ward = = = 
 
 The second phase of building work undertaken by the Hospitallers began in the early 13th century and lasted decades . The outer walls were built in the last major construction on the site , lending the Krak des Chevaliers its current appearance . Standing 9 metres ( 30 ft ) high , the outer circuit had towers that projected strongly from the wall . While the towers of the inner court had a square plan and did not project far beyond the wall , the towers of the 13th @-@ century outer walls were rounded . This design was new and even contemporary Templar castles did not have rounded towers . The technique was developed at <unk> Gaillard in France by Richard the <unk> between <unk> and <unk> . The extension to the southeast is of lesser quality than the rest of the circuit and was built at an unknown date . Probably around the 1250s a <unk> was added to the north wall . 
 Arrow slits in the walls and towers were distributed to minimize the amount of dead ground around the castle . <unk> crowned the walls , offering defenders a way to <unk> projectiles towards enemies at the foot of the wall . They were so cramped <unk> would have had to crouch inside them . The box <unk> were unusual : those at Krak des Chevaliers were more complex that those at <unk> or Margat and there were no comparable features amongst Crusader castles . However , they bore similarities to Muslim work , such as the contemporary defences at the Citadel of Aleppo . It is unclear which side imitated the other , as the date they were added to Krak des Chevaliers is unknown , but it does provide evidence for the <unk> of military ideas between the Muslim and Christian armies . These defences were accessed by a wall @-@ walk known as a chemin de <unk> . In the opinion of historian Hugh Kennedy the defences of the outer wall were " the most elaborate and developed anywhere in the Latin east ... the whole structure is a brilliantly designed and superbly built fighting machine " . 
 When the outer walls were built in the 13th century the main entrance was enhanced . A vaulted corridor led uphill from the outer gate in the northeast . The corridor made a hairpin turn halfway along its length , making it an example of a bent entrance . Bent entrances were a Byzantine innovation , but that at Krak des Chevaliers was a particularly complex example . It extended for 137 metres ( 450 ft ) , and along its length were murder @-@ holes which allowed defenders to shower attackers with missiles . Anyone going straight ahead rather than following the hairpin turn would emerge in the area between the castle 's two circuits of walls . To access the inner ward , the passage had to be followed round . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Despite its predominantly military character , the castle is one of the few sites where Crusader art ( in the form of frescoes ) has been preserved . In 1935 , 1955 , and 1978 medieval frescoes were discovered within Krak des Chevaliers after later plaster and white @-@ wash had decayed . The <unk> were painted on the interior and exterior of the main chapel and the chapel outside the main entrance , which no longer survives . Writing in 1982 , historian <unk> <unk> noted that at the time there had been little investigation of Crusader frescoes that would provide a comparison for the fragmentary remains found at Krak des Chevaliers . Those in the chapel were painted on the masonry from the 1170 – <unk> rebuild . <unk> , smoke , and moisture have made it difficult to preserve the frescoes . The fragmentary nature of the red and blue frescoes inside the chapel means they are difficult to assess . The one on the exterior of the chapel depicted the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple . 
 
 
 = The Importance of Being Earnest = 
 
 The Importance of Being Earnest , A <unk> Comedy for Serious People is a play by Oscar Wilde . First performed on 14 February 1895 at the St James 's Theatre in London , it is a farcical comedy in which the protagonists maintain fictitious <unk> to escape burdensome social obligations . Working within the social conventions of late Victorian London , the play 's major themes are the triviality with which it treats institutions as serious as marriage , and the resulting satire of Victorian ways . Contemporary reviews all praised the play 's humour , though some were cautious about its explicit lack of social messages , while others <unk> the modern consensus that it was the culmination of Wilde 's artistic career so far . Its high farce and witty dialogue have helped make The Importance of Being Earnest Wilde 's most <unk> popular play . 
 The successful opening night marked the climax of Wilde 's career but also heralded his downfall . The Marquess of Queensberry , whose son Lord Alfred Douglas was Wilde 's lover , planned to present the writer with a bouquet of rotten vegetables and disrupt the show . Wilde was tipped off and Queensberry was refused admission . Soon afterwards their feud came to a climax in court , where Wilde 's homosexual double life was revealed to the Victorian public and he was eventually sentenced to imprisonment . His notoriety caused the play , despite its early success , to be closed after 86 performances . After his release , he published the play from exile in Paris , but he wrote no further comic or dramatic work . 
 The Importance of Being Earnest has been revived many times since its premiere . It has been adapted for the cinema on three occasions . In The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1952 ) , Dame Edith Evans reprised her celebrated interpretation of Lady Bracknell ; The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1992 ) by Kurt Baker used an all @-@ black cast ; and Oliver Parker 's The Importance of Being Earnest ( 2002 ) incorporated some of Wilde 's original material cut during the preparation of the original stage production . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 After the success of Wilde 's plays Lady Windermere 's Fan and A Woman of No Importance , Wilde 's producers urged him to write further plays . In July 1894 he <unk> his idea for The Importance of Being Earnest to George Alexander , the actor @-@ manager of the St James 's Theatre . Wilde spent the summer with his family at Worthing , where he wrote the play quickly in August . His fame now at its peak , he used the working title Lady <unk> to avoid pre @-@ <unk> speculation of its content . Many names and ideas in the play were borrowed from people or places the author had known ; Lady Queensberry , Lord Alfred Douglas 's mother , for example , lived at Bracknell . There is widespread agreement among Wilde scholars that the most important influence on the play was W. S. Gilbert 's 1877 farce <unk> ; Wilde borrowed from Gilbert not only several incidents but , in Russell Jackson 's phrase " the gravity of tone demanded by Gilbert of his actors " . 
 Wilde continually revised the text over the next months : no line was left <unk> , and " in a play so economical with its language and effects , [ the revisions ] had serious consequences " . <unk> <unk> describes Wilde 's revisions as a refined art at work : the earliest , longest handwritten drafts of the play labour over farcical incidents , broad puns , nonsense dialogue and conventional comic turns . In revising as he did , " Wilde transformed standard nonsense into the more systemic and disconcerting <unk> which <unk> Earnest 's dialogue " . Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde had reached his artistic maturity and wrote this work more surely and rapidly than before . 
 Wilde hesitated about submitting the script to Alexander , worrying that it might be unsuitable for the St James 's Theatre , whose typical repertoire was relatively serious , and explaining that it had been written in response to a request for a play " with no real serious interest " . When Henry James 's Guy <unk> failed , Alexander turned to Wilde and agreed to put on his play . Alexander began his usual meticulous preparations , <unk> the author on each line and planning stage movements with a toy theatre . In the course of these rehearsals Alexander asked Wilde to shorten the play from four acts to three . Wilde agreed and combined elements of the second and third acts . The largest cut was the removal of the character of Mr. <unk> , a solicitor who comes from London to arrest the <unk> " Ernest " ( i.e. , Jack ) for his unpaid dining bills . Algernon , who is posing as " Ernest " , will be led away to Holloway <unk> unless he settles his accounts immediately . Jack finally agrees to pay for Ernest , everyone thinking that it is Algernon 's bill when in fact it is his own . The four @-@ act version was first played on the radio in a BBC production and is still sometimes performed . Peter <unk> argues that the three @-@ act structure is more effective , and that the shorter original text is more theatrically <unk> than the expanded published edition . 
 
 = = Productions = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The play was first produced at the St James 's Theatre on Valentine 's Day 1895 . It was freezing cold but Wilde arrived dressed in " <unk> sobriety " , wearing a green <unk> . The audience , according to one report , " included many members of the great and good , former cabinet ministers and privy councillors , as well as actors , writers , academics , and enthusiasts " . Allan Aynesworth , who played Algernon Moncrieff , recalled to Hesketh Pearson that " In my fifty @-@ three years of acting , I never remember a greater triumph than [ that ] first night " . Aynesworth was himself " <unk> and stylish " , and Alexander , who played Jack Worthing , " demure " . 
 The cast was : 
 John Worthing , J.P. — George Alexander 
 Algernon Moncrieff — Allan Aynesworth 
 Rev. Canon Chasuble , <unk> — H. H. Vincent 
 <unk> — Frank <unk> 
 Lane — F. Kinsey <unk> 
 Lady Bracknell — Rose <unk> 
 <unk> Gwendolen Fairfax — Irene <unk> 
 Cecily <unk> — Evelyn <unk> 
 Miss Prism — Mrs. George <unk> 
 The Marquess of Queensberry , the father of Wilde 's lover Lord Alfred Douglas ( who was on holiday in Algiers at the time ) , had planned to disrupt the play by throwing a bouquet of rotten vegetables at the playwright when he took his bow at the end of the show . Wilde and Alexander learned of the plan , and the latter cancelled Queensberry 's ticket and arranged for policemen to bar his entrance . Nevertheless , he continued harassing Wilde , who eventually launched a private prosecution against the peer for criminal libel , triggering a series of trials ending in Wilde 's imprisonment for gross indecency . Alexander tried , unsuccessfully , to save the production by removing Wilde 's name from the billing , but the play had to close after only 86 performances . 
 The play 's original Broadway production opened at the Empire Theatre on 22 April 1895 , but closed after sixteen performances . Its cast included William <unk> as Algy , Henry Miller as Jack , Viola Allen as Gwendolen , and Ida Vernon as Lady Bracknell . The Australian premiere was in Melbourne on 10 August 1895 , presented by Dion <unk> , Jr. and Robert Brough , and the play was an immediate success . Wilde 's downfall in England did not affect the popularity of his plays in Australia . 
 
 = = = Critical reception = = = 
 
 In contrast to much theatre of the time , The Importance of Being Earnest 's light plot does not tackle serious social and political issues , something of which contemporary reviewers were wary . Though unsure of Wilde 's seriousness as a <unk> , they recognised the play 's <unk> , humour and popularity with audiences . George Bernard Shaw , for example , reviewed the play in the Saturday Review , arguing that comedy should touch as well as <unk> , " I go to the theatre to be moved to laughter . " Later in a letter he said , the play , though " extremely funny " , was Wilde 's " first really <unk> [ one ] " . In The World , William Archer wrote that he had enjoyed watching the play but found it to be empty of meaning , " What can a poor critic do with a play which raises no principle , whether of art or morals , creates its own canons and conventions , and is nothing but an absolutely <unk> expression of an <unk> witty personality ? " 
 In The Speaker , A. B. <unk> admired the play and was one of few to see it as the culmination of Wilde 's dramatic career . He denied the term " farce " was derogatory , or even lacking in seriousness , and said " It is of nonsense all compact , and better nonsense , I think , our stage has not seen . " H. G. Wells , in an unsigned review for the <unk> Mall Gazette , called Earnest one of the <unk> comedies of the year , saying " More humorous dealing with theatrical conventions it would be difficult to imagine . " He also questioned whether people would fully see its message , " ... how Serious People will take this <unk> Comedy intended for their learning remains to be seen . No doubt seriously . " The play was so light @-@ hearted that many reviewers compared it to comic opera rather than drama . W. H. <unk> later called it " a pure verbal opera " , and The Times commented , " The story is almost too preposterous to go without music . " Mary McCarthy , in <unk> and <unk> ( 1959 ) , however , and despite thinking the play extremely funny , would call it " a ferocious <unk> " ; " <unk> is the hero and the only character . " 
 The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde 's most popular work and is continually revived . Max Beerbohm called the play Wilde 's " finest , most undeniably his own " , saying that in his other comedies — Lady Windermere 's Fan , A Woman of No Importance and An Ideal Husband — the plot , following the manner of <unk> <unk> , is unrelated to the theme of the work , while in Earnest the story is " dissolved " into the form of the play . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Until after Wilde 's death in 1900 his name remained disgraced , and few discussed , let alone performed , his work in Britain . Alexander revived The Importance in a small theatre in Notting Hill , outside the West End , in 1901 ; in the same year he presented the piece on tour , playing Jack Worthing with a cast including the young Lilian <unk> as Cecily . The play returned to the West End when Alexander presented a revival at the St James 's in 1902 . Broadway revivals were mounted in 1902 and again in 1910 , each production running for six weeks . 
 A collected edition of Wilde 's works , published in 1908 and edited by Robert Ross , helped to restore his reputation as an author . Alexander presented another revival of The Importance at the St James 's in 1909 , when he and Aynesworth reprised their original roles ; the revival ran for 316 performances . Max Beerbohm said that the play was sure to become a classic of the English repertory , and that its humour was as fresh then as when it had been written , adding that the actors had " worn as well as the play " . 
 For a 1913 revival at the same theatre the young actors Gerald Ames and A. E. Matthews succeeded the creators as Jack and Algy . John <unk> as Jack and Margaret <unk> as Lady Bracknell headed the cast in a 1923 production at the Haymarket Theatre . Many revivals in the first decades of the 20th century treated " the present " as the current year . It was not until the 1920s that the case for 1890s costumes was established ; as a critic in The Manchester Guardian put it , " Thirty years on , one begins to feel that Wilde should be done in the costume of his period — that his wit today needs the backing of the atmosphere that gave it life and truth . … Wilde 's <unk> and complex verbal <unk> go ill with the <unk> and the short skirt . " 
 In Sir Nigel <unk> 's 1930 production at the Lyric , <unk> , John Gielgud played Jack to the Lady Bracknell of his aunt , <unk> Terry @-@ Lewis . Gielgud produced and starred in a production at the Globe ( now the Gielgud ) Theatre in 1939 , in a cast that included Edith Evans as Lady Bracknell , Joyce Carey as Gwendolen , Angela <unk> as Cecily and Margaret Rutherford as Miss Prism . The Times considered the production the best since the original , and praised it for its fidelity to Wilde 's conception , its " airy , responsive ball @-@ playing quality . " Later in the same year Gielgud presented the work again , with Jack Hawkins as Algy , Gwen <unk> @-@ Davies as Gwendolen and Peggy Ashcroft as Cecily , with Evans and Rutherford in their previous roles . The production was presented in several seasons during and after the Second World War , with mostly the same main players . During a 1946 season at the Haymarket the King and Queen attended a performance , which , as the journalist Geoffrey <unk> put it , gave the play " a final accolade of respectability . " The production toured North America , and was successfully staged on Broadway in 1947 . 
 As Wilde 's work came to be read and performed again , it was The Importance of Being Earnest that received the most productions . By the time of its centenary the journalist Mark Lawson described it as " the second most known and quoted play in English after Hamlet . " 
 For Sir Peter Hall 's 1982 production at the National Theatre the cast included Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell , Martin Jarvis as Jack , Nigel Havers as Algy , Zoë <unk> as Gwendolen and Anna Massey as Miss Prism . Nicholas <unk> 's 1993 production at the Aldwych Theatre , starring Maggie Smith , had occasional references to the supposed gay subtext . 
 In 2005 the Abbey Theatre , Dublin , produced the play with an all @-@ male cast ; it also featured Wilde as a character — the play opens with him drinking in a Parisian café , dreaming of his play . The Melbourne Theatre Company staged a production in December 2011 with Geoffrey Rush as Lady Bracknell . 
 In 2011 the Roundabout Theatre Company produced a Broadway revival based on the 2009 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production featuring Brian Bedford as director and as Lady Bracknell . It opened at the American Airlines Theatre on 13 January and ran until 3 July 2011 . The cast also included Dana <unk> as Miss Prism , <unk> Whitehead as Canon Chasuble , <unk> <unk> as Algernon , Paul O 'Brien as Lane , Charlotte Parry as Cecily , David <unk> as Jack and Sara <unk> as Gwendolen . It was nominated for three Tony Awards . 
 The play was also presented internationally , in Singapore , in October 2004 , by the British Theatre <unk> , and the same company brought it to London 's Greenwich Theatre in April 2005 . 
 
 = = Synopsis = = 
 
 The play is set in " The Present " ( i.e. 1895 ) . 
 
 = = = Act I = = = 
 
 Algernon Moncrieff 's flat in Half Moon Street , W 
 The play opens with Algernon Moncrieff , an idle young gentleman , receiving his best friend , John Worthing , whom he knows as Ernest . Ernest has come from the country to propose to Algernon 's cousin , Gwendolen Fairfax . Algernon , however , refuses his consent until Ernest explains why his cigarette case bears the inscription , " From little Cecily , with her <unk> love to her dear Uncle Jack . " ' Ernest ' is forced to admit to living a double life . In the country , he assumes a serious attitude for the benefit of his young ward , the <unk> Cecily <unk> , and goes by the name of John ( or , as a nickname , Jack ) , while pretending that he must worry about a <unk> younger brother named Ernest in London . In the city , meanwhile , he assumes the identity of the <unk> Ernest . Algernon confesses a similar deception : he pretends to have an invalid friend named Bunbury in the country , whom he can " visit " whenever he wishes to avoid an unwelcome social obligation . Jack refuses to tell Algernon the location of his country estate . 
 Gwendolen and her formidable mother Lady Bracknell now call on Algernon who <unk> Lady Bracknell in another room while Jack proposes to Gwendolen . She accepts , but seems to love him very largely for his professed name of Ernest . Jack accordingly resolves to himself to be <unk> " Ernest " . <unk> them in this intimate exchange , Lady Bracknell interviews Jack as a prospective <unk> . <unk> to learn that he was adopted after being discovered as a baby in a handbag at Victoria Station , she refuses him and forbids further contact with her daughter . Gwendolen , though , manages covertly to promise to him her <unk> love . As Jack gives her his address in the country , Algernon <unk> notes it on the cuff of his sleeve : Jack 's revelation of his pretty and wealthy young ward has motivated his friend to meet her . 
 
 = = = Act II = = = 
 
 The Garden of the Manor House , <unk> 
 Cecily is studying with her governess , Miss Prism . Algernon arrives , pretending to be Ernest Worthing , and soon charms Cecily . Long fascinated by Uncle Jack 's hitherto absent black sheep brother , she is <unk> to fall for Algernon in his role of Ernest ( a name she , like Gwendolen , is apparently particularly fond of ) . Therefore , Algernon , too , plans for the rector , Dr. Chasuble , to <unk> him " Ernest " . 
 Jack , meanwhile , has decided to abandon his double life . He arrives in full mourning and announces his brother 's death in Paris of a severe <unk> , a story undermined by Algernon 's presence in the guise of Ernest . 
 Gwendolen now enters , having run away from home . During the temporary absence of the two men , she meets Cecily , each woman <unk> declaring that she is the one engaged to " Ernest " . When Jack and Algernon reappear , their <unk> are exposed . 
 
 = = = Act III = = = 
 
 Morning @-@ Room at the Manor House , <unk> 
 Arriving in pursuit of her daughter , Lady Bracknell is astonished to be told that Algernon and Cecily are engaged . The revelation of Cecily 's trust fund soon <unk> Lady Bracknell 's initial doubts over the young lady 's suitability , but any engagement is forbidden by her guardian Jack : he will consent only if Lady Bracknell agrees to his own union with Gwendolen — something she declines to do . 
 The <unk> is broken by the return of Miss Prism , whom Lady Bracknell recognises as the person who , twenty @-@ eight years earlier , as a family <unk> , had taken a baby boy for a walk in a <unk> ( baby carriage ) and never returned . <unk> , Miss Prism explains that she had <unk> put the manuscript of a novel she was writing in the <unk> , and the baby in a handbag , which she had left at Victoria Station . Jack produces the very same handbag , showing that he is the lost baby , the elder son of Lady Bracknell 's late sister , and thus indeed Algernon 's elder brother . Having acquired such respectable relations , he is acceptable as a <unk> for Gwendolen after all . 
 Gwendolen , though , still insists that she can only love a man named Ernest . What is her fiancé 's real first name ? Lady Bracknell informs Jack that , as the first @-@ born , he would have been named after his father , General Moncrieff . Jack examines the army lists and discovers that his father 's name — and hence his own real name — was in fact Ernest . <unk> was reality all along . As the happy couples embrace — Jack and Gwendolen , Algernon and Cecily , and even Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism — Lady Bracknell complains to her newfound relative : " My nephew , you seem to be displaying signs of triviality . " " On the contrary , <unk> Augusta " , he replies , " I 've now realised for the first time in my life the vital importance of being Earnest . " 
 
 = = Themes = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Arthur Ransome described The Importance ... as the most trivial of Wilde 's society plays , and the only one that produces " that peculiar <unk> of the spirit by which we recognise the beautiful . " " It is " , he wrote , " precisely because it is consistently trivial that it is not ugly . " Ellmann says that The Importance of Being Earnest touched on many themes Wilde had been building since the 1880s — the <unk> of aesthetic poses was well established and Wilde takes it as a starting point for the two protagonists . While <unk> , An Ideal Husband and The Picture of Dorian Gray had dwelt on more serious wrongdoing , vice in Earnest is represented by Algy 's <unk> for <unk> sandwiches . Wilde told Robert Ross that the play 's theme was " That we should treat all trivial things in life very seriously , and all serious things of life with a sincere and studied triviality . " The theme is hinted at in the play 's ironic title , and " earnestness " is repeatedly alluded to in the dialogue , Algernon says in Act II , " one has to be serious about something if one is to have any amusement in life " but goes on to <unk> Jack for ' being serious about everything ' " . <unk> and corruption had haunted the double lives of Dorian Gray and Sir Robert <unk> ( in An Ideal Husband ) , but in Earnest the protagonists ' duplicity ( Algernon 's " <unk> " and Worthing 's double life as Jack and Ernest ) is undertaken for more innocent purposes — largely to avoid unwelcome social obligations . While much theatre of the time tackled serious social and political issues , Earnest is superficially about nothing at all . It " refuses to play the game " of other <unk> of the period , for instance Bernard Shaw , who used their characters to draw audiences to <unk> ideals . 
 
 = = = As a satire of society = = = 
 
 The play repeatedly mocks Victorian traditions and social customs , marriage and the pursuit of love in particular . In Victorian times earnestness was considered to be the over @-@ riding societal value , originating in religious attempts to reform the lower classes , it spread to the upper ones too throughout the century . The play 's very title , with its mocking paradox ( serious people are so because they do not see trivial comedies ) , introduces the theme , it continues in the drawing room discussion , " Yes , but you must be serious about it . I hate people who are not serious about meals . It is so shallow of them , " says Algernon in Act 1 ; allusions are quick and from multiple angles . 
 Wilde managed both to engage with and to mock the genre , while providing social commentary and offering reform . The men follow traditional <unk> rites , whereby <unk> admit their weaknesses to their prospective <unk> , but the <unk> they excuse are ridiculous , and the farce is built on an absurd confusion of a book and a baby . When Jack <unk> to Gwendolen during his marriage proposal it is for not being wicked : 
 <unk> : Gwendolen , it is a terrible thing for a man to find out suddenly that all his life he has been speaking nothing but the truth . Can you forgive me ? 
 <unk> : I can . For I feel that you are sure to change . 
 In turn , both Gwendolen and Cecily have the ideal of marrying a man named Ernest , a popular and respected name at the time . Gwendolen , quite unlike her mother 's methodical analysis of John Worthing 's suitability as a husband , places her entire faith in a Christian name , declaring in Act I , " The only really safe name is Ernest " . This is an opinion shared by Cecily in Act II , " I pity any poor married woman whose husband is not called Ernest " and they <unk> declare that they have been deceived when they find out the men 's real names . 
 Wilde embodied society 's rules and rituals <unk> into Lady Bracknell : minute attention to the details of her style created a comic effect of assertion by restraint . In contrast to her <unk> knowledge of the social distinctions of London 's street names , Jack 's obscure parentage is subtly evoked . He defends himself against her " A handbag ? " with the clarification , " The Brighton Line " . At the time , Victoria Station consisted of two separate but adjacent terminal stations sharing the same name . To the east was the <unk> <unk> & D Railway , on the west the up @-@ market <unk> & <unk> — the Brighton Line , which went to Worthing , the fashionable , expensive town the gentleman who found baby Jack was travelling to at the time ( and after which Jack was named ) . 
 
 = = = <unk> homosexual subtext = = = 
 
 It has been argued that the play 's themes of duplicity and <unk> are <unk> bound up with Wilde 's homosexuality , and that the play exhibits a " <unk> presence @-@ absence of … homosexual desire " . On re @-@ reading the play after his release from prison , Wilde said : " It was extraordinary reading the play over . How I used to toy with that Tiger Life . " As one scholar has put it , the absolute necessity for homosexuals of the period to " need a public mask is a factor contributing to the satire on social disguise . " 
 The use of the name Earnest may have been a homosexual in @-@ joke . In 1892 , three years before Wilde wrote the play , John <unk> Nicholson had published the book of <unk> poetry Love In Earnest . The <unk> Of Boys ' Names included the verse : " Though Frank may ring like silver bell / And Cecil softer music claim / They cannot work the miracle / – ' Tis Ernest sets my heart a @-@ flame . " The word " earnest " may also have been a code @-@ word for homosexual , as in : " Is he earnest ? " , in the same way that " Is he so ? " and " Is he musical ? " were employed . 
 Sir Donald <unk> , an actor who had met two of the play 's original cast ( Irene <unk> and Allan Aynesworth ) , and Lord Alfred Douglas , wrote to The Times to dispute suggestions that " Earnest " held any sexual connotations : 
 Although they had ample opportunity , at no time did any of them even hint that " Earnest " was a synonym for homosexual , or that " <unk> " may have implied homosexual sex . The first time I heard it mentioned was in the 1980s and I immediately consulted Sir John Gielgud whose own performance of Jack Worthing in the same play was legendary and whose knowledge of theatrical lore was <unk> . He replied in his ringing tones : " No @-@ No ! <unk> , absolute nonsense : I would have known " . 
 A number of theories have also been put forward to explain the derivation of Bunbury , and <unk> , which are used in the play to imply a secretive double life . It may have derived from Henry Shirley Bunbury , a <unk> acquaintance of Wilde 's youth . Another suggestion , put forward in 1913 by Aleister Crowley , who knew Wilde , was that Bunbury was a combination word : that Wilde had once taken train to <unk> , met a schoolboy there , and arranged a second secret meeting with him at Sunbury . 
 
 = = Dramatic analysis = = 
 
 
 = = = Use of language = = = 
 
 While Wilde had long been famous for dialogue and his use of language , <unk> ( 1988 ) argues that he achieved a unity and mastery in Earnest that was <unk> in his other plays , except perhaps <unk> . While his earlier comedies suffer from an <unk> resulting from the thematic clash between the trivial and the serious , Earnest achieves a pitch @-@ perfect style that allows these to dissolve . There are three different registers detectable in the play . The <unk> <unk> of Jack and Algernon — established early with Algernon 's exchange with his <unk> — betrays an underlying unity despite their differing attitudes . The formidable <unk> of Lady Bracknell are as startling for her use of <unk> and <unk> extravagance as for her disconcerting opinions . In contrast , the speech of Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism is distinguished by " <unk> precept " and " idiosyncratic diversion " . Furthermore , the play is full of <unk> and <unk> . Max Beerbohm described it as littered with " <unk> <unk> — witticisms unrelated to action or character " , of which he found half a dozen to be of the highest order . 
 Lady Bracknell 's line , " A handbag ? " , has been called one of the most malleable in English drama , lending itself to interpretations ranging from <unk> or <unk> to <unk> . Edith Evans , both on stage and in the 1952 film , delivered the line loudly in a mixture of horror , <unk> and <unk> . <unk> Channing , in the Gaiety Theatre , Dublin in 2010 , <unk> the line , in a critic 's words , " with a barely audible ' A handbag ? ' , rapidly swallowed up with a sharp intake of breath . An understated take , to be sure , but with such a well @-@ known play , packed full of witticisms and aphorisms with a life of their own , it 's the little things that make a difference . " 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Though Wilde deployed characters that were by now familiar — the <unk> lord , the overbearing <unk> , the woman with a past , the puritan young lady — his treatment is <unk> than in his earlier comedies . Lady Bracknell , for instance , embodies respectable , upper @-@ class society , but <unk> notes how her development " from the familiar overbearing <unk> into a <unk> and more disturbing character " can be traced through Wilde 's revisions of the play . For the two young men , Wilde presents not stereotypical stage " <unk> " but intelligent beings who , as Jackson puts it , " speak like their creator in well @-@ formed complete sentences and rarely use slang or vogue @-@ words " . Dr Chasuble and Miss Prism are characterised by a few light touches of detail , their old @-@ fashioned <unk> , and the Canon 's <unk> <unk> , <unk> down by Wilde during his many <unk> of the text . 
 
 = = = Structure and genre = = = 
 
 Ransome argues that Wilde freed himself by abandoning the melodrama , the basic structure which <unk> his earlier social comedies , and basing the story entirely on the Earnest / Ernest verbal <unk> . Now freed from " living up to any drama more serious than conversation " Wilde could now <unk> himself to a fuller extent with <unk> , <unk> @-@ <unk> , <unk> and <unk> that really had little to do with the business at hand . 
 The genre of the Importance of Being Earnest has been deeply debated by scholars and critics alike who have placed the play within a wide variety of genres ranging from parody to satire . In his critique of Wilde , Foster argues that the play creates a world where “ real values are inverted [ and ] , reason and <unk> are <unk> " . Similarly , Wilde 's use of dialogue mocks the upper classes of Victorian England lending the play a satirical tone . <unk> further <unk> that the use of farcical humour to mock the upper classes " merits the play both as satire and as drama " . 
 
 = = Publication = = 
 
 
 = = = First edition = = = 
 
 Wilde 's two final comedies , An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest , were still on stage in London at the time of his prosecution , and they were soon closed as the details of his case became public . After two years in prison with hard labour , Wilde went into exile in Paris , sick and depressed , his reputation destroyed in England . In 1898 , when no @-@ one else would , Leonard Smithers agreed with Wilde to publish the two final plays . Wilde proved to be a <unk> <unk> , sending detailed instructions on stage directions , character listings and the presentation of the book , and insisting that a <unk> from the first performance be reproduced inside . Ellmann argues that the proofs show a man " very much in command of himself and of the play " . Wilde 's name did not appear on the cover , it was " By the Author of Lady Windermere 's Fan " . His return to work was brief though , as he refused to write anything else , " I can write , but have lost the joy of writing " . 
 On 19 October 2007 , a first edition ( number 349 of 1 @,@ 000 ) was discovered inside a handbag in an Oxfam shop in <unk> , Cheshire . Staff were unable to trace the donor . It was sold for £ 650 . 
 
 = = = In translation = = = 
 
 The Importance of Being Earnest 's popularity has meant it has been translated into many languages , though the <unk> pun in the title ( " Ernest " , a masculine proper name , and " earnest " , the virtue of steadfastness and seriousness ) poses a special problem for translators . The <unk> case of a suitable translation of the pun , perpetuating its sense and meaning , may have been its translation into German . Since English and German are closely related languages , German provides an equivalent adjective ( " ernst " ) and also a matching masculine proper name ( " Ernst " ) . The meaning and tenor of the wordplay are exactly the same . Yet there are many different possible titles in German , mostly concerning sentence structure . The two most common ones are " Bunbury oder ernst / Ernst <unk> ist <unk> " and " Bunbury oder <unk> <unk> es ist , ernst / Ernst <unk> <unk> " . In a study of Italian translations , Adrian <unk> found thirteen different versions using eight titles . Since wordplay is often unique to the language in question , translators are faced with a choice of either staying faithful to the original — in this case the English adjective and virtue earnest — or creating a similar pun in their own language . 
 Four main strategies have been used by translators . The first leaves all characters ' names unchanged and in their original spelling : thus the name is respected and readers reminded of the original cultural setting , but the <unk> of the pun is lost . Eva <unk> varied this source @-@ oriented approach by using both the English Christian names and the adjective earnest , thus preserving the pun and the English character of the play , but possibly straining an Italian reader . A third group of translators replaced Ernest with a name that also represents a virtue in the target language , favouring transparency for readers in translation over fidelity to the original . For instance , in Italian , these versions variously call the play L <unk> di <unk> Franco / <unk> / <unk> , the given names being respectively the values of honesty , <unk> , and loyalty . French offers a closer pun : " Constant " is both a first name and the quality of steadfastness , so the play is commonly known as De l <unk> d 'être Constant , though Jean Anouilh translated the play under the title : Il est important d 'être Aimé ( " Aimé " is a name which also means " beloved " ) . These translators differ in their attitude to the original English honorific titles , some change them all , or none , but most leave a mix partially as a compensation for the added loss of <unk> . Lastly , one translation gave the name an Italianate touch by rendering it as <unk> ; this work <unk> mixed proper <unk> from both languages . 
 
 = = Adaptations = = 
 
 
 = = = Film = = = 
 
 Apart from multiple " made @-@ for @-@ television " versions , The Importance of Being Earnest has been adapted for the English @-@ language cinema at least three times , first in 1952 by Anthony Asquith who adapted the screenplay and directed it . Michael <unk> ( Algernon ) , Michael Redgrave ( Jack ) , Edith Evans ( Lady Bracknell ) , Dorothy <unk> ( Cecily ) , Joan Greenwood ( Gwendolen ) , and Margaret Rutherford ( Miss Prism ) and Miles <unk> ( Canon Chasuble ) were among the cast . In 1992 Kurt Baker directed a version using an all @-@ black cast with <unk> Keith <unk> as Jack , Wren T. Brown as Algernon , Ann Weldon as Lady Bracknell , <unk> Chapman as Cecily , Chris Calloway as Gwendolen , <unk> <unk> as Miss Prism , and <unk> Peters as Doctor Chasuble , set in the United States . Oliver Parker , an English director who had previously adapted An Ideal Husband by Wilde , made the 2002 film ; it stars Colin Firth ( Jack ) , Rupert Everett ( Algy ) , Judi Dench ( Lady Bracknell ) , Reese Witherspoon ( Cecily ) , Frances O 'Connor ( Gwendolen ) , Anna Massey ( Miss Prism ) , and Tom Wilkinson ( Canon Chasuble ) . Parker 's adaptation includes the <unk> solicitor Mr. <unk> who pursues Jack to Hertfordshire ( present in Wilde 's original draft , but cut at the behest of the play 's first producer ) . Algernon too is pursued by a group of <unk> in the opening scene . 
 
 = = = <unk> and musicals = = = 
 
 In 1960 , Ernest in Love was staged Off @-@ Broadway . The Japanese all @-@ female musical theatre troupe <unk> Revue staged this musical in 2005 in two productions , one by Moon <unk> and the other one by Flower <unk> . 
 In 1963 , Erik Chisholm composed an opera from the play , using Wilde 's text as the libretto . 
 In 1964 , Gerd <unk> composed the musical Mein <unk> Bunbury based on the play , 1964 premiered at <unk> Theater Berlin . 
 According to a study by Robert <unk> , by 2002 there had been least eight adaptations of the play as a musical , though " never with conspicuous success " . The earliest such version was a 1927 American show entitled Oh Earnest . The journalist Mark <unk> comments , " The libretto of a 1957 musical adaptation , Half in Earnest , deposited in the British Library , is scarcely more encouraging . The curtain rises on Algy strumming away at the piano , singing ' I can play <unk> , Lane ' . Other songs include — almost <unk> — ' A <unk> I Must Go ' . " 
 Gerald Barry created the 2011 opera , The Importance of Being Earnest , commissioned by the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the <unk> Centre in London . It was premiered in Los Angeles in 2011 . The stage premiere was given by the Opéra national de Lorraine in Nancy , France in 2013 . 
 
 = = = Radio and television = = = 
 
 There have been many radio versions of the play . In 1925 the BBC broadcast an adaptation with Hesketh Pearson as Jack Worthing . Further broadcasts of the play followed in 1927 and 1936 . In 1977 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast the four @-@ act version of the play , with <unk> Drake as Lady Bracknell , Richard <unk> as Jack , Jeremy Clyde as Algy , Maurice Denham as Canon Chasuble , Sylvia Coleridge as Miss Prism , Barbara Leigh @-@ Hunt as Gwendolen and <unk> Scales as Cecily . The production was later released on CD . 
 To commemorate the centenary of the first performance of the play , Radio 4 broadcast a new adaptation on 13 February 1995 ; directed by Glyn <unk> , it featured Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell , Michael <unk> as Lane , Michael Sheen as Jack Worthing , Martin <unk> as Algernon Moncrieff , John <unk> as Canon Chasuble , Miriam <unk> as Miss Prism , Samantha Bond as Gwendolen and Amanda Root as Cecily . The production was later issued on audio cassette . 
 On 13 December 2000 , BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new adaptation directed by Howard Davies starring <unk> <unk> as Lady Bracknell , Simon Russell <unk> as Jack Worthing , Julian <unk> as Algernon Moncrieff , Geoffrey Palmer as Canon Chasuble , Celia <unk> as Miss Prism , Victoria Hamilton as Gwendolen and Emma Fielding as Cecily , with music composed by Dominic <unk> . The production was released on audio cassette . 
 A 1964 commercial television adaptation starred Ian Carmichael , Patrick <unk> , <unk> York , <unk> Fielding , Pamela Brown and Irene <unk> . 
 BBC television transmissions of the play have included a 1974 Play of the Month version starring Coral Browne as Lady Bracknell with Michael <unk> , Julian Holloway , Gemma Jones and Celia <unk> . Stuart <unk> directed another adaptation in 1986 with a cast including Gemma Jones , Alec <unk> , Paul <unk> and Joan Plowright . 
 It was adapted for Australian TV in 1957 . 
 
 = = = Commercial recordings = = = 
 
 Gielgud 's performance is preserved on an EMI audio recording dating from 1952 , which also captures Edith Evans 's Lady Bracknell . The cast also includes Roland Culver ( Algy ) , Jean <unk> ( Miss Prism ) , Pamela Brown ( Gwendolen ) and Celia Johnson ( Cecily ) . 
 Other audio recordings include a " Theatre <unk> " version from 1953 , directed and narrated by Margaret Webster , with a cast including Maurice Evans , <unk> Watson and Mildred <unk> ; a 1989 version by California Artists Radio Theatre , featuring Dan O <unk> <unk> Nolan , Les <unk> and Richard <unk> ; and one by L.A. Theatre Works issued in 2009 , featuring Charles Busch , James <unk> and Andrea Bowen . 
 
 
 = Lloyd Mathews = 
 
 Sir Lloyd William Mathews , <unk> , CB ( 7 March 1850 – 11 October 1901 ) was a British naval officer , politician and abolitionist . Mathews joined the Royal Navy as a cadet at the age of 13 and progressed through the ranks to lieutenant . He was involved with the Third Anglo @-@ <unk> War of 1873 – 4 , afterwards being stationed in East Africa for the suppression of the slave trade . In 1877 he was seconded from the navy to Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar in order to form a European @-@ style army ; he would remain in the employment of the government of Zanzibar for the rest of his life . His army quickly reached 6 @,@ 300 men and was used in several expeditions to suppress the slave trade and rebellions against the Zanzibar government . 
 Mathews retired from the Royal Navy in 1881 and was appointed Brigadier @-@ General of Zanzibar . There followed more expeditions to the African mainland , including a failed attempt to stop German expansion in East Africa . In October 1891 Mathews was appointed First Minister to the Zanzibar government , a position in which he was " <unk> by the sultan " . During this time Mathews was a keen abolitionist and promoted this cause to the Sultans he worked with . This resulted in the prohibiting of the slave trade in Zanzibar 's dominions in 1890 and the abolition of slavery in 1897 . Mathews was appointed the British Consul @-@ General for East Africa in 1891 but declined to take up the position , remaining in Zanzibar instead . Mathews and his troops also played a key role in the ending of the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War of 1896 which erupted out of an attempt to bypass the requirement that new Sultans must be <unk> by the British consul . During his time as first minister Mathews continued to be involved with the military and was part of two large campaigns , one to Witu and another to Mwele . 
 Mathews was decorated by several governments , receiving appointments as a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , Companion of the Order of the Bath and as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George from the British government and membership in the Prussian Order of the Crown . Zanzibar also rewarded him and he was a member of the Grand Order of <unk> and a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar . Mathews died of malaria in Zanzibar on 11 October 1901 . 
 
 = = Early life and career = = 
 
 Mathews was born at <unk> on Madeira on 7 March 1850 . His father , Captain William Matthews was Welsh , and his mother Jane Wallis Penfold , was the daughter of William Penfold and Sarah Gilbert . Her sister , Augusta Jane <unk> née Penfold was the author of a famous book about the flora and fauna of Madeira , which is now in the Natural History Museum . Mathews became a cadet of the Royal Navy in 1863 and was appointed a <unk> on 23 September 1866 . From 1868 he was stationed in the Mediterranean but his first active service was during the Third Anglo @-@ <unk> War of 1873 – 4 where he qualified for the campaign medal . He was promoted to lieutenant on 31 March 1874 . On 27 August 1875 Mathews was posted to HMS London , a depot ship and the Royal Navy headquarters for East Africa , to assist in the suppression of the slave trade in the area . Whilst <unk> he drilled his own troops , captured several slave <unk> and was commended for his actions by the Admiralty . 
 
 = = Commander in Chief of Zanzibar = = 
 
 In August 1877 , Mathews was seconded from the Navy to Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar to form a European @-@ style army which could be used to enforce Zanzibar 's control over its mainland possessions . The army had traditionally been composed entirely of Arabs and Persians but Mathews opened up recruitment to the African majority on the island and had 300 recruits in training by the end of the year . In addition , Mathews employed some unorthodox recruitment methods such as purchasing slaves from their masters , using inmates from the prison and recruiting from Africans rescued from the <unk> . In June 1877 , at the instigation of John Kirk , the explorer and friend of the Sultan , the British government sent a shipment of 500 modern rifles and ammunition as a gift with which to arm the troops . Mathews introduced a new uniform for the troops consisting of a red cap , short black jackets and white trousers for the enlisted ranks and dark blue <unk> coats and trousers with gold and silver <unk> for the Arab officers . The latter was possibly modelled on the Royal Navy officers uniform with which he was familiar . The army grew quickly ; by the 1880s Mathews would command 1 @,@ 300 men , his forces eventually numbering 1 @,@ 000 regulars and 5 @,@ 000 <unk> . 
 One of the first tasks for the new army was to suppress the smuggling of slaves from <unk> on the mainland to the island of Pemba , north of Zanzibar . The troops completed this mission , capturing several <unk> and hindering the trade . Mathews retired from the Royal Navy in June 1881 and was appointed Brigadier @-@ General of Zanzibar . In 1880 , the Sultan dispatched a military force under Mathews to bring his unruly African mainland territories under control . Mathews ' expedition was initially intended to reach <unk> but his men refused to march inland and , when made to do so , deserted in large numbers . The expedition ended instead at <unk> where a 60 @-@ man garrison was established . This had been reduced to a mere handful of men by the mid @-@ 1880s but the expedition proved that the Sultan was serious about maintaining control of all of his possessions . Mathews ' men were also involved in several expeditions to halt the land @-@ based slave trade which had developed once the seas became too heavily <unk> for the traders . 
 In 1881 Mathews ' old vessel , the HMS London , was captained by Charles J Brownrigg . This vessel and her crew made several patrols aimed at hindering the slave trade using smaller steam boats for the actual <unk> and captures . On December 3 , 1881 , they caught up with a slave dhow captained by Hindi bin <unk> . This dhow had around 100 slaves on board and was transporting them between Pemba and Zanzibar . Captain Brownrigg led a boarding party to release the slaves but bin <unk> 's men then attacked the sailors , killing Brownrigg and his party before sailing away . Mathews led a force to <unk> on Pemba and , after a short battle , took a mortally wounded bin <unk> prisoner before returning to Zanzibar . 
 Mathews returned to the African mainland territories once more in 1884 when he landed with a force which intended to establish further garrisons there to dissuade German territorial claims . This attempt ultimately failed when five German warships steamed into Zanzibar Town harbour and threatened the Sultan into signing away the territories which would later form German East Africa . Further territories were ceded to the German East Africa Company in 1888 but unrest amongst the locals against them prevented them from taking control and Mathews was dispatched with 100 men to restore order . Finding around 8 @,@ 000 people gathered against the German administrators Mathews was forced to return with his men to Zanzibar . He landed once again with more troops but found himself subject to death threats and that his troops would not obey his orders and so returned again to Zanzibar . 
 
 = = First Minister = = 
 
 In October 1891 , upon the formation of the first constitutional government in Zanzibar , Mathews was appointed First Minister , despite some hostility from Sultan Ali bin Said . In this capacity Mathews was " <unk> by the sultan " and <unk> only to the Sultan and the British Consul . His position was so strong that one missionary on the island is quoted as saying that his powers defied " analytical examination " and that Mathews really could say " L 'état est <unk> " ( I am the state ) . Mathews was also known as the " Strong man of Zanzibar " . The principal departments of government were mostly run by Britons or British Indians and Mathews ' approval was required before they could be removed from office . Mathews was rewarded by the Zanzibar government for his role with his appointment as a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar , which he was granted licence by Queen Victoria to accept and wear on 17 May 1886 . Mathews used his position to suppress slavery in the country and in 1889 convinced the Sultan to issue a decree purchasing the freedom of all slaves who had taken refuge in his dominions and , from 1890 , the prohibiting the slave trade . On 1 February 1891 Mathews was appointed Her Majesty 's Commissioner and Consul @-@ General to the British <unk> of Influence in East Africa . He never took up the post and instead chose to remain in Zanzibar . 
 Mathews was rewarded for his service in Zanzibar by the British government which appointed him a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1880 and a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 24 May 1889 . Despite becoming renowned in East Africa as a man who ran a fair administration and was strict with criminals , <unk> with effective British rule and his halting of the slave trade led some Arabs to petition the Sultan for his removal in 1892 . In 1893 Mathews purchased the island of <unk> for the government . He intended it to be used as a prison but it never housed prisoners and was instead used to quarantine yellow fever cases before its present use as a conservation area for giant <unk> . Mathews was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1894 . He was also awarded membership of the Order of the Crown by the German government . 
 Matters came to a head when Khalid bin Barghash attempted to take control of the palace in Zanzibar Town upon the death of his uncle in August 1896 , despite failing to gain the consent of the British consul there . Mathews opposed this succession and , with British agreement , called up 900 soldiers in an attempt to prevent it . This situation eventually led to the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War and Mathews , with the support of Admiral Harry Rawson and five vessels of the Royal Navy , bombarded the palace and secured the end of Khalid 's administration . Mathews ' helped to arrange the succession of a pro @-@ British Sultan , <unk> bin Mohammed , as Khalid 's successor . Mathews continued his reforms after the war , abolishing slavery in 1897 and establishing new farms to grow produce using Western techniques . He was appointed a member of the Grand Order of <unk> of Zanzibar and was permitted to accept and wear the decoration on 25 August 1897 . 
 
 = = Military expeditions = = 
 
 
 = = = Mwele = = = 
 
 In addition to the smaller @-@ scale expeditions described earlier , Mathews embarked on two much larger expeditions to the African mainland during his tenure as first minister , the first at Mwele . The initial rebellion in the area had been led by Mbaruk bin Rashid at Gazi , which Mathews had put down with 1 @,@ 200 men in 1882 . However , in 1895 Mbaruk 's nephew , Mbaruk bin Rashid , refused to acknowledge the appointment of a new leader at <unk> . This led to open rebellion at <unk> in February of that year when the younger Mbaruk attacked Zanzibari troops under Arthur <unk> , one of Mathews ' officers . Mathews was part of an Anglo @-@ Zanzibari expedition sent to quell it , which consisted of 310 British sailors , 50 Royal Marines , 54 Sudanese and 164 Zanzibari troops . <unk> was destroyed and the leaders fled to Gazi where the older Mbaruk failed to turn them over . Another force , under Admiral Rawson , with 400 British marines and sailors , was sent after them . This further expedition failed to capture the <unk> and a third expedition was organised by Rawson with 220 sailors , 80 marines , 60 Sudanese and 50 <unk> , which destroyed Mwele . During the latter action Mathews was wounded in the shoulder . 
 
 = = = Witu = = = 
 
 Following the death of a German <unk> who had been operating illegally , the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British government dispatched an expedition on 20 October 1890 to bring the Sultan of Witu to justice . Nine warships and three transports carrying 800 sailors and marines , 150 Imperial British East Africa Company ( IBEA ) Indian police , 200 Zanzibari and 50 Sudanese troops were sent , defeating the Sultan and establishing a British protectorate . The IBEA was given control of the area and established a force of 250 Indian police to maintain the peace . The police were withdrawn in July 1893 following threats of violence from the new Sultan of Witu , Oman , and another expedition was dispatched to the region . This consisted of three warships : HMS Blanche , HMS <unk> and the Zanzibari ship <unk> <unk> . The latter carried Mathews with 125 <unk> and 50 Sudanese under Brigadier @-@ General <unk> of the Zanzibar army . 
 Mathews and an escort force went to Witu where , on 31 July , they removed the flag of the IBEA company and replaced it with the red flag of Zanzibar , before destroying several villages and causing Oman to retreat into the forests . The British troops then withdrew , having suffered heavily from malaria , but the Sudanese and Zanzibari troops remained . A further expedition was sent of 140 sailors and 85 other troops but Oman died soon after and a more <unk> sultan , Omar bin <unk> , was appointed to govern on behalf of Zanzibar , bringing the affair to a close . In return for this action , Mathews received the British East and West Africa campaign medal . 
 
 = = Later life = = 
 
 Mathews died of malaria in Zanzibar on 11 October 1901 and was buried with full military honours in the British cemetery outside Zanzibar Town . His successor as first minister was <unk> Rogers . <unk> island , which Mathews bought for a prison , now has a restaurant named in his honour and also a church . Mathews House , at the Western end of Zanzibar Town , is also named for him . 
 
 
 = HMS Boreas ( <unk> ) = 
 
 HMS Boreas was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . The ship then patrolled Spanish waters enforcing the arms blockade during the first year of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . She spent most of World War II on convoy escort duties in the English Channel and the North Atlantic , based at Dover , Gibraltar , and Freetown , Sierra Leone . Boreas also served two brief tours with the Mediterranean Fleet and participated in Operation <unk> , the 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily . She was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy the next year after conversion into an escort destroyer . She was renamed Salamis and served in the Aegean for the rest of the war . Salamis became a training ship after the war until she was returned to Britain and scrapped in 1951 . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 Boreas displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Boreas carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime . 
 The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Boreas had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 <unk> set to detect submarines through sound waves <unk> into the water that would reflect off the submarine . 
 By October 1940 , the ship 's AA armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . Boreas was converted to an escort destroyer in late 1943 with the replacement of the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun with additional depth charge stowage . The 2 @-@ pounder mounts were replaced during the war by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon <unk> . Four additional Oerlikon guns were added in the forward superstructure for a total of six guns . 
 
 = = Construction and service = = 
 
 The ship was ordered on 22 March 1929 from Palmer 's at <unk> , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 22 July 1929 , and launched on 11 June 1930 , as the fourth RN ship to carry this name . Boreas was completed on 21 February 1931 at a cost of £ 221 @,@ 156 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until September 1936 when it was transferred to Home Fleet . Her service in the Mediterranean was uneventful until shortly before she returned home when Boreas evacuated civilians at the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 . After a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 26 September , she made multiple deployments off the coast of Spain in 1937 and 1938 . On 6 March 1938 , She rescued survivors of the torpedoed Nationalist heavy cruiser <unk> off Cartagena , Spain with the destroyer <unk> . Upon her return the following month , the ship began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 11 June . Boreas escorted the royal yacht Victoria and Albert during the Royal Tour of Scotland from 26 July to 4 August . The ship escorted the battleship Revenge and the ocean liner Aquitania in September during the Munich Crisis . She remained with the 4th Destroyer Flotilla until April 1939 . Boreas briefly served as a plane guard for the aircraft carriers of the Home Fleet later that year . 
 The ship was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla on the start of the war and spent the first six months on escort and patrol duties in the English Channel and North Sea . While assisting the damaged minesweeper <unk> on 4 February 1940 in the Moray Firth , Boreas 's stern was damaged and she required repairs that lasted until the following month . The ship was attached to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla on 29 March until she was damaged in a collision with her sister ship Brilliant on 15 May . Her repairs lasted until 19 June and Boreas was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Dover upon their completion . On 25 July , the ship engaged German E @-@ boats off Dover Harbour together with Brilliant and was badly damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 <unk> dive bombers after she was ordered to withdraw . Her bridge was hit twice by bombs that killed one officer and twenty crewmen . Boreas was under repair at <unk> Dock until 23 January 1941 ; she was lightly damaged by bomb splinters on 19 January . Around 1941 , she was fitted with a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar . 
 After working up , the ship was briefly assigned to Western Approaches Command on escort duties before she was transferred to the 18th Destroyer Flotilla at Freetown , Sierra Leone , where she arrived on 28 April . Boreas remained there until she joined Convoy <unk> 70 on 10 August at Gibraltar . The ship rescued survivors from four ships and returned them to Gibraltar on 25 August . She received a lengthy refit at South Shields from 19 September to 4 January 1942 , after which rejoined the 18th Destroyer Flotilla on 25 January . 
 Boreas remained on escort duty in the Eastern Atlantic until she arrived in Alexandria , Egypt on 11 November after escorting a convoy around the Cape of Good Hope . She was immediately assigned to escort the ships of Operation <unk> that relieved the Siege of Malta . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until January 1943 before she was briefly assigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla at Gibraltar . Boreas returned to Freetown in February and remained there until June when she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in preparation for Operation <unk> . She was converted into an escort destroyer in Liverpool from September 1943 to February 1944 . As part of the conversion , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder and her Type 286 radar was replaced by a Type 290 . 
 The ship was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy on 10 February and recommissioned by them on 25 March as Salamis . She was damaged while working up at Scapa Flow and was under repair at Hull from 28 April to 13 June . Salamis was assigned to escort duty at Gibraltar until October when she was transferred to the Aegean where she served with the 12th ( Greek ) Destroyer Flotilla for the rest of the war . The ship was used as a training ship after the war until she was returned to the Royal Navy at Malta on 9 October 1951 . Salamis arrived at Rosyth under tow on 15 April 1952 to be broken up by Metal Industries , Limited . 
 
 
 = Kaimanawa horse = 
 
 Kaimanawa horses are a population of feral horses in New Zealand that are descended from domestic horses released in the 19th and 20th centuries . They are known for their <unk> and quiet temperament . The New Zealand government strictly controls the population to protect the habitat in which they live , which includes several endangered species of plants . The varying heritage gives the breed a wide range of heights , body patterns and colours . They are usually well @-@ muscled , sure @-@ footed and tough . 
 Horses were first reported in the Kaimanawa Range in 1876 , although the first horses had been brought into New Zealand in 1814 . The feral herds grew as horses escaped and were released from sheep stations and cavalry bases . Members of the herd were recaptured by locals for use as riding horses , as well as being caught for their meat , hair and hides . The herd declined as large scale farming and forestry operations <unk> on their ranges , and only around 174 horses were known to exist by 1979 . The Kaimanawa herd was protected by the New Zealand government in 1981 , and there were 1 @,@ 576 horses in the herd by 1994 . A small , mostly unmanaged population also exists on the <unk> Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Island . <unk> have been carried out annually since 1993 to manage the size of the herd , removing around 2 @,@ 800 horses altogether . The Kaimanawa population is listed as a herd of special genetic value by the United Nations ' Food and Agricultural Organization , and several studies have been conducted on the herd dynamics and habits of the breed . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The first horses were introduced to New Zealand by Protestant missionary Reverend Samuel <unk> in December 1814 , and wild horses were first reported in the Kaimanawa Range in central North Island of New Zealand in 1876 . The Kaimanawa breed descended from domestic horses that were released in the late 19th century and early 20th century in the middle of the North Island around the Kaimanawa mountains . Between 1858 and 1875 , Major George <unk> Carlyon imported <unk> ponies to Hawkes Bay and crossed them with local stock to produce the Carlyon <unk> . These Carlyon ponies were later crossed with two Welsh stallions , <unk> Caesar and Comet , imported by Sir Donald McLean , and a breed known as the Comet resulted . At some point during the 1870s , McLean released a Comet stallion and several mares on the <unk> Plains and the bloodline apparently became part of the wild Kaimanawa population . Other horses were added to the bloodline through escapes and releases from local sheep stations and from cavalry units at Waiouru that were threatened with a <unk> epidemic . It is also thought that in the 1960s Nicholas <unk> released an Arabian stallion into the <unk> Valley region . 
 Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , horses were harvested from the feral herds and used as riding and stock horses , as well as being used for their meat , hair and hides . Originally there were many herds that roamed land owned by the British Crown and the native Māori , but many were eradicated with the intensification of large scale farming and forestry operations combined with increased mechanization that decreased the need for stock horses . Kaimanawa horses today have the highest amount of genetic similarity with the Thoroughbred and other Thoroughbred cross breeds . 
 <unk> from land development and an encroaching human population reduced the range and the number of the Kaimanawa horses , and in 1979 it was found that only about 174 horses remained . Starting in 1981 , the Kaimanawa population , range size , and herd movements began to be officially measured , and a protected area was formed for the breed in the Waiouru Military Training Area . Legislative protection was similar to the <unk> and other native species . There was a rapid increase in the herd size following the protection of the breed , and 1 @,@ 576 horses were known to exist in the area by 1994 . There is also a small population of horses on the <unk> Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Island , which is mostly unmanaged by the New Zealand government . In 2008 , the Kaimanawa herds were the focus of a novel called Kaimanawa Princess , by <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = <unk> characteristics = = 
 
 Many characteristics of the Comet type are said to be shown in the Kaimanawa horses today , although the varied gene input has produced a wide range of sizes , colours , and body types among the wild horses . The Kaimanawa breed varies widely in general appearance , with heights ranging between 12 @.@ 2 and 15 hands ( 50 and 60 inches , 127 and 152 cm ) high . Any coat colour or pattern marking is acceptable . They are usually well @-@ muscled . Their feral way of life has given them the ability to adapt quickly and live on very little , and they are usually sure @-@ footed and tough . They have a medium @-@ sized head in good proportion to their body , with wide variation in shape due to the different conformation of their ancestors . Kaimanawa horses have a short , deep neck with a thick throat area , straight shoulders , a deep girth , and a short to medium back . The <unk> vary from sloping to well @-@ rounded . The legs are long and well @-@ muscled , with strong hooves , and hind hooves that are generally smaller than the front ones . All horses are considered to age a year on the first of August , regardless of their actual <unk> date . 
 
 = = Population control and study = = 
 
 Due to the increase in population after protective legislation was put into place , the Department of Conservation developed a management plan for the Kaimanawa herd in 1989 and 1990 . A draft plan was made available to the public for comment in 1991 , and the public made it clear that it objected to herd reduction through shooting from helicopters , and instead favored the horses remaining alive after being removed from the herd . However , core animal welfare groups felt that shooting was the most humane option . Trial <unk> were conducted in 1993 , 1994 and 1995 , and were successful , although costly and with a limited demand for the captured horses . 
 In 1994 , a working party was established to look at the management of the Kaimanawa herd . They aimed to decide which organization was in charge of long term management , to ensure that the treatment of horses is humane , to preserve and control the best attributes of the herds , and to eliminate the impacts of the herds on other conservation priorities . Goals included ensuring the welfare of the horses , protecting natural ecosystems and features that the Kaimanawa herd may impact and keeping the herd at a sustainable level . Ecological objectives included ensuring that Kaimanawa horse does not adversely affect endangered , rare and <unk> significant plants ; ensuring that the herd does not further <unk> the ecosystems in which it lives ; and preventing the herd from spreading into the Kaimanawa Forest Park and the <unk> National Park . Herd objectives included ensuring that the public was safe from <unk> horses , while still allowing and improving public access to the herd and ensuring humane treatment of the horses ; reducing conflict between the herd and other ecological values and land uses ; and ensuring that the herd is contained to a population that is <unk> by the ecosystems in which they live while still maintaining a minimum effective population that is in general free ranging . 
 The Department of Conservation has since 1993 carried out annual <unk> and muster of <unk> to keep the herd population around a target level of 500 horses . The target will be reduced to 300 horses in stages starting in 2009 . These horses are either taken directly to slaughter or are placed at holding farms for later slaughter or adoption by private homes . A main reason for the strict population control is to protect the habitat in which they live . This habitat includes 16 plant species listed as endangered , which the Kaimanawa may endanger further through <unk> and <unk> . These plants include herbs , grasses , sedges , flowers and <unk> ; among these are <unk> <unk> ( a very rare <unk> grass ) , <unk> <unk> ( a vulnerable mistletoe ) and <unk> <unk> ( a possibly locally extinct sand iris ) . The 2009 culling of the population removed 230 horses from the herd , the largest culling since the beginning of the program , with homes found for 85 % of the horses removed . Conservation of these horses is an important matter to the public , and between 1990 and 2003 the New Zealand Minister for Conservation received more public comments on the Kaimanawa horse than on any other subject . In this period , more than 1 @,@ 400 requests for information and letters were received , with public interest peaking in 1996 and 1997 . This was due to a program of population reduction by shooting scheduled to begin implementation in 1996 ; due to public opposition the shooting was cancelled and a large scale muster and adoption program began in 1997 . In 1997 , around 1 @,@ <unk> horses were removed from the range and adopted , reducing the main herd to around 500 , and reducing their range to around 25 @,@ 000 ha from around 70 @,@ 000 . Since 1993 , a total of around 2 @,@ 800 horses have been removed from the range . Only one injury resulting in the death of a horse is known to have occurred . 
 The United Nations ' Food and Agricultural Organization lists the Kaimanawa horses as a herd of special genetic value that can be compared with other groups of feral horses such as New Forest ponies , <unk> ponies , wild Mustangs , and with free @-@ living <unk> . <unk> are of special value because of their low rate of interaction with humans . This lack of interaction may result in a herd with more wild and fewer domestic characteristics , which is of special interest to researchers . Between 1994 and 1997 , students from Massey University studied a population of around 400 Kaimanawa horses to learn their habits and herd dynamics . A 2000 study found that although sometimes there are more than two stallions in Kaimanawa horse herds , only the two stallions highest in the herd hierarchy mate with the herd females . This differs from other feral horse herds , some of which have only one stallion that mates with mares , while others have several stallions that sire foals . 
 
 
 = The Remix ( Lady Gaga album ) = 
 
 The Remix is a remix album by American recording artist Lady Gaga . Released in Japan on March 3 , 2010 , it contains remixes of the songs from her first studio album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , and her third extended play , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) . A revised version of the track list was prepared for release in additional markets , beginning with Mexico on May 3 , 2010 . A number of recording artists have produced the songs , including Pet Shop Boys , Passion Pit and The Sound of Arrows . The remixed versions feature both uptempo and <unk> compositions , with altered vocals from Gaga . 
 The album received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , but some noted how Gaga was able to sell the songs from The Fame in new and novel ways . It reached the top of charts in Greece and the Dance / Electronic Albums chart of Billboard magazine in the United States . In other nations , The Remix charted within the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia region ) , Canada , Ireland , Japan , Mexico , the United Kingdom and the Billboard 200 chart of United States , while reaching the top @-@ twenty in others . It was certified platinum in Japan and Brazil and received gold certification in Belgium and Russia . Worldwide the album has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies , and it is among the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 On April 15 , 2010 , The Guardian reported that a number of artists , including Pet Shop Boys , Passion Pit and rock musician Marilyn Manson , have contributed to a remix album by Lady Gaga , titled The Remix . The remixes included in the package had been previously released alongside Gaga 's single releases in the past years . The album was originally released in Japan on March 3 , 2010 , containing sixteen of the remixes . The revised version , consisting of seventeen remixes , was released on May 3 , 2010 , the first market being Mexico . Manson features on the Chew Fu remix of " LoveGame " , while Passion Pit remixed " Telephone " and Pet Shop Boys remixed " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " . Other artists who remixed Gaga 's songs included <unk> , <unk> , Stuart Price , Monarchy and <unk> to Mars . The album was released in the United Kingdom on May 10 , 2010 and featured a different artwork for that region . The US release of the album was announced by Interscope Records in July 2010 and it was released on August 3 , 2010 . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 Chuck Campbell from the California Chronicle felt that the main " trick " adopted by the producers behind The Remix , was to preserve the integrity of Gaga 's nuances in her songs , at the same time bringing something new to her music . The second song in the track list , the " <unk> vs <unk> Radio Mix " of " Poker Face " , features a computerized chanting of the " mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ <unk> " hook of the song . Stuart Price remixed " <unk> " into an electronic version , changing the original mid @-@ tempo composition of the song . New vocals were added on top of the song , giving it a jungle @-@ like vibe , according to <unk> <unk> from Phoenix New Times . She also felt that the remix of " LoveGame " featuring Manson , changed the original composition by " giving the originally innocent and fun song an almost demonic quality " . According to Campbell , The Monarchy <unk> remix of " Dance in the Dark " " pump [ ed ] extra <unk> " into the song , with addition of drum beats . Richard <unk> 's remix of " Just Dance " introduced an elastic rhythm in the song , while <unk> changed the soft composition of " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " to a more upbeat one , also manipulating Gaga 's vocals in the process . Campbell also added that the Passion Pit remix of " Telephone " felt like a " theatrical set up for a song that feels like it 's going somewhere , but never does " ; the remix consists of synths , with a thumping beat accompanying the song . Sound of Arrows remixed " Alejandro " , changing the dark nature of its music into a bright , <unk> jam while " Bad <unk> " was remixed by <unk> , making it a complete dance track . 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 Upon its release , the album met with mixed reviews . At Metacritic it holds an aggregate score of 54 out of 100 points , indicating generally mixed or average reviews . Simon Cage from the Daily Express gave the album three out of five stars and felt that although she " has a winning way with <unk> hats " , Gaga 's true talent lies in selling the same album over and over again . " It ’ s great but ... enough already ! " Music critic J. D. <unk> , while reviewing the album for The Globe and Mail , complimented the piano and voice version of " Poker Face " adding that the latter was " the <unk> track on her newest remix album " . He felt that the song " brings out her inner Elton John . And yes , this move , too , is probably just another bit of calculated image management , but that doesn ’ t make it any less brilliant . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noted that the release of The Remix was a more natural progression than music labels trying to " cash @-@ in " by releasing something not associated with the artist . He complimented the <unk> featured in the album , calling them " as vital to keeping the singer 's music fresh as her Haus Of <unk> designers are to her image . " 
 Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars , but felt that the track list could have been shortened . Erlewine complimented some of the remixes , including those by Pet Shop Boys and Space <unk> , adding that The Remix " is not an essential addition to Gaga ’ s canon goes without saying ... but there ’ s <unk> and glamour to enjoy here . " Mark <unk> , reviewing the album for Bloomberg Television , noticed that the already familiar tracks from Gaga " are given a new <unk> by the Pet Shop Boys and sometime Madonna producer Stuart Price . " <unk> <unk> from Phoenix New Times gave a positive review saying that the songs featured in The Remix can be a great addition during <unk> , as well as staple dance floor music . She listed the Chew Fu remix of " LoveGame " as a highlight from the album . Monica Herrera from Billboard complimented the album saying " Gaga has employed a collection of more @-@ than @-@ capable producers to make her dance @-@ ready smashes from The Fame and The Fame Monster even more <unk> . " Giving it three out of five stars , <unk> <unk> from Rolling Stone noted an uneven sequencing among the tracks in The Remix . She felt that the Passion Pit remix of " Telephone " was the best remix on the album . 
 
 = = Chart performance = = 
 
 Following the album 's release in Japan , it debuted at number nine on the Oricon Albums Chart . On the issue dated May 17 , 2010 , the album moved to a new peak of number seven and has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 250 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , The Remix entered the ARIA Albums Chart at its peak position of number 12 on May 16 , 2010 , remaining on the chart for a total of five weeks . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number three on the official UK Albums Chart dated May 22 , 2010 , and has sold 166 @,@ 440 copies according to the Official Charts Company , being certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Across Europe , the album debuted at seven on the European Top 100 Albums chart of Billboard . The Remix also reached the top of the charts in Greece , while attaining top @-@ ten positions in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Ireland , the Netherlands and New Zealand . 
 In the United States , The Remix charted at number six on the Billboard 200 dated August 21 , 2010 , with 39 @,@ 000 copies sold . It became Gaga 's third top ten album on the Billboard 200 . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums making this Gaga 's third number one entry on the chart . The same week , her studio albums The Fame and The Fame Monster were at positions two and three respectively . Billboard chart manager Keith <unk> noted that Gaga became the first act to occupy the chart 's top three positions , in its nine @-@ year history . She additionally charted on the Billboard 200 with The Fame at number 12 and The Fame Monster at number 27 , marking the first time an artist placed three concurrent titles in the top 30 since 1993 , when Garth Brooks last achieved the feat on the January 23 , 1993 , chart by placing four sets in the top 30 : The Chase at number two , Beyond the Season at number 23 , <unk> ' the Wind at number 26 and No <unk> at number 29 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , The Remix has sold 314 @,@ 000 copies in US as of April 2016 . In Canada , the album debuted at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart issue dated May 22 , 2010 , and remained on the chart for a total of ten weeks . The Remix has sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , and it is among the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time . 
 
 = = Track listings = = 
 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 Credits adapted from the liner notes of UK pressings of The Remix . Track numbers correspond to international ( non @-@ US and Japan ) pressings . 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 = = Certifications = = 
 
 
 = = Release history = = 
 
 
 
 = Architecture of the Song dynasty = 
 
 The architecture of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) was noted for its towering Buddhist pagodas , enormous stone and wooden bridges , lavish tombs , and extravagant palaces . Although literary works on architecture existed beforehand , architectural writing <unk> during the Song dynasty , <unk> into a more professional form that described dimensions and working materials in a <unk> , organized manner . In addition to the examples still standing , depictions in Song artwork , architectural drawings , and illustrations in published books all aid modern historians in understanding the architecture of the period . 
 The professions of architect , master craftsman , carpenter , and structural engineer did not have the high status of the Confucian scholar @-@ officials during the dynastic era . Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years , usually from craftsman fathers to their sons . There were also government agencies and schools for construction , building , and engineering . The Song dynasty 's building manuals aided not only the various private workshops , but also the craftsmen employed by the central government . 
 
 = = City and palace = = 
 
 The layout of ancient Chinese capitals , such as Bianjing , capital of the Northern Song , followed the guidelines in <unk> Gong Ji , which specified a square city wall with several gates on each side and passageways for the emperor . The outer city of ancient Bianjing was built during the reign of Emperor <unk> to a rectangular plan , almost square in proportions , about 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from north to south and 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from west to east . The south wall had three gates , with <unk> Gate in the center , <unk> Gate to the east , and <unk> Gate to the west . The other walls had four gates each : in the east wall were <unk> Gate ( at the southern end ) , <unk> Gate , <unk> Gate , and North @-@ East Water Gate ; in the west wall <unk> Gate , West Water Gate , <unk> Gate , and <unk> Gate ; and in the north wall <unk> Gate ( at the eastern end ) , <unk> Gate , New Wild <unk> Gate and <unk> Gate . The gates in the center of each of the four sides were reserved for the emperor ; these gates had straight passages and only two sets of doors , while the other city gates had <unk> passages and were guarded by three sets of doors . 
 The Song artist Zhang <unk> 's painting Along the River During the <unk> Festival depicts the <unk> Gate in detail : the building on top had a five @-@ <unk> roof with a shallow slope in the Song dynasty style , supported prominently by two sets of brackets ( dougong ) . The lower bracket assembly rested on the city gate to form a wooden foundation , while the upper assembly supported the roof , similar to the dougong in an extant Song building , the Goddess Temple in Taiyuan . This method of using bracket assemblies to support superstructure was specified in Li Jie 's 12th @-@ century building manual Yingzao Fashi as <unk> ( literally " flat base " ) . 
 The city wall itself was built with rammed earth , a technique also detailed in Yingzao Fashi , vol . III , " Standards for <unk> , <unk> and <unk> Work " : 
 Foundation : For every square chi , apply two dan of earth ; on top of it lay a mixture of broken brick , tile and crushed stones , also two dan . For every five @-@ cun layer of earth , two men , standing face to face , should tamp six times with <unk> , each man pounding three times on a dent ; then tamp four times on each dent , two men again standing face to face , each pounding twice on the same dent ; then tamp two more times , each man pounding once . Following this , tamp the surface with <unk> or stamp with feet randomly to even out the surface . Every five @-@ cun layer of earth should be compressed to three cun ; every three @-@ cun layer of brick and stone to one and a half cun . 
 <unk> @-@ earth walls during this time were tapered : the thickness of the wall is greatest at the base and decreases steadily with increasing height , as detailed in Li Jie 's book . 
 During the Song dynasty , the city of Bianjing had three enclosures : the outer city wall , the inner city wall , and the palace at the center . The inner city was rectangular , with three doors on each side . The palace enclosure was also rectangular , with a watch tower on each of the four corners . It had four main gates : <unk> Gate to the west , <unk> Gate to the east , <unk> Gate to the north , and Xuande Gate , also known as <unk> Gate or <unk> , at the south . Xuande Gate had five @-@ <unk> doors , painted red and decorated with gold <unk> ; its walls were lavishly decorated with dragon , <unk> and floating @-@ cloud patterns to match the carved beams , painted <unk> and glazed @-@ tile roof . There were also two glazed <unk> , each biting an end of the <unk> ridge , its tail pointing to the sky . The symbolic function of these chi wei was explained in Yingzao Fashi : 
 There is a dragon in the East Sea , whose tail ( wei ) is similar to that of a sparrow @-@ hawk ( chi ) ; it <unk> up waves and causes rainfall , so people put its likeness on the <unk> to prevent fire . However , they <unk> it " sparrow @-@ hawk tail " ( chi wei ) . 
 Running southward from Xuande Gate was the Imperial Boulevard , about two hundred paces wide , with the Imperial <unk> on either side . <unk> opened shops in the <unk> until <unk> , when they were banned . Two rows of black fencing were placed at the center of the boulevard as a barrier to pedestrians and carriages . Along the inner sides of the fences ran the brick @-@ lined Imperial Water <unk> , filled with lotus . About 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) south from Xuande Gate , the <unk> River intercepted the Imperial Boulevard , which crossed it over the stone Zhou Bridge , <unk> and flat @-@ <unk> . This design of a boulevard with a stone bridge crossing a river was later imitated in the Forbidden City . During spring and summer , <unk> peach , plum , pear and apricot trees adorned the banks of the <unk> with a variety of flowers . 
 
 = = Buddhist pagodas = = 
 
 Following the reign of the Han dynasty , ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) , the idea of the Buddhist stupa entered Chinese culture , as a means to house and protect <unk> <unk> . During the Southern and Northern <unk> period , the distinctive Chinese pagoda was developed , its predecessors being the tall watch towers and towering residential apartments of the Han dynasty ( as inferred from models in Han @-@ era tombs ) . During the <unk> ( <unk> – 618 ) and Tang ( 618 – 907 ) periods , Chinese pagodas were developed from purely wooden structures to use articulated stone and brick , which could more easily survive fires caused by lightning or <unk> and were less susceptible to decay . The earliest brick pagoda that remains extant is the <unk> Pagoda , built in 523 , and a typical example of a Tang @-@ era stone pagoda is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , constructed in <unk> . Although Buddhist influences on China <unk> after the late Tang period , numerous Buddhist pagoda towers were built during the Song dynasty . <unk> Chinese pagodas were often built in the countryside rather than within a city 's walls , largely to avoid competition with the cosmic @-@ imperial authority embodied in the cities ' <unk> and gate @-@ towers . The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , built in a city ward of what was southeastern Chang 'an , is among the exceptions . 
 The Iron Pagoda of <unk> Temple in Kaifeng earned it name from the iron @-@ grey color of the glazed bricks forming the tower . Originally built of wood by the architect Yu Hao , it was struck by lightning and burned down in 1044 , during the Northern Song period . In <unk> the pagoda was rebuilt as it appears today , under the order of Emperor <unk> of Song . This 13 @-@ story pagoda , structured on an octagonal base , is 56 @.@ 88 meters ( 186 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Its glazed tile bricks feature carved artwork of dancing figures , solemn ministers , and Buddhist themes ( see gallery below ) . 
 The period also featured true cast @-@ iron pagodas , such as the Iron Pagoda of <unk> Temple ( Jade Springs Temple ) , <unk> , Hubei Province . Built in <unk> , it incorporates 53 @,@ <unk> kg ( 118 @,@ 715 lb ) of cast iron and stands 21 @.@ 28 m ( 69 @.@ 8 ft ) tall . <unk> contemporary wooden , stone , and brick pagodas , the pagoda features sloping eaves and an octagonal base . Another iron pagoda was constructed in 1105 , <unk> , Shandong , and was cast layer by layer in octagonal sections , standing 78 feet high . Several such cast iron pagodas exist in China today . 
 The <unk> Pagoda , or Six <unk> Pagoda , is another example of Song @-@ era pagoda architecture . It is located in the Southern Song capital of Hangzhou , in Zhejiang Province , at the foot of <unk> Hill facing the <unk> River . Although the original was destroyed in 1121 , the current tower was erected in <unk> and fully restored by 1165 . It stands 59 @.@ 89 m ( 196 @.@ 5 ft ) tall , and was constructed from a red brick frame with 13 stages of wooden eaves . Because of its size , the pagoda served as a permanent lighthouse to aid sailors at night ( as described in Hangzhou Fu <unk> ) . 
 The <unk> Temple Pagoda in <unk> County of Sichuan Province ( near <unk> ) is a brick pagoda that was built between 1023 and <unk> , according to inscriptions running along its first storey . It has a square base on a <unk> pedestal , thirteen stories totaling 28 m ( 92 ft ) in height , and multiple layers of eaves similar in style to the earlier Tang pagodas of Chang 'an , the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda and the Small Wild Goose Pagoda . 
 Wood @-@ and @-@ brick hybrid pagodas were also built . The first four floors of the octagonal , 42 m ( 138 ft ) <unk> Pagoda of <unk> are brick ( with wooden eaves ) , while from the fifth floor up it is entirely made of wood . Even pagodas made of stone or brick featured architectural elements that were typical of Chinese wooden buildings ; for example the Pizhi Pagoda , built from <unk> to 1063 , uses the dougong brackets typical of wooden architecture to hold up <unk> , <unk> roofs and tiers . Both of these pagodas feature interior staircases , although the <unk> Pagoda 's only reaches to the fourth floor , and the Pizhi Pagoda 's to the fifth . However , the Pizhi Pagoda features winding exterior stairs that provide access to the ninth and topmost floor . 
 Although the Pagoda of <unk> Temple is the tallest extant wooden pagoda , the tallest Chinese pagoda built in the dynastic era that remains standing is the <unk> Pagoda . Completed in <unk> , it is 84 meters ( 276 ft ) tall , with an octagonal base on a large platform , surpassing the 69 @-@ meter ( 226 ft ) <unk> Pagoda , which had held the record since its construction in the 9th century by the Kingdom of <unk> . Although the <unk> Pagoda served its religious purpose as a Buddhist landmark in the <unk> Monastery of <unk> County , Hebei province , its great height gave it another valuable function , as a military watch tower that was used to observe movements of the Liao enemy . Beside their utility in surveillance , pagoda towers could also serve as astronomical observatories ; one such is the <unk> Astronomical Observatory , built in <unk> and still standing today . 
 <unk> pagoda 
 
 = = Temples = = 
 
 It was not uncommon for wealthy or powerful families to facilitate the construction of large temple complexes , usually by <unk> a portion of their family estate to a Buddhist sect . Often the land already contained buildings that could be re @-@ <unk> for religions use . The Fei ( <unk> ) family of the town of <unk> , located just west of Shanghai , converted a mansion on their property into a Buddhist <unk> @-@ <unk> hall , and later built several other religious buildings around the hall . This spurred a boom in temple construction in the area , causing <unk> to become a major center of the White Lotus sect of Buddhism , which in turn spurred the construction of more temples and lead the town to become a significant location within the Song . The nearby town of <unk> gained prominence shortly after the fall of the Song in large part to the construction of temples and other religious buildings , which spanned the entire Song empire . 
 Apart from <unk> the development of urban areas , temples and religious buildings featured a number of unique aesthetic and structural features . The Temple of the Saintly Mother ( <unk> ) and the Hall of <unk> of the Jin Temple ( <unk> ) , located in a southeastern suburb of Taiyuan City , Shanxi province , are extant examples of early Song architecture . The Temple of the Saintly Mother is the main building of the Jin Temple , first built in the period between 1023 and <unk> and renovated in 1102 . It has a double @-@ <unk> roof with nine ridges , and two dragon @-@ heads with wide @-@ open jaws biting the ends of the main ridge . The roof is supported by massive dougong brackets corresponding to drawings in Yingzao Fashi . The eaves of the Temple of the Saintly Mother curve upward slightly at each end , a characteristic of Song architecture . The columns of the façade , decorated with <unk> that coil around the shafts , become progressively taller with increasing distance to either side of the central pair . The building has a porch around it , the sole example of such a structure ; another unique feature of the site is a cross @-@ shaped bridge that leads to the Goddess Temple . 
 The Trinity Hall of Xuan <unk> Temple ( <unk> ) , situated in the heart of <unk> city , is another example of Song architecture . In 1982 , it was established as a National Heritage Site by the Chinese government . 
 The Jingling Palace ( <unk> , Jingling Gong ) , a temple to the legendary Yellow Emperor located near modern @-@ day Qufu , was built in the 11th century . It was subsequently destroyed near the end of the Yuan dynasty . However , several other structures in Shou Qiu , the complex that Jingling Palace was situated in , remain intact . Two giant tortoise @-@ borne <unk> flank what was the entrance to the palace . One of the two <unk> , the <unk> of the <unk> of 10 @,@ 000 , is at 52 meters ( 171 ft ) high , the tallest unmarked stele in the country . A large pyramid constructed of rounded stone blocks , the symbolic tomb of the Yellow Emperor 's son <unk> , is located outside the Shou Qiu complex . Another important large tortoise @-@ borne stele of the same period has been preserved at the Dai <unk> of Mount Tai . 
 
 = = Bridges = = 
 
 Bridges over waterways had been known in China since the ancient Zhou dynasty . During the Song dynasty , large <unk> bridges were constructed , such as that built by Zhang <unk> in <unk> . There were also large bridges made entirely of stone , like the Ba <unk> Bridge of Shaoxing , built in <unk> and still standing today . Bridges with pavilions crowning their central spans were often featured in such paintings as the landscapes of Xia Gui ( <unk> – 1224 ) . Long , covered corridor bridges , like the 12th @-@ century Rainbow Bridge in <unk> , <unk> province , which has wide stone @-@ based piers and a wooden superstructure , were also built . 
 While serving as an administrator for Hangzhou , the poet Su Shi ( <unk> – 1101 ) had a large pedestrian causeway built across the West Lake , which still bears his name : <unk> ( <unk> ) . In 1221 , the Taoist traveler Qiu <unk> visited Genghis Khan in <unk> , describing various Chinese bridges encountered on the way there through the <unk> Shan Mountains , east of <unk> . The historian Joseph <unk> quotes him as saying : 
 [ The road had ] " no less than 48 timber bridges of such width that two carts can drive over them side by side " . It had been built by Chang Jung [ Zhang <unk> ] and the other engineers of the <unk> some years before . The wooden <unk> of Chinese bridges from the − 3rd century [ BC ] onwards were no doubt similar to those supposed to have been employed in Julius Caesar 's bridge of − 55 [ BC ] across the Rhine , or drawn by Leonardo , or found in use in Africa . But where in + 13th century [ AD ] Europe could a two @-@ lane highway like Chang Jung 's have been found ? 
 In Fujian Province , enormous beam bridges were built during the Song dynasty . Some of these were as long as 1 @,@ 220 m ( 4 @,@ 000 ft ) , with individual spans of up to 22 m ( 72 ft ) in length ; their construction necessitated moving massive stones of 203 t ( 203 @,@ 000 kg ) . No names of the engineers were recorded or appear in the inscriptions on the bridges , which give only the names of local officials who sponsored them and oversaw their construction and repair . However , there might have been an engineering school in Fujian , headed by a prominent engineer known as Cai <unk> ( 1012 – <unk> ) , who had risen to the position of governmental prefect in Fujian . Between <unk> and 1059 , he planned and supervised the construction of the large <unk> Bridge ( once called the Luoyang Bridge ) near <unk> ( on the border of the present @-@ day <unk> District and Huai 'an County . This bridge , a stone structure similar to a number of other bridges found in Fujian , still stands , and features ship @-@ like piers bound to their bases using <unk> from <unk> as an <unk> . It is 731 m ( 2 @,@ 398 ft ) in length , 5 m ( 16 ft ) in width , and 7 m ( 23 ft ) in height . Another famous bridge near <unk> , the <unk> Bridge , was constructed between 1138 and <unk> . 
 Other examples of Song bridges include <unk> Bridge , a stone arch bridge in <unk> , Zhejiang Province . The bridge was built in 1213 , the sixth year of the <unk> Era in the Southern Song dynasty . Song @-@ era <unk> bridges include the <unk> Bridge , 400 m ( 1 ⁄ 4 mi ) long , which may still be seen today . 
 
 = = <unk> of the Northern Song emperors = = 
 
 Located southwest of <unk> city in <unk> County , Henan province , the large tombs of the Northern Song number about one thousand , including individual tombs for Song emperors , <unk> , princes , <unk> , consorts , and members of the extended family . The complex extends approximately 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from east to west and 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from north to south . The construction of the complex began in <unk> AD , during the reign of the first Song ruler , Emperor <unk> of Song , whose father is also buried at the site . The only Northern Song emperors not buried there are Emperor Huizong of Song and Emperor Qinzong of Song , who died in captivity after the Jurchen invasion of northern China in 1127 . <unk> the spirit ways of the tomb complex are hundreds of Song sculptures and statues of tigers , rams , lions , horses with <unk> , horned <unk> and mythical creatures , government officials , military generals , foreign ambassadors , and others featured in an enormous display of Song @-@ era artwork . 
 The layout and style of the Song tombs resemble those found in the contemporary <unk> kingdom of the Western Xia , which also had an auxiliary burial site associated with each tomb . At the center of each burial site is a truncated pyramidal tomb , each having once been guarded by a four @-@ walled enclosure with four centered gates and four corner towers . About 100 km ( 62 mi ) from <unk> is the <unk> Tomb , which contains " elaborate <unk> in brick of Chinese timber frame construction , from door <unk> to pillars and <unk> to bracket sets , that adorn interior walls . " The <unk> Tomb has two large separate chambers with conical ceilings ; a large staircase leads down to the entrance doors of the subterranean tomb . 
 
 = = Literature = = 
 
 During the Song dynasty , previous works on architecture were brought to more sophisticated levels of description , as in <unk> <unk> , written by Li <unk> in <unk> AD . One of the most definitive works , however , was the earlier Mu Jing ( " <unk> Manual " ) , ascribed to Yu Hao and written sometime between 965 and 995 . Yu Hao was responsible for the construction of a wooden pagoda tower in Kaifeng , which was destroyed by lightning and replaced by the brick Iron Pagoda soon after . In his time , books on architecture were still considered a <unk> scholarly achievement due to the craft 's status , so Mu Jing was not even recorded in the official court bibliography . Although the book itself was lost to history , the scientist and statesman Shen <unk> wrote of Yu 's work extensively in his Dream Pool Essays of <unk> , praising it as a work of architectural genius , saying that no one in his own time could reproduce such a work . Shen <unk> singled out , among other passages , a scene in which Yu Hao gives advice to another <unk> @-@ architect about <unk> struts in order to <unk> a pagoda against the wind , and a passage in which Yu Hao describes the three sections of a building , the area above the <unk> , the area above ground , and the foundation , and then proceeds to provide proportional ratios and construction techniques for each section . 
 Several years later Li Jie ( <unk> ; 1065 – <unk> ) published Yingzao Fashi ( " <unk> on Architectural Methods " or " State Building Standards " ) . Although similar books came before it , such as <unk> <unk> ( " National Building Law " ) of the early Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , Li 's book is the earliest technical manual on Chinese architecture to have survived in full . 
 
 = = = Yingzao Fashi = = = 
 
 Yingzao Fashi is a technical treatise on architecture and craftsmanship written by Li Jie , an architect and official at the Directorate of Buildings and Construction . Li completed the book in 1100 , and presented it to Emperor <unk> of Song in the last year of his reign . His successor , Emperor Huizong of Song , had Li 's treatise officially published three years later , in 1103 , for the benefit of <unk> , architects , and literate craftsmen . The book was intended to provide standard regulations , to not only the engineering agencies of the central government , but also the many workshops and <unk> families throughout China who could benefit from using a well @-@ written government manual on building practices . 
 Yingzao Fashi included building codes and regulations , accounting information , descriptions of construction materials , and classification of crafts . In its 34 chapters , the book outlined units of measurement , and the construction of <unk> , fortifications , stonework , and woodwork . For the latter , it included specifications for making <unk> units with inclined arms and joints for columns and beams . It also provided specifications for wood carving , drilling , <unk> , bamboo work , <unk> , wall building , and decoration . The book contained recipes for decorative paints , <unk> , and coatings , also listing proportions for mixing mortars used in masonry , . brickwork , and manufacture of glazed tiles , illustrating practices and standards with drawings . His book outlined structural carpentry in great detail , providing standard dimensional measurements for all components used ; . here he developed a standard eight @-@ grade system for <unk> timber elements , known as the <unk> @-@ <unk> system of units , which could be universally applied in buildings . About 8 % of Li Jie 's book was derived from pre @-@ existing written material on architecture , while the majority of the book documented the inherited traditions of craftsmen and architects . The Yingzao Fashi provided a full <unk> of technical terms that included mathematical formulae , building proportions , and construction techniques , and discussed the implications of the local topography for construction at a particular site . He also estimated the monetary costs of hiring laborers of different skill levels from various crafts on the basis of a day 's work , in addition to the price of the materials they would need and according to the season in which they were to be employed . 
 
 = = Architecture in Song artwork = = 
 
 
 
 = Lost Horizons ( Lemon Jelly album ) = 
 
 Lost Horizons is the second studio album from the British electronic duo Lemon Jelly , released on 7 October 2002 . Released by <unk> Recordings and produced by Nick Franglen , the album generated two charting singles in the UK , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " ; the latter has often been called the album 's stand @-@ out track . The album , which is built around a mix of organic instrumentation and idiosyncratic samples , was met with largely positive reviews by music critics , although it was somewhat critiqued due to its near @-@ constant <unk> . 
 In the United Kingdom , Lost Horizons peaked at number 20 on the Official Albums Chart , whereas in the United States , it peaked at number 24 on Billboard 's Top Electronic Albums component chart . The album 's two singles , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " , were also successful , peaking on the UK Singles Chart , at number 36 and 16 respectively . The album , was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in 2003 , was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments exceeding 100 @,@ 000 copies . 
 
 = = Music = = 
 
 Lost Horizons opens with " Elements " , which " blends acoustic guitars , <unk> , synths , <unk> <unk> rhythms , a <unk> harmonica , and ... a falsetto ' doo @-@ doo ' chorus " . <unk> the music is a <unk> , courtesy of English actor John Standing , that lists the basic ' elements ' that make up the world : ash , metal , water , wood , fire , and ( eventually , later in the song ) sky . The second track , " Space Walk " , is set to a recording of Ed White 's 1965 space walk on the Gemini 4 mission . Franglen and Deakin chose to use the sample after listening to an album called Flight to the Moon ( 1969 ) ; the two were struck by how moving and emotive many of the tracks were . Deakin later said , " ' One small step ' leaves me cold , because it was so obviously scripted . But the <unk> … even after hearing it so many times , it 's so vivid . " 
 " Ramblin ' Man " features a conversation between an interviewer ( the voice of Michael Deakin — father of Lemon Jelly 's Fred Deakin ) and " John the Ramblin ' Man " ( the voice of Standing ) , during which he lists various places from around the world , ranging from " from small Sussex villages to major world capitals . " When listed in the order in which the locations are narrated , the message " <unk> <unk> All Things " is spelled out midway through the song ( from Brixton at four minutes ten seconds , to San José at four minutes 31 seconds ) using the first letter of each location . The fourth track , " Return to <unk> " , features several jazz @-@ inspired elements . 
 The song " Nice Weather for Ducks " is built around a sample inspired by John Langstaff 's song " All the Ducks " . This song was based on the popular Dutch children 's song , " <unk> <unk> <unk> in <unk> water " ( translated : " All the ducks are swimming in the water " ) . Franglen later said that he and Deakin were drawn to Langstaff 's recording because it " had a gentle madness to it , slightly <unk> " . The duo had attempted to clear Langstaff 's version for sampling , but were unable to . In the end , they had <unk> <unk> re @-@ record the vocal <unk> . Franglen , while noting that <unk> 's performance was good , said that once the sample was re @-@ recorded , its " edge disappeared " . " Experimental Number 6 " , arguably the album 's <unk> track , features a faux field recording of a doctor documenting the side effects of an unnamed drug administered to a patient ; the recording tells how the patient progresses from normalcy , to an " overwhelming sense of well @-@ being and euphoria " , before eventually expiring . The album closes with " The Curse of Ka <unk> " , which features " a two @-@ part harmony chorus and <unk> drum loop " . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Critical Reviews = = = 
 
 Lost Horizons received mostly positive reviews from music critics , although several critics critiqued the album 's near @-@ constant <unk> . Stuart Mason of AllMusic called the album " a delightful but slightly faceless blend of lounge pop , subtle beats , found sound , with mellow jazz influences . " A reviewer for <unk> praised the band for approaching electronica from a new angle , writing , " this London @-@ based duo employ <unk> pianos , acoustic guitars and <unk> beats to create laid @-@ back <unk> guaranteed to <unk> even the most restless of souls . [ ... ] What really marks Lemon Jelly as exciting new talents is their quirky sense of humour , which they use to <unk> up their sound with skilful [ sic ] use of nursery rhymes , brass bands and <unk> samples . Pascal <unk> of The Guardian wrote , " Everything is <unk> and purely crafted , but Lost Horizons cheats <unk> with some choice <unk> : Magnificent Seven strings , astronauts <unk> , panoramic sound effects . " Chris Dahlen of Pitchfork Media felt that the album was a little too saccharine at times , but that it is " the perfect disc to throw on after your four @-@ disc <unk> Dub Groove Mix has put the whole party to sleep . It 's like eight <unk> of ribbon candy , beach balls hitting the ground like hail , and a big plastic clown face that blows helium . " 
 Many reviews singled out " Nice Weather for Ducks " as the album 's stand @-@ out track . Mason selected the " <unk> , acoustic guitar @-@ based " song as one of the album 's highlights in his review . Dahlen described it as " the most likeable " on the album , and concluded that it is " a happy @-@ <unk> <unk> of a song that nicely sums this record up : <unk> , bright , and vaguely irritating . " <unk> wrote , " When the <unk> arrives on ' Nice Weather for Ducks ' it is impossible to believe there is any evil in the world . " Conversely , several critics felt that " Experiment Number Six " did not fit with the mood of the rest of the album . <unk> called it a " pool of darkness " that " comes as quite a shock . " Dahlen felt that the song is " is the only break in the [ album 's ] mood . " While he enjoyed the song 's concept , calling it " so different and sinister that it 's more intriguing than the rest of the album " , he felt that it was " <unk> displaced . " Hermann , on the other hand , called the track " clever " and " <unk> " with " music ... so well crafted that [ the concept ] works " . 
 
 = = = Sales and accolades = = = 
 
 In the UK , the album charted at number 20 on the Albums Chart . In the US , it peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart . In both cases , it was the first Lemon Jelly album to do so . The album 's two singles , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " , also managed to chart on the UK Singles Chart , at number 36 and 16 respectively . Again , this was a first for the band . On 20 December 2002 the album was certified Silver . Almost six months later , on 22 July 2013 , it was certified gold , denoting shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 . In 2003 , the album was nominated for a Mercury Music Prize , although the album lost to <unk> Rascal 's Boy in da Corner . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 = Fastra II = 
 
 The Fastra II is a desktop supercomputer designed for <unk> . It was built in late 2009 by the ASTRA ( All Scale <unk> Reconstruction Antwerp ) group of researchers of the <unk> ( <unk> institute for <unk> Technology ) <unk> at the University of Antwerp and by Belgian computer shop Tones , in collaboration with Asus , a Taiwanese multinational computer product manufacturer , as the successor to the Fastra I ( built in 2008 ) . 
 The Fastra II was determined to be over three times faster than the Fastra I , which in turn was slightly faster than a 512 @-@ core cluster . However , because of the number of GPUs in the computer , the system initially suffered from several issues , like the system refusing to reboot and <unk> due to a lack of space between the video cards . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 The computer was built as a researching and demonstration project by the ASTRA group of researchers at the Vision Lab in the University of Antwerp in Belgium , one of the researchers being <unk> <unk> . Unlike other modern <unk> such as the <unk> Jaguar and the IBM Roadrunner , which cost millions of euros , the Fastra II only uses consumer hardware , costing € 6 @,@ 000 in total . 
 The Fastra II 's predecessor , the Fastra I , has 4 dual @-@ GPU GeForce <unk> <unk> video cards , for a total of 8 GPUs . At that time , the ASTRA group needed a motherboard that had four PCI Express x16 slots with double @-@ spacing between each of them . The only such motherboard the ASTRA group could find at that time was the <unk> <unk> Platinum , which has four such slots . In 2009 , the Asus <unk> <unk> <unk> motherboard , which the Fastra II uses , was released , which has seven PCI Express x16 slots . The Fastra II has six faster dual @-@ GPU GeForce GTX 295 video cards , and a single @-@ GPU GeForce GTX 275 , for a total of 13 GPUs . In the Fastra II , the GPUs mainly perform <unk> reconstruction . The technique which allows GPUs to perform general @-@ purpose tasks like this outside of gaming , instead of <unk> , is called <unk> , general @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units . 
 <unk> caused by the lack of space between the video cards forces researchers using the <unk> II to keep the side panel door open , so that the video cards can get regular air , decreasing the overall temperature inside the case . 
 Due to the number of GPUs in the system , its initial boot was unsuccessful . This was because its motherboard uses a 32 bit BIOS , which only had approximately 3 GB of address space for the video cards . However , Asus managed to provide them a specialized BIOS that entirely <unk> the address space allocation of the GTX 295 video cards . The BIOS @-@ replacement <unk> was not tested . 
 All seven PCI Express x16 slots in the Asus <unk> motherboard were used in the building of the Fastra II computer . However , the video cards in the Fastra II are wide enough to require two such slots each . To solve this issue , the researchers came up with flexible PCI Express cables , and Tones developed a custom cage which allowed the video cards to suspend over the motherboard . 
 
 = = Specifications and benchmarks = = 
 
 Like the Fastra I , the Fastra II uses a <unk> Li PC @-@ <unk> <unk> case , which has 10 expansion slots . The motherboard in the Fastra II was at that time the only <unk> motherboard that had seven full @-@ sized PCI Express x16 slots . The memory <unk> were initially six 2 GB <unk> , but were later upgraded to 4 GB each , for a total of 24 GB . Instead of an eighth dual @-@ GPU video card , the single @-@ GPU GTX 275 is in the computer because , out of all the video cards in the Fastra II , the GTX 275 is the only one the Fastra II 's BIOS can fully <unk> . The total amount of GPUs is 13 . The video cards together bring 12 <unk> of computing power . Four of the six GTX 295 video cards have 2 <unk> , while the other two have only 1 <unk> . 
 According to the benchmarks on its official website , the Fastra II is faster and more power efficient than its competitors , including the Fastra I and the <unk> <unk> video card . The benchmarks were performed on the Fastra II , the Fastra I , a 512 @-@ core cluster ( consisting of <unk> <unk> ) , an <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> card on an Intel Core <unk> 940 <unk> , and on an Intel Core <unk> 940 <unk> itself . The Fastra II is over three times faster than the Fastra I in CT slice reconstruction speed . Although the Fastra II consumes more power than the Fastra I , it 's nearly 3 times as energy efficient as the Fastra I , and over 300 times as energy efficient as the 512 @-@ core cluster . The video cards run at 37 degrees <unk> when idle , and at 60 degrees <unk> at full load . 
 
 = = Applications and reception = = 
 
 The operating system is <unk> , a community driven Linux distribution and Red <unk> Enterprise Linux clone . The Fastra II received a positive public impression . <unk> called it the " world 's most powerful desktop @-@ sized supercomputer " , describing it as a computer with " so much power in such a small space . " <unk> News Net called it " the Most Powerful Desktop <unk> " . 
 Fastra II relies on <unk> 's <unk> Link <unk> ( <unk> ) and is therefore limited to the number of GPUs supported by it and also by the <unk> respectively the free and open @-@ source device drivers . The Fastra II 's motherboard is designed for <unk> , and it is mainly being used in hospitals for medical imaging . 
 It remains to be seen whether another Fastra featuring <unk> , first available with Pascal @-@ based GPUs , will be build . 
 
 
 = USS Breese ( DD @-@ 122 ) = 
 
 USS Breese ( DD – 122 ) was a Wickes class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I , and later redesignated , DM @-@ 18 in World War II . She was the only ship named for Captain <unk> Breese . 
 Commissioned as a destroyer in 1919 , she undertook a number of patrol and training duties along the East Coast of the United States until being decommissioned in 1922 . <unk> in 1931 , she returned to service with the United States Pacific Fleet on training and patrol for the next 10 years . She was present during the attack on Pearl Harbor , and following this she supported several operations during the war , laying minefields and sweeping for mines in the Pacific . Following the end of the war , she was sold for scrap in 1946 and broken up . 
 
 = = Design and construction = = 
 
 Breese was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with ten of her sisters , were constructed at Newport News Shipbuilding shipyards in Newport News , Virginia using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works . 
 She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 213 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 194 long tons ; 1 @,@ 337 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet 5 inches ( 95 @.@ 83 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 8 inches ( 9 @.@ 65 m ) and a draught of 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . On trials , Harding reached a speed of 33 @.@ 2 knots ( 61 @.@ 5 km / h ; 38 @.@ 2 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , two 3 " / 23 caliber guns , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Parsons or Westinghouse turbines , and powered by four <unk> boilers . 
 <unk> on Breese 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem , which used Curtis steam turbines and <unk> boilers . The Bethlehem destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . <unk> performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight . Ships such as Breese , however , performed better than this . 
 Breese was the only U.S. Navy ship to be named for <unk> Breese , who had been a U.S. Navy officer during the Mexican @-@ American War and later the Civil War . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> period = = = 
 
 Breese was launched on 11 May 1918 out of Newport News , Virginia . She was sponsored by Gilbert <unk> , daughter of Breese ; and commissioned 23 October 1918 under the command of Lieutenant B. Smith . After her commissioning , she reported to the United States Atlantic Fleet and cruised for several days as an escort for convoys supporting World War I , before the end of the conflict on 11 November . Returning to Norfolk , Virginia at the end of the war , she was assigned to Destroyer Division 12 and served off the coast of Cuba on training exercises during the spring of 1919 . In July 1919 , Destroyer Division 12 was assigned to the United States Pacific Fleet , based at San Diego , California . For the next year , she served with Destroyer Squadron 4 and , from June 1920 , began operating in <unk> Reserve . From October 1920 to June 1922 , she participated in division maneuvers and fleet maneuvers with the Pacific Fleet 's main battle force , and she was placed out of commission 17 June 1922 . 
 On 5 January 1931 , Breese was redesignated as a light <unk> , with the hull classification symbol of DM @-@ 18 . Following an overhaul and conversion at Mare Island Navy Yard , she was recommissioned on 1 June 1931 . She then returned to San Diego for sea trials and <unk> tests in her new role . These completed , she departed for Pearl Harbor . She was assigned to Mine Division 1 of the Pacific Fleet , and operated out of Hawaiian waters . She conducted several training exercises , including with the submarine divisions where she served as a target ship . She also served as a station ship for aircraft . She returned to San Diego in June 1937 , and placed out of commission and in reserve on 12 November 1937 . On 25 September 1939 , Breese was again recommissioned and assigned to Mine Division 5 of the Pacific Fleet . On 2 November 1939 , she arrived at Puget Sound Navy Yard and began to conduct <unk> Patrol off the Oregon and Washington coasts . Throughout 1940 , she cruised to different bases along the coastline of Alaska with the commander of the <unk> Sector aboard . Upon returning , she rejoined Mine Division 5 in San Francisco and steamed for Hawaii , returning there on 10 December 1940 . Attached to Mine Division 2 in the Pacific Fleet , she took part in training exercises in the operating area and on the Maui range during much of 1941 . 
 
 = = = World War II = = = 
 
 On 7 December 1941 , Breese was moored in the Middle Loch , northwest of Ford Island . She was moored to Buoy D @-@ 3 alongside a nest of three other <unk> which were also converted Wickes destroyers ; Ramsay , Montgomery , and Gamble . At the outbreak of the attack , her crew was distracted by the initial assault on Ford Island and was <unk> by a flight of Nakajima <unk> torpedo bombers . Breese quickly loaded her machine guns and began firing at 07 : 57 . She and many of the other ships in the area were quickly able to <unk> a strong anti @-@ aircraft defense which lasted throughout the morning . She was credited with hits on several Japanese aircraft and damaging at least one <unk> submarine . Breese was undamaged in the attack . 
 Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , she remained berthed in the harbor until leaving on 26 December , carrying mail and orders for other ships . She rendezvoused with <unk> at the mouth of the harbor to <unk> this , then steamed east on patrol . 
 On 6 May 1942 , she took on 84 survivors of the carrier Yorktown which had sunk in the aftermath of the Battle of Midway . During the summer of 1942 , she operated out of the South Pacific On 3 August 1942 , she , along with minesweepers Gamble and Tracy , were laying mines in <unk> Channel , <unk> Santo . Destroyer Tucker entered the <unk> on escort patrol , having not been notified of the minefield , when she struck one of the mines and sank . Breese , which was moored in the channel , rendered aid . On 30 September 1942 , she was on a nighttime exercise off <unk> Santo when she was damaged in a collision with the cruiser San Francisco . She carried out <unk> duties during the consolidation of the Solomon Islands from 1 – 13 May 1943 , where she was assigned to Task Group 36 @.@ 5 alongside Gamble , <unk> , and Radford . They laid mined in <unk> Strait to guard the western approaches to <unk> Gulf . 
 She supported Allied efforts around New Georgia @-@ <unk> <unk> from 29 June to 25 August . <unk> to Task Unit 36 @.@ 2 @.@ 2 , she , <unk> and Gamble laid mines off <unk> Harbor , <unk> . She then supported the occupation and defense of Cape <unk> conducting <unk> duties there from 1 to 8 November . She later supported the <unk> landings from 12 to 24 October 1944 . She was subsequently among the ships to support the <unk> Gulf landings from 4 to 18 January 1945 . She supported the Battle of Iwo Jima from 7 February to 7 March . She undertook mine duties supporting the Battle of Okinawa between 25 March and 30 June . In her final act of the war , she steamed in support of the United States Third Fleet near mainland Japan between 5 and 31 July . In August and September 1945 Breese swept mines in the East China Sea and <unk> @-@ Korean area following the end of the war . 
 On 7 November 1945 , Breese steamed to the west coast arriving 26 November . She <unk> the Panama Canal and arrived at New York City on 13 December . She was decommissioned on 15 January 1946 and sold for scrap on 16 May 1946 . She received ten battle stars for her service in World War II . 
 
 
 = Sandwich Day = 
 
 " Sandwich Day " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by one of the season 's executive producers , Robert Carlock , and one of the season 's co @-@ executive producers , Jack Burditt . The episode was directed by one of the season 's producers , Don <unk> . The episode first aired on May 1 , 2008 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode included Bill <unk> , Brian <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> May , Jason Sudeikis , Miriam <unk> and <unk> <unk> . The episode earned Tina Fey the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series . 
 Unusually this episode begins on the 30 Rock title sequence - there is no cold open as is normally the case . 
 This episode begins on the annual TGS with Tracy Jordan ( a fictional sketch comedy series ) Sandwich Day . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) receives a phone call from her ex @-@ boyfriend , Floyd ( Jason Sudeikis ) , asking for a place to stay ; Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , Jenna <unk> ( Jane Krakowski ) and the TGS writers try to get a new sandwich for Liz ; Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) <unk> his future at General Electric . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 It is the annual Sandwich Day for the crew of TGS . The <unk> , led by Mickey J. ( Brian <unk> ) , bring in " secret " sandwiches from an unknown Italian <unk> in Brooklyn . When the writers eat Liz 's sandwich , Liz threatens that she will " cut [ their ] faces up so bad [ ... ] [ they 'll ] all have <unk> . " As a result , the writers and Tracy , aided by Jenna , enter a drinking contest against the <unk> in an attempt to get Liz a new sandwich . 
 Floyd , who broke up with Liz in the episode " Hiatus " , calls Liz to ask if he can have a place to stay , as he has come to visit New York on business . Liz tries to win Floyd back , only for him to lie to her about going home to Cleveland , Ohio . Floyd eventually travels home , and the pair agree to remain friends . 
 Meanwhile , after being ousted from his office on the 52nd floor by Devon Banks ( Will <unk> ) , Jack is not taking well to his new job on the 12th floor . He later decides to move to Washington , D.C. , to be the new " Homeland Security Director for Crisis and Weather Management . " 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 This episode was primarily filmed on April 1 , 2008 . This episode was the fourth episode written by Jack Burditt and the seventh written by Robert Carlock . The episode was the twelfth episode which was directed by Don <unk> . 
 Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which <unk> on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock , including Rachel Dratch , Fred <unk> , Kristen <unk> , Will Forte , Jimmy Fallon , Amy Poehler , Will <unk> , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , Bill <unk> , Tim Meadows , Andy <unk> , Chris <unk> and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live sixteen times , the highest number of episodes of any host of the series . This was actress <unk> May 's second appearance in 30 Rock . She previously appeared in the episode " Tracy Does Conan " as a nurse who takes Liz 's blood for donation . In this episode she plays a <unk> who would not allow Liz past airport security because she had her Sandwich Day sandwich with her , and its dipping sauce container held " more than 3 ounces . " 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 " Sandwich Day " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 4 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S. 
 Robert Canning of IGN wrote that this episode " turned out to be an absolute winner " . He concluded that " with its more relatable storylines and moments like the eerie @-@ voiced guy at the hospital , Liz <unk> tables for her mac and cheese , and watching an entire sandwich be eaten in real time in the airport security line , ' Sandwich Day ' was a definite highlight in the post @-@ writers ' strike season . " Erin Fox of TV Guide said that " the minor story of the episode was probably the funniest " . Jeff <unk> of Entertainment Weekly thought that this episode " was nothing more than ... <unk> " . He called this episode a " weak link " . 
 
 
 = Tiber Oil Field = 
 
 The Tiber Oil Field is a deepwater offshore oil field located in the Keathley Canyon block 102 of the United States sector of the Gulf of Mexico . The deepwater field ( defined as water depth 1 @,@ 300 to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 400 to 1 @,@ 520 m ) , ) was discovered in September 2009 and it is operated by BP . Described as a " giant " find , it is estimated to contain 4 to 6 billion barrels ( 640 × 10 ^ 6 to 950 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of oil in place . Although BP states it is too early to be sure of the size – a " huge " field is usually considered to contain 250 million barrels ( 40 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . It required the drilling of a 10 @,@ <unk> m ( 35 @,@ 056 ft ) deep well under 1 @,@ 260 m ( 4 @,@ 130 ft ) of water , making it one of the deepest wells ever drilled at the time of discovery . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 Tiber comprises multiple Lower Tertiary petroleum reservoirs located in Keathley Canyon block 102 about 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of Houston and 300 mi ( 480 km ) south west of New Orleans . Tiber is only the 18th Lower Tertiary well to date , and drilling in these formations is in its infancy . The oil from Tiber is light crude , and early estimates of <unk> reserves are around 20 – 30 % recovery , suggesting figures of around 600 to 900 million barrels ( 95 × 10 ^ 6 to 143 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of reserves . Sources such as Bloomberg suggest caution , warning that the find is technically complex and potentially could take 5 – 6 years to produce oil or be lower yield ( 5 – 15 % ) based on " rates talked about " at nearby <unk> Oil Field , BP 's previous giant find ( 2006 ) 40 mi ( 64 km ) away . The commercial prospects of the field have not yet been evaluated . 
 
 = = Discovery = = 
 
 BP acquired the Outer Continental <unk> lease of Keathley Canyon block 102 reference <unk> , <unk> station <unk> , on October 22 , 2003 , in Phase 2 of the Western Gulf of Mexico ( <unk> / <unk> ) Sale 187 . Lower Tertiary rock formations are some of the oldest and most technically challenging offshore rock formations currently drilled for oil , dating to between 23 and 66 million years ago . The plan of exploration was filed in June 2008 . 
 Tiber was initially drilled by <unk> 's fifth @-@ generation dynamic positioned semi @-@ <unk> oil rig , Deepwater Horizon , with <unk> drilling commencing around March 2009 , slightly delayed from the planned date of September 2008 . Much of the deeper gulf reserves are buried under salt <unk> thousands of feet thick , which present a problem for seismic exploration . BP had previously developed exploration techniques to bypass this difficulty . Oil was located at " multiple levels " . The field was announced on September 2 , 2009 , and BP shares rose 3 @.@ 7 percent on the news . With Tiber joining at least ten other successful Lower Tertiary <unk> in the area , analysts viewed the announcement as a sign for optimism , and a <unk> of renewed interest in , and production from , the offshore Gulf of Mexico . 
 
 = = Exploration on hold = = 
 
 Following the April 2010 destruction of the Deepwater Horizon while drilling the <unk> well , and the resulting oil spill , all appraisal activities at 33 wells under exploration in the Gulf of Mexico , including Tiber , were placed on hold . At least two rigs that might otherwise have been used for developing Tiber are also in use on the relief wells for the <unk> well . 
 
 
 = Glorious First of June = 
 
 The Glorious First of June ( also known in France as the <unk> du 13 <unk> an 2 or Combat de <unk> ) [ Note A ] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars . 
 The action was the culmination of a campaign that had <unk> @-@ crossed the Bay of Biscay over the previous month in which both sides had captured numerous merchant ships and minor warships and had engaged in two partial , but inconclusive , fleet actions . The British Channel Fleet under Admiral Lord Howe attempted to prevent the passage of a vital French grain convoy from the United States , which was protected by the French Atlantic Fleet , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Villaret @-@ <unk> . The two forces clashed in the Atlantic Ocean , some 400 nautical miles ( 700 km ) west of the French island of Ushant on 1 June 1794 . 
 During the battle , Howe defied naval convention by ordering his fleet to turn towards the French and for each of his vessels to rake and engage their immediate opponent . This unexpected order was not understood by all of his captains , and as a result his attack was more <unk> than he intended . Nevertheless , his ships inflicted a severe tactical defeat on the French fleet . In the aftermath of the battle both fleets were left shattered ; in no condition for further combat , Howe and Villaret returned to their home ports . Despite losing seven of his ships of the line , Villaret had bought enough time for the French grain convoy to reach safety unimpeded by Howe 's fleet , securing a strategic success . However , he was also forced to withdraw his battle fleet back to port , leaving the British free to conduct a campaign of blockade for the remainder of the war . In the immediate aftermath both sides claimed victory and the outcome of the battle was seized upon by the press of both nations as a demonstration of the prowess and bravery of their respective navies . 
 The Glorious First of June demonstrated a number of the major problems inherent in the French and British navies at the start of the Revolutionary Wars . Both admirals were faced with disobedience from their captains , along with ill @-@ discipline and poor training among their <unk> crews , and they failed to control their fleets effectively during the height of the combat . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Since early 1792 France had been at war with four of its neighbours on two fronts , battling Austria and Prussia in the Austrian Netherlands , and the Austrians and <unk> in Italy . On 2 January 1793 , almost one year into the French Revolutionary War , republican @-@ held forts at Brest in Brittany fired on the British brig HMS <unk> . [ Note B ] A few weeks later , following the execution of the imprisoned King Louis XVI , diplomatic ties between Britain and France were broken . On 1 February France declared war on both Britain and the Dutch Republic . 
 Protected from immediate invasion by the English Channel , Britain prepared for an extensive naval campaign and dispatched troops to the Netherlands for service against the French . Throughout the remainder of 1793 , the British and French navies undertook minor operations in Northern waters , the Mediterranean and the West and East Indies , where both nations maintained colonies . The closest the Channel Fleet had come to an engagement was when it had narrowly missed <unk> the French convoy from the Caribbean , escorted by 15 ships of the line on 2 August . The only major clash was the Siege of Toulon , a confused and bloody affair in which the British force holding the town — alongside Spanish , <unk> , Austrian and French Royalist troops — had to be evacuated by the Royal Navy to prevent its imminent defeat at the hands of the French Republican army . The aftermath of this siege was <unk> by <unk> and accusations of cowardice and betrayal among the allies , eventually resulting in Spain switching allegiance with the signing of the Treaty of San <unk> two years later . Nevertheless , the siege produced one major success : Sir Sidney Smith , with parties of sailors from the retreating British fleet , accomplished the destruction of substantial French naval stores and shipping in Toulon . More might have been achieved had the Spanish raiding parties that accompanied Smith not been issued with secret orders to stall the destruction of the French fleet . 
 The situation in Europe remained volatile into 1794 . Off Northern France , the French Atlantic Fleet had mutinied due to errors in provisions and pay . In consequence , the French Navy officer corps suffered greatly from the effects of the Reign of Terror , with many experienced sailors being executed , imprisoned or dismissed from the service for perceived <unk> . The shortage of provisions was more than a navy problem though ; France itself was <unk> because the social upheavals of the previous year had combined with a harsh winter to ruin the harvest . By this time at war with all her neighbours , France had nowhere to turn for overland imports of fresh provisions . Eventually a solution to the food crisis was agreed by the National Convention : food produced in France 's overseas colonies would be concentrated on board a fleet of merchant ships gathered in Chesapeake Bay , and augmented with food and goods purchased from the United States . During April and May 1794 , the <unk> would convoy the supplies across the Atlantic to Brest , protected by elements of the French Atlantic Fleet . 
 
 = = Fleets = = 
 
 The navies of Britain and France in 1794 were at very different stages of development . Although the British fleet was numerically superior , the French ships were larger and stronger , and carried a heavier weight of shot . The largest French ships were three @-@ <unk> first rates , carrying 110 or 120 guns , against 100 guns on the largest British vessels . 
 
 = = = Royal Navy = = = 
 
 Since the Spanish Armament of 1790 , the Royal Navy had been at sea in a state of readiness for over three years . The Navy 's dockyards under First Lord of the Admiralty Charles Middleton were all fully fitted and prepared for conflict . This was quite unlike the disasters of the American Revolutionary War ten years earlier , when an ill @-@ prepared Royal Navy had taken too long to reach full effectiveness and was consequently unable to support the North American campaign — which ended in defeat at the Battle of Yorktown due to lack of supplies . With British dockyards now readily turning out cannon , shot , sails , provisions and other essential equipment , the only remaining problem was that of manning the several hundred ships on the Navy list . 
 Unfortunately for the British , gathering sufficient manpower was difficult and never satisfactorily accomplished throughout the entire war . The shortage of <unk> was such that press gangs were forced to take thousands of men with no experience on the sea , meaning that training and preparing them for naval life would take quite some time . The lack of Royal Marines was even more urgent , and soldiers from the British Army were drafted into the fleet for service at sea . Men of the 2nd . Regiment of Foot - The Queen 's ( Royal West Surrey Regiment ) and the 29th Regiment of Foot served aboard Royal Navy ships during the campaign ; their descendant regiments still maintain the battle honour " 1 June 1794 " . 
 Despite these difficulties , the Channel Fleet was possessed of one of the best naval commanders of the age ; its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Richard Howe , 1st Earl Howe , had learned his trade under Sir Edward <unk> and fought at the Battle of <unk> Bay in 1759 . In the spring of 1794 , with the French convoy 's arrival in European waters imminent , Howe had dispersed his fleet in three groups . George Montagu , in HMS Hector , was sent with six ships of the line and two frigates to guard British convoys to the East Indies , West Indies and Newfoundland as far as Cape <unk> . Peter <unk> , in HMS Suffolk and commanding six other ships , was to escort the convoys for the rest of their passage . The third force consisted of 26 ships of the line , with several supporting vessels , under Howe 's direct command . They were to patrol the Bay of Biscay for the arriving French . 
 
 = = = French Navy = = = 
 
 In contrast to their British counterparts , the French Navy was in a state of confusion . Although the quality of the fleet 's ships was high , the fleet hierarchy was <unk> by the same <unk> that had torn through France since the Revolution five years earlier . Consequently , the high standard of ships and ordnance was not matched by that of the available crews , which were largely untrained and inexperienced . With the Terror resulting in the death or dismissal of many senior French sailors and officers , political <unk> and conscripts – many of whom had never been to sea at all , let alone in a fighting vessel – filled the Atlantic fleet . 
 The manpower problem was compounded by the supply crisis which was affecting the entire nation , with the fleet going unpaid and largely <unk> for months at times . In August 1793 , these problems came to a head in the fleet off Brest , when a lack of provisions resulted in a mutiny among the regular sailors . The crews overruled their officers and brought their ships into harbour in search of food , leaving the French coast undefended . The National Convention responded instantly by executing a <unk> of senior officers and ship 's non @-@ commissioned officers . Hundreds more officers and sailors were imprisoned , banished or dismissed from naval service . The effect of this purge was devastating , seriously degrading the fighting ability of the fleet by removing at a stroke many of its most capable personnel . In their places were promoted junior officers , merchant captains and even civilians who expressed sufficient revolutionary zeal , although few of them knew how to fight or control a battle fleet at sea . 
 The newly appointed commander of this troubled fleet was Villaret de <unk> ; although formerly in a junior position , he was known to possess a high degree of tactical ability ; he had trained under Admiral Pierre André de <unk> in the Indian Ocean during the American war . However , Villaret 's attempts to mould his new officer corps into an effective fighting unit were hampered by another new appointee , a deputy of the National Convention named Jean @-@ Bon Saint @-@ André . Saint @-@ André 's job was to report directly to the National Convention on the revolutionary <unk> of both the fleet and its admiral . He frequently intervened in strategic planning and tactical operations . Shortly after his arrival , Saint @-@ André proposed issuing a decree ordering that any officer deemed to have shown insufficient zeal in defending his ship in action should be put to death on his return to France , although this highly controversial legislation does not appear to have ever been acted upon . Although his interference was a source of frustration for Villaret , Saint @-@ André 's dispatches to Paris were published regularly in Le Moniteur , and did much to popularise the Navy in France . 
 The French Atlantic fleet was even more dispersed than the British in the spring of 1794 : Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Vanstabel had been dispatched , with five ships including two of the line , to meet the much @-@ needed French grain convoy off the American eastern seaboard . Rear @-@ Admiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly had sailed from <unk> with five ships of the line and <unk> cruising warships to rendezvous with the convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . This left Villaret with 25 ships of the line at Brest to meet the threat posed by the British fleet under Lord Howe . 
 
 = = = Convoy = = = 
 
 By early spring of 1794 , the situation in France was dire . With famine looming after the failure of the harvest and the blockade of French ports and trade , the French government was forced to look overseas for sustenance . Turning to France 's colonies in the Americas , and the agricultural <unk> of the United States , the National Convention gave orders for the formation of a large convoy of sailing vessels to gather at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay , where Admiral Vanstabel would wait for them . According to contemporary historian William James this <unk> of ships was said to be over 350 strong , although he disputes this figure , citing the number as 117 ( in addition to the French warships ) . 
 The convoy had also been augmented by the United States government , in both cargo and shipping , as repayment for French financial , moral and military support during the American Revolution . In supporting the French Revolution in this way , the American government , urged especially by Ambassador <unk> Morris , was fulfilling its ten @-@ year @-@ old debt to France . Friendly relations between the United States and France did not long survive the Jay Treaty which came into effect in 1796 ; by 1798 the two nations would be engaged in the Quasi War . 
 
 = = May 1794 = = 
 
 The French convoy , escorted by Vanstabel , departed America from Virginia on 2 April , and Howe sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May , taking his entire fleet to both escort British convoys to the Western Approaches and intercept the French . <unk> that Villaret was still in Brest , Howe spent two weeks searching the Bay of Biscay for the grain convoy , returning to Brest on 18 May to discover that Villaret had sailed the previous day . [ Note C ] Returning to sea in search of his opponent , Howe pursued Villaret deep into the Atlantic . Also at sea during this period were the squadrons of Nielly ( French ) and Montagu ( British ) , both of whom had met with some success ; Nielly had captured a number of British merchant ships and Montagu had taken several back . Nielly was the first to encounter the grain convoy , deep in the Atlantic in the second week of May . He took it under escort as it moved closer to Europe , while Montagu was searching <unk> to the south . 
 Despite Howe 's pursuit , the main French sortie found initial success , running into a Dutch convoy and taking 20 ships from it on Villaret 's first day at sea . For the next week Howe continued to follow the French , seizing and burning a trail of French @-@ held Dutch ships and enemy <unk> . On 25 May Howe spotted a <unk> from Villaret 's fleet and gave chase ; <unk> led Howe straight to his opponent 's location . Having finally found Villaret , on 28 May Howe attacked , using a flying squadron of his fastest ships to cut off its rearmost vessel <unk> . This first rate was at various times engaged with six British ships and took heavy damage , possibly striking her colours late in the action . As darkness fell the British and French fleets separated , leaving <unk> and her final enemy , HMS Audacious , still locked in combat behind them . These two ships parted company during the night and eventually returned to their respective home ports . By this stage Villaret knew through his patrolling frigates that the grain convoy was close , and deliberately took his fleet to the west , hoping to decoy Howe away from the vital convoy . 
 Taking the bait , the following day Howe attacked again , but his attempt to split the French fleet in half was unsuccessful when his lead ship , HMS Caesar , failed to follow orders . Much damage was done to both fleets but the action was inconclusive , and the two forces again separated without having settled the issue . Howe had however gained an important advantage during the engagement by seizing the weather gage , enabling him to further attack Villaret at a time of his choosing . Three French ships were sent back to port with damage , but these losses were offset by reinforcements gained the following day with the arrival of Nielly 's detached squadron . Battle was postponed during the next two days because of thick fog , but when the haze lifted on 1 June 1794 , the battle lines were only 6 miles ( 10 km ) apart and Howe was prepared to force a decisive action . 
 
 = = First of June = = 
 
 Although Howe was in a favourable position , Villaret had not been idle during the night . He had attempted , with near success , to distance his ships from the British fleet ; when dawn broke at 05 : 00 he was within a few hours of gaining enough wind to escape over the horizon . <unk> his men to breakfast , Howe took full advantage of his position on the weather gage to close with Villaret , and by 08 : 12 the British fleet was just four miles ( 6 km ) from the enemy . By this time , Howe 's formation was strung out in an organised line parallel to the French , with frigates acting as <unk> for the admiral 's commands . The French were likewise in line ahead and the two lines began exchanging long @-@ range gunfire at 09 : 24 , whereupon Howe unleashed his innovative <unk> . 
 It was normal in fleet actions of the 18th century for the two lines of battle to pass one another <unk> , exchanging fire at long ranges and then wearing away , often without either side losing a ship or taking an enemy . In contrast , Howe was counting on the professionalism of his captains and crews combined with the advantage of the weather gage to attack the French directly , driving through their line . However , this time he did not plan to manoeuvre in the way he had during the two previous encounters ; each ship following in the wake of that in front to create a new line <unk> through his opponent 's force ( as Rodney had done at the Battle of the <unk> 12 years earlier ) . Instead , Howe ordered each of his ships to turn individually towards the French line , intending to breach it at every point and rake the French ships at both bow and stern . The British captains would then pull up on the <unk> side of their opposite numbers , cutting them off from their retreat <unk> , and engage them directly , hopefully forcing each to surrender and consequently destroying the French Atlantic Fleet . 
 
 = = British break the line = = 
 
 Within minutes of issuing the signal and turning his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte , Howe 's plan began to <unk> . Many of the British captains had either misunderstood or ignored the signal and were hanging back in the original line . Other ships were still struggling with damage from Howe 's earlier engagements and could not get into action fast enough . The result was a ragged formation tipped by Queen Charlotte that headed <unk> for Villaret 's fleet . The French responded by firing on the British ships as they approached , but the lack of training and coordination in the French fleet was obvious ; many ships which did obey Howe 's order and attacked the French directly arrived in action without significant damage . 
 
 = = = Van squadron = = = 
 
 Although Queen Charlotte pressed on all sail , she was not the first through the enemy line . That distinction belonged to a ship of the van squadron under Admiral Graves : HMS Defence under Captain James Gambier , a notoriously <unk> officer nicknamed " <unk> Jimmy " by his contemporaries . Defence , the seventh ship of the British line , successfully cut the French line between its sixth and seventh ships ; Mucius and <unk> . <unk> both opponents , Defence soon found herself in difficulty due to the failure of those ships behind her to properly follow up . This left her vulnerable to Mucius , <unk> and the ships following them , with which she began a furious <unk> . However , Defence was not the only ship of the van to break the French line ; minutes later George Cranfield @-@ Berkeley in HMS Marlborough executed Howe 's manoeuvre perfectly , <unk> and then <unk> his ship with Impétueux . 
 In front of Marlborough the rest of the van had mixed success . HMS Bellerophon and HMS Leviathan were both still suffering the effects of their <unk> earlier in the week and did not breach the enemy line . Instead they pulled along the near side of <unk> and America respectively and brought them to close gunnery duels . Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Pasley of Bellerophon was an early casualty , losing a leg in the opening exchanges . HMS Royal Sovereign , Graves 's flagship , was less successful due to a <unk> of distance that resulted in her pulling up too far from the French line and coming under heavy fire from her opponent Terrible . In the time it took to engage Terrible more closely , Royal Sovereign suffered a severe pounding and Admiral Graves was badly wounded . 
 More disturbing to Lord Howe were the actions of HMS Russell and HMS Caesar . Russell 's captain John <unk> Payne was criticised at the time for failing to get to <unk> with the enemy more closely and allowing her opponent <unk> to badly damage her rigging in the early stages , although later commentators blamed damage received on 29 May for her poor start to the action . There were no such <unk> , however , for Captain Anthony Molloy of Caesar , who totally failed in his duty to engage the enemy . Molloy completely ignored Howe 's signal and continued ahead as if the British battleline was following him rather than engaging the French fleet directly . Caesar did participate in a <unk> exchange of fire with the leading French ship Trajan but her fire had little effect , while Trajan inflicted much damage to Caesar 's rigging and was subsequently able to attack Bellerophon as well , <unk> unchecked through the melee developing at the head of the line . 
 
 = = = Centre = = = 
 
 The centre of the two fleets was divided by two separate squadrons of the British line : the forward division under admirals Benjamin Caldwell and George Bowyer and the rear under Lord Howe . While Howe in Queen Charlotte was engaging the French closely , his subordinates in the forward division were less active . Instead of moving in on their opposite numbers directly , the forward division <unk> closed with the French in line ahead formation , engaging in a long distance duel which did not prevent their opponents from harassing the embattled Defence just ahead of them . Of all the ships in this squadron only HMS Invincible , under Thomas <unk> , ranged close to the French lines . Invincible was badly damaged by her lone charge but managed to engage the larger Juste . HMS Barfleur under Bowyer did later enter the action , but Bowyer was not present , having lost a leg in the opening exchanges . 
 Howe and Queen Charlotte led the fleet by example , sailing directly at the French flagship Montagne . Passing between Montagne and the next in line Vengeur du Peuple , Queen Charlotte raked both and hauled up close to Montagne to engage in a close @-@ range artillery battle . As she did so , Queen Charlotte also became briefly entangled with Jacobin , and exchanged fire with her too , causing serious damage to both French ships . 
 To the right of Queen Charlotte , HMS Brunswick had initially struggled to join the action . <unk> behind the flagship , her captain John Harvey received a <unk> from Howe for the delay . <unk> by this signal , Harvey pushed his ship forward and almost <unk> Queen Charlotte , blocking her view of the eastern half of the French fleet for a time and taking severe damage from French fire as she did so . Harvey hoped to run aboard Jacobin and support his admiral directly , but was not fast enough to reach her and so attempted to cut between Achille and Vengeur du Peuple . This manoeuvre failed when Brunswick 's anchors became entangled in Vengeur 's rigging . Harvey 's master asked if Vengeur should be cut loose , to which Harvey replied " No ; we have got her and we will keep her " . The two ships swung so close to each other that Brunswick 's crew could not open their gunports and had to fire through the closed <unk> , the ships battering each other from a distance of just a few feet . 
 Behind this combat , other ships of the centre division struck the French line , HMS Valiant under Thomas Pringle passing close to <unk> which pulled away , her crew suffering from <unk> and unable to take their ship into battle . Valiant instead turned her attention on Achille , which had already been raked by Queen Charlotte and Brunswick , and badly damaged her before pressing on sail to join the embattled van division . HMS Orion under John Thomas <unk> and HMS Queen under Admiral Alan Gardner both attacked the same ship , Queen suffering severely from the earlier actions in which her masts were badly damaged and her captain John <unk> mortally wounded . Both ships bore down on the French Northumberland , which was soon dismasted and left attempting to escape on only the stump of a mast . Queen was too slow to engage Northumberland as closely as Orion , and soon fell in with Jemmappes , both ships battering each other severely . 
 
 = = = Rear = = = 
 
 Of the British rear ships , only two made a determined effort to break the French line . Admiral Hood 's flagship HMS Royal George pierced it between Républicain and Sans Pareil , engaging both closely , while HMS Glory came through the line behind Sans Pareil and threw herself into the melee as well . The rest of the British and French rearguard did not participate in this close combat ; HMS Montagu fought a long range gunnery duel with Neptune which damaged neither ship severely , although the British captain James Montagu was killed in the opening exchanges , command <unk> on Lieutenant Ross Donnelly . Next in line , HMS Ramillies ignored her opponent completely and sailed west , Captain Henry Harvey seeking Brunswick , his brother 's ship , in the confused action around Queen Charlotte . 
 Three other British ships failed to respond to the signal from Howe , including HMS Alfred which engaged the French line at extreme range without noticeable effect , and Captain Charles Cotton in HMS <unk> who likewise did little until the action was decided , at which point he took the surrender of several already shattered French ships . Finally HMS <unk> under <unk> <unk> took no part in the initial action at all , standing well away from the British line and failing to engage the enemy despite the signal for close engagement hanging <unk> from her <unk> . The French rear ships were no less idle , with <unk> and <unk> firing at any British ships in range but refusing to close or participate in the <unk> on either side . The French rear ship Scipion did not attempt to join the action either , but could not avoid becoming embroiled in the group around Royal George and Républicain and suffered severe damage . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Within an hour of their opening <unk> the British and French lines were <unk> confused , with three separate engagements being fought within sight of one another . In the van , Caesar had finally attempted to join the fight , only to have a vital spar shot away by Trajan which caused her to slip down the two embattled fleets without contributing significantly to the battle . Bellerophon and Leviathan were in the thick of the action , the outnumbered Bellerophon taking serious damage to her rigging . This left her unable to manoeuvre and in danger from her opponents , of which Eole also suffered severely . Captain William Johnstone Hope sought to extract his ship from her perilous position and called up support ; the frigate HMS <unk> under Captain Edward <unk> arrived to provide assistance . <unk> brought his small ship between the ships of the French battleline and opened fire on Eole , helping to drive off three ships of the line and then <unk> Bellerophon to safety . Leviathan , under Lord Hugh Seymour , had been more successful than Bellerophon , her gunnery <unk> America despite receiving fire from Eole and Trajan in passing . Leviathan only left America after a two @-@ hour duel , sailing at 11 : 50 to join Queen Charlotte in the centre . 
 Russell had not broken the French line and her opponent <unk> got the better of her , knocking away a <unk> and escaping to windward with Trajan and Eole . Russell then fired on several passing French ships before joining Leviathan in attacking the centre of the French line . Russell 's boats also took the surrender of America , her crew boarding the vessel to make her a prize ( although later replaced by men from Royal Sovereign ) . Royal Sovereign lost Admiral Graves to a serious wound and lost her opponent as well , as Terrible fell out of the line to windward and joined a growing collection of French ships forming a new line on the far side of the action . Villaret was leading this line in his flagship Montagne , which had escaped from Queen Charlotte , and it was Montagne which Royal Sovereign engaged next , pursuing her close to the new French line accompanied by Valiant , and beginning a long @-@ range action . 
 Behind Royal Sovereign was Marlborough , <unk> tangled with Impétueux . <unk> damaged and on the verge of surrender , Impétueux was briefly <unk> when Mucius appeared through the smoke and collided with both ships . The three entangled ships continued exchanging fire for some time , all suffering heavy casualties with Marlborough and Impétueux losing all three of their masts . This combat continued for several hours . Captain Berkeley of Marlborough had to retire below with serious wounds , and command fell to Lieutenant John <unk> , who signalled for help from the frigates in reserve . Robert <unk> responded in HMS <unk> , which had the assignment of repeating signals , and towed Marlborough out of the line as Mucius freed herself and made for the regrouped French fleet to the north . Impétueux was in too damaged a state to move at all , and was soon seized by sailors from HMS Russell . 
 <unk> , Defence was unable to hold any of her various opponents to a protracted duel , and by 13 : 00 was threatened by the damaged Républicain moving from the east . Although Républicain later hauled off to join Villaret to the north , Gambier requested support for his ship from the fleet 's frigates and was aided by HMS <unk> under Captain William <unk> . As Impétueux passed she fired on <unk> , to which <unk> responded with several broadsides of his own . Invincible , the only ship of the forward division of the British centre to engage the enemy closely , became embroiled in the confusion surrounding Queen Charlotte . Invincible 's guns drove Juste onto the broadside of Queen Charlotte , where she was forced to surrender to Lieutenant Henry <unk> in a boat from Invincible . Among the other ships of the division there were only minor casualties , although HMS <unk> lost several yards and was only brought back into line by the quick reactions of two junior officers , Lieutenant Robert Otway and <unk> Charles <unk> . 
 The conflict between Queen Charlotte and Montagne was oddly one @-@ sided , the French flagship failing to make use of her lower @-@ deck guns and consequently suffering extensive damage and casualties . Queen Charlotte in her turn was damaged by fire from nearby ships and was therefore unable to follow when Montagne set her remaining sails and slipped to the north to create a new focal point for the survivors of the French fleet . Queen Charlotte also took fire during the engagement from HMS Gibraltar , under Thomas Mackenzie , which had failed to close with the enemy and instead fired at random into the smoke bank surrounding the flagship . Captain Sir Andrew <unk> Douglas was seriously wounded by this fire . Following Montagne 's escape , Queen Charlotte engaged Jacobin and Républicain as they passed , and was successful in forcing the surrender of Juste . To the east of Queen Charlotte , Brunswick and Vengeur du Peuple continued their bitter combat , locked together and firing main broadsides from point blank range . Captain Harvey of Brunswick was mortally wounded early in this action by <unk> fire from Vengeur , but refused to quit the deck , ordering more fire into his opponent . Brunswick also managed to drive Achille off from her far side when the French ship attempted to intervene . Achille , already damaged , was totally dismasted in the exchange and briefly surrendered , although her crew rescinded this when it became clear Brunswick was in no position to take possession . With her colours <unk> , Achille then made what sail she could in an attempt to join Villaret to the north . It was not until 12 : 45 that the shattered Vengeur and Brunswick pulled apart , both largely dismasted and very battered . Brunswick was only able to return to the British side of the line after being supported by Ramillies , while Vengeur was unable to move at all . Ramillies took Vengeur 's surrender after a brief <unk> but was unable to board her and instead pursued the fleeing Achille , which soon surrendered as well . 
 To the east , Orion and Queen forced the surrender of both Northumberland and Jemmappes , although Queen was unable to secure Jemmappes and she had to be abandoned later . Queen especially was badly damaged and unable to make the British lines again , <unk> between the newly reformed French fleet and the British battleline along with several other shattered ships . Royal George and Glory had between them disabled Scipion and Sans Pareil in a bitter exchange , but were also too badly damaged themselves to take possession . All four ships were among those left drifting in the gap between the fleets . 
 
 = = French recovery = = 
 
 Villaret in Montagne , having successfully broken contact with the British flagship and slipped away to the north , managed to gather 11 ships of the line around him and formed them up in a reconstituted battle squadron . At 11 : 30 , with the main action drawing to a close , he began a recovery manoeuvre intended to lessen the tactical defeat his fleet had suffered . <unk> his new squadron at the battered Queen , Villaret 's attack created consternation in the British fleet , which was unprepared for a second engagement . However , discerning Villaret 's intention , Howe also pulled his ships together to create a new force . His reformed squadron consisted of Queen Charlotte , Royal Sovereign , Valiant , Leviathan , Barfleur , and <unk> . Howe deployed this squadron in defence of Queen , and the two short lines engaged one another at a distance before Villaret abandoned his manoeuvre and hauled off to collect several of his own dismasted ships that were <unk> to escape British pursuit . Villaret was subsequently joined by the battered Terrible , which sailed straight through the dispersed British fleet to reach the French lines , and he also recovered the dismasted Scipion , Mucius , Jemmappes , and Républicain — all of which lay within reach of the <unk> British ships — before turning eastwards towards France . At this stage of the battle , Howe retired below and the British consolidation was left to his Captain of the Fleet , Sir Roger Curtis . Curtis was subsequently blamed by some in the Navy for not capturing more of the dismasted French ships , and was also accused of <unk> Howe from attempting further pursuit . 
 In fact , the British fleet was unable to pursue Villaret , having only 11 ships still capable of battle to the French 12 , and having numerous dismasted ships and prizes to protect . <unk> and <unk> , the British crews set about making hasty repairs and securing their prizes ; seven in total , including the badly damaged Vengeur du Peuple . Vengeur had been holed by cannon firing from Brunswick directly through the ship 's bottom , and after her surrender no British ship had managed to get men aboard . This left Vengeur 's few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could — a task made harder when some of her sailors broke into the spirit room and became drunk . Ultimately the ship 's pumps became <unk> , and Vengeur began to sink . Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged Alfred and HMS <unk> , as well as the services of the cutter HMS <unk> , saved any of the Vengeur 's crew from drowning , these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them . Lieutenant John <unk> of <unk> was especially commended for this hazardous work . By 18 : 15 , Vengeur was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded , the dead , and the drunk remained aboard . Several sailors are said to have <unk> the <unk> from the bow of the ship and cried " <unk> la Nation , <unk> la <unk> ! " 
 Having escaped to the east , Villaret made what sail his battered fleet could muster to return to France , and dispatched his frigates in search of the convoy . Villaret was also hoping for reinforcements ; eight ships of the line , commanded by Admiral Pierre @-@ François Cornic , were patrolling near the Ushant headland . Behind him to the west , the British took the whole night to secure their ships and prizes , not setting out to return to Britain until 05 : 00 on 2 June . 
 Casualties in the battle are notoriously hard to calculate exactly . With only one exception ( Scipion ) , records made by the French captains of their losses at the time are incomplete . The only immediately available casualty counts are the sketchy reports of Saint @-@ André and the records made by British officers aboard the captured ships , neither of which can be treated as completely reliable . Most sources accept that French casualties in the campaign numbered approximately 7 @,@ 000 , including around 3 @,@ 000 captured , but these figures are vague and frequently do not agree with each other on details . British casualties are easier to confirm but here , too , there are some discrepancies ; overall British casualties are generally given as around 1 @,@ 200 . 
 
 = = The convoy arrives = = 
 
 With a large portion of his fleet no longer <unk> , Howe was unable to resume his search for the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay . The Admiralty , though unaware of Howe 's specific circumstances , knew a battle had taken place through the arrival of HMS Audacious in Portsmouth , and was preparing a second expedition under George Montagu . Montagu had returned to England after his unsuccessful May cruise , and was <unk> in Portsmouth when ordered to sea again . His force of ten ships was intended to both cover Howe 's withdrawal from Biscay , and find and attack the French grain convoy . Montagu returned to sea on 3 June , and by 8 June was off Ushant searching for signs of either the French or Howe ; unknown to him , neither had yet entered European waters . At 15 : 30 on 8 June Montagu spotted sails , and soon identified them as the enemy . He had located Cornic 's squadron , which was also patrolling for the convoy and the returning fleets . Montagu gave chase and drove Cornic into <unk> Bay , where he blockaded the French squadron overnight , hoping to bring them to action the following day . However , on 9 June , Montagu sighted 19 French ships appearing from the west — the remnants of Villaret 's fleet . <unk> turning his ships , Montagu sailed south to avoid becoming trapped between two forces which might easily overwhelm him . Villaret and Cornic gave chase for a day before turning east towards the safety of the French ports . 
 Howe benefited from Montagu 's withdrawal , as his own battered fleet passed close to the scene of this stand @-@ off on 10 June , pushing north into the English Channel . With Villaret and Cornic <unk> pursuing Montagu to the south , Howe was free to pass Ushant without difficulty and arrived off Plymouth on 12 June , joined soon afterwards by Montagu . Villaret had anchored with Cornic in <unk> Bay the day before , but Saint @-@ André refused to allow him to enter Brest until the republican attitudes of the town 's population had been assessed . On 12 June , the convoy from America finally arrived off France , having lost just one ship in passage during a storm . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 Both Britain and France claimed victory in the battle : Britain by virtue of capturing or sinking seven French ships without losing any of her own and remaining in control of the battle site ; France because the vital convoy had passed through the Atlantic unharmed and arrived in France without significant loss . The two fleets were showered by their respective nations with both praise and criticism – the latter particularly directed at those captains not felt to have contributed significantly to the fighting . The British fleet in Spithead was treated with a Royal visit by King George III and the entire royal household . 
 
 = = = France = = = 
 
 In France the revolutionary principles of <unk> precluded extensive awards , but Villaret was promoted to vice @-@ admiral on 27 September 1794 and other minor awards were distributed to the admirals of the fleet . In addition the fleet 's officers took part in a celebratory parade from Brest to Paris , accompanying the recently arrived food supplies . The role of Vengeur du Peuple was <unk> by Bertrand <unk> , giving birth to an exalted legend . <unk> in France concerning the battle 's outcome was divided ; while many celebrated Saint @-@ André 's exaggerated accounts of victory in Le Moniteur , senior naval officers disagreed . Among the dissenters was the highly experienced but recently dismissed Admiral Kerguelen . Kerguelen was disgusted by Villaret 's failure to renew the battle after he had reformed his squadron , and felt that the French fleet could have been successful tactically as well as strategically if only Villaret had made greater efforts to engage the remains of Howe 's fleet . The French Navy had suffered its worst losses in a single day since the Battle of La <unk> in 1692 . 
 Ultimately the revolutionary excesses of the period would prove disastrous for the French Navy . <unk> leadership , conflicting and arbitrary orders and the <unk> of the experienced <unk> in the ranks promoted a negative attitude in the French officer corps . The French <unk> did not contest British dominance in Northern European waters again , and their raiding operations repeatedly ended in failure at the hands of more confident British squadrons and the <unk> Atlantic weather . By 1805 , when the last great French fleet to take to the sea was crushed at the Battle of Trafalgar , poor training and low investment in the Navy had reduced its efficiency to levels <unk> 20 years earlier . 
 
 = = = Britain = = = 
 
 In Britain , numerous honours were bestowed on the fleet and its commanders . Admiral Howe , already an earl , refused any further elevation , and King George III was <unk> from making him a Knight of the Garter by one of Howe 's political opponents . Vice @-@ Admiral Graves was elevated to the <unk> of Ireland as Baron Graves , while Vice @-@ Admiral Hood was made Viscount <unk> . Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , Pasley and Curtis ( the last @-@ named was promoted from captain on 4 July 1794 ) were all made <unk> , and Bowyer and Pasley also received <unk> of £ 1 @,@ 000 a year to compensate them for their severe wounds . All first lieutenants were promoted to commander and numerous other officers were promoted in consequence of their actions . The thanks of parliament were unanimously passed to all who fought at the action and various other gifts and awards were distributed among the fleet . A memorial to Captains John <unk> and John Harvey , both of whom had died of their wounds on 30 June , was raised in Westminster Abbey . 
 There was , however , a bitter consequence of the awards , rooted in Howe 's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle , which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis . Howe had <unk> a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed <unk> special reward for their part in the battle . The list included Vice @-@ Admirals Graves and Hood , Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , and Pasley , and Captains Seymour , <unk> , Cranfield @-@ Berkeley , Gambier , John Harvey , Payne , Henry Harvey , Pringle , <unk> , <unk> , Nichols , and Hope . Also mentioned were <unk> <unk> and Donnelly . The list had omitted a number of officers who had served in the battle , and the justice of their omission was a highly controversial issue in the Navy . Rear @-@ Admiral Caldwell was the sole British flag officer present not to receive a hereditary honour , although he was promoted to Vice @-@ Admiral on 4 July ( as were Bowyer and Gardner ) . After studying the ship 's logs and reports of the battle , the Admiralty minted a medal to be awarded to the living captains on the list only ( although Captain William Parker of HMS Audacious was awarded one as well ) . The captains excluded from the list were furious , and the <unk> from this selective commendation lasted years : in 1795 Vice @-@ Admiral Caldwell quit the service in anger as a result , while <unk> <unk> , flag captain of Barfleur , refused all awards for future service until the Glorious First of June medal was presented to him as well . He eventually received it after the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797 . Over five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a <unk> attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 . 
 <unk> of all was the <unk> campaign directed at Anthony Molloy , captain of HMS Caesar . Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe 's orders on both 29 May and 1 June . Molloy 's request for an official court @-@ martial to clear his name failed , and although his personal courage was not called into question , his professional ability was . Molloy was dismissed from his ship . 
 Of the captured ships , several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy , in particular the two 80 @-@ gun ships HMS Sans Pareil which was decommissioned in 1802 but not broken up until 1842 , and HMS Juste , which was a popular command until her decommissioning in 1802 at the Peace of Amiens . Of the four 74 @-@ gun prizes , Achille and Northumberland ( both <unk> built in the late 1770s ) were broken up as <unk> soon after arrival in Britain , while Impétueux was destroyed in a dockyard fire on 24 August 1794 while undergoing repairs . America , the final prize , was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS America but renamed HMS <unk> in July 1795 and remained in service until 1813 . The combined prize money for these ships was £ 201 @,@ <unk> ( the equivalent of £ 21 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , divided among the ships under Lord Howe 's command . 
 
 
 = New York State Route 368 = 
 
 New York State Route 368 ( NY 368 ) was a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It was one of the shortest routes in the county , extending for only 1 @.@ 69 miles ( 2 @.@ 72 km ) between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . NY 368 was known as Halfway Road for the hamlet it served near its midpoint . The route was assigned in the 1930s and removed in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Onondaga County . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 NY 368 began at an intersection with NY 321 adjacent to the Carpenter 's Brook Fish <unk> in the town of Elbridge . The route headed north as Halfway Road , passing by farmland as it headed through a rural area of Onondaga County to the small hamlet of Halfway . Here , NY 368 served a small number of homes as it crossed a <unk> railroad line ( now part of the Finger Lakes Railway ) at the center of the community . Outside of Halfway , the route turned to the northwest toward the village of Elbridge , avoiding a marshy area directly north of Halfway . It intersected with Lynch Road and Campbell Road before turning slightly northward and following Carpenter 's Brook through another undeveloped area to an intersection with NY 5 east of the village , where NY 368 ended . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 NY 368 was assigned in the 1930s as a connector between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge by way of the hamlet of Halfway . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Onondaga County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The county also assumed ownership and maintenance of the Onondaga County portion of NY <unk> as part of the exchange . NY 368 was redesignated as County Route 107 ( CR 107 ) following the swap . 
 
 = = Major intersections = = 
 
 The entire route was in Elbridge , Onondaga County . 
 
 
 = M @-@ 122 ( Michigan highway ) = 
 
 M @-@ 122 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan entirely in the city of St. Ignace . The highway connected US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) to the State Highway Ferry Dock used before the Mackinac Bridge was built . It was retired and the road returned to local control in 1957 . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 Prior to the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , travelers wishing to venture from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City had to do so via ferry . M @-@ 122 began at US 2 ( now Business Loop Interstate 75 ) near Straits State Park and traveled through town along Ferry Road where it ran southeasterly from the main highway . East of <unk> Street M @-@ 122 curved around to the east near <unk> Street . The highway ended at the State Ferry Docks on the southeast side of the city next to the Coast Guard station . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 M @-@ 122 was initially assumed into the state highway system in 1929 as a connector between US 31 and Straits State Park . In 1936 , US 2 was routed into St. Ignace and US 31 was scaled back to end in the Lower Peninsula in Mackinaw City . M @-@ 122 now provided a connection between US 2 and the new docks on the southeast side of the city . It existed in this capacity until 1957 when the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic . 
 
 = = Major intersections = = 
 
 The entire highway was in St. Ignace , Mackinac County . 
 
 
 = Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 = 
 
 The Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 ( development designation Tu @-@ 77 ) was an experimental Soviet jet @-@ powered medium bomber developed from the successful piston @-@ engined Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber after the end of World War II . It was designed as a transitional aircraft to <unk> Tupolev and the VVS with the issues involved with jet @-@ engined bombers . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 The Tupolev Tu @-@ 73 jet @-@ engined bomber project was suffering delays in early 1947 and Tupolev suggested re @-@ <unk> the Tu @-@ 2 medium bomber with imported British Rolls @-@ Royce Nene jet engines to produce a jet bomber as quickly as possible . Design work began well before official approval was received on 31 May 1947 for one Tu @-@ 2S to be converted in the <unk> 's workshop and another five to be converted at <unk> ( Factory ) Nr. 23 , but construction of the prototype had already begun in early May under the bureau designation Tu @-@ 77 . 
 Changes from the standard Tu @-@ 2 were <unk> to speed production and they consisted of the following : 
 Two Nene jet engines replaced the standard <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> radial engines . 
 The wing dihedral was reduced to 3 ° from 6 ° . 
 The fuselage was lengthened 400 mm ( 16 in ) and the rear fuselage was heightened by 300 mm ( 12 in ) . 
 A new <unk> <unk> was fitted , with the main gear units <unk> into the engine <unk> . 
 Additional fuel tanks were fitted and the design of the tanks was changed to accommodate the change from gasoline to kerosene . 
 The control system was revised and trim <unk> were fitted to the <unk> . 
 The wing and tail were reinforced . 
 The 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) <unk> cannon were removed from the wing roots and a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) <unk> @-@ <unk> NS @-@ 23 cannon was mounted in an external <unk> on the starboard side of the nose . 
 
 = = = Testing and evaluation = = = 
 
 The prototype was completed in July and was first flown on 27 July 1947 . Two aircraft were shown at the <unk> Aviation Day <unk> on 3 August 1947 . It completed its manufacturer 's trials in September and underwent the State acceptance trials from 4 October 1947 to 27 February 1948 where it was redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12 . The <unk> VVS ( <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> – Air Force Scientific Test Institute ) report summarized the differences between the Tu @-@ 2 and Tu @-@ 12 as " a considerable gain in speed , an improved rate of climb , a higher service ceiling , but poorer field performance and a considerably greater fuel load required to achieve the same range as the Tu @-@ 2 . " Both the lack of a pressurized cabin that greatly reduced its effectiveness at high altitude and the lack of <unk> equipment for the wing and tail leading edges and the cockpit glazing were noted as major problems . At high speeds it was virtually impossible to traverse and elevate the manually operated <unk> @-@ 68 and Lu @-@ 68 gun turrets . The vibration of the NS @-@ 23 cannon when firing rendered the equipment in the <unk> 's cabin unusable and damaged the cabin glazing . Turning on the <unk> friend or <unk> ( <unk> ) system adversely affected the <unk> system and the radios . New generators had to be installed as the originals did not produce enough electrical power . 
 The trials conducted by the <unk> VVS included engagements between the Tu @-@ 12 and the Soviet <unk> @-@ 9 and <unk> @-@ 23 jet fighters which were very useful in evaluating the offensive armament of the fighters , the defensive armament of the bomber and the proper tactics involved for both types of aircraft . The tests demonstrated the <unk> of the current 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) armament and meant that every Soviet bomber <unk> would have a defensive armament using power @-@ operated turrets that carried guns 20 mm or larger . 
 The five aircraft modified by the factory were given the <unk> <unk> @-@ 45 engine , the Soviet unlicensed copy of the Nene engine , and all six aircraft , used by the VVS for aircrew <unk> and training . The aircraft completed were later relegated to test duties . One aircraft was used for drone tests and another , redesignated as the Tu @-@ <unk> , mounted various pulse jet engines on a <unk> above the fuselage . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Soviet Union 
 Soviet Air Force 
 
 = = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 12 ) = = 
 
 Data from <unk> , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922 
 General characteristics 
 Crew : 5 
 Length : 16 @.@ 45 m ( 53 ft 11 ½ in ) 
 <unk> : 18 @.@ 86 m ( 61 ft 10 ½ in ) 
 Wing area : 48 @.@ 80 m2 ( 525 @.@ 30 <unk> ) 
 Empty weight : <unk> kg ( 19 @,@ 826 lb ) 
 Gross weight : 15 @,@ 720 kg ( 34 @,@ <unk> lb ) 
 <unk> : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce Nene I <unk> , 22 <unk> ( 5 @,@ 000 <unk> ) thrust each each 
 Performance 
 Maximum speed : <unk> km / h ( <unk> mph ) 
 Range : 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 miles ) 
 Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 370 m ( 37 @,@ 305 ft ) 
 Armament 
 1 × 23 mm NS @-@ 23 cannon 
 2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm <unk> <unk> machine @-@ guns 
 3 @,@ 000 kg ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) of bombs 
 
 
 = Civilian Public Service = 
 
 The Civilian Public Service ( CPS ) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II . From 1941 to 1947 , nearly 12 @,@ 000 draftees , willing to serve their country in some capacity but unwilling to perform any type of military service , accepted assignments in work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico . Draftees from the historic peace churches and other faiths worked in areas such as soil conservation , forestry , fire fighting , agriculture , under the supervision of such agencies as the U.S. Forest Service , the Soil Conservation Service , and the National Park Service . Others helped provide social services and mental health services . 
 The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government . The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families . CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the war . Initially skeptical of the program , government agencies learned to appreciate the men 's service and requested more workers from the program . CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention , erosion and flood control , medical science and reform of the mental health system . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Conscientious objectors ( COs ) refuse to participate in military service because of belief or religious training . During wartime , this stance conflicts with conscription efforts . Those willing to accept non @-@ combatant roles , such as medical personnel , are accommodated . There are few legal options for draftees who cannot cooperate with the military in any way . 
 
 = = = <unk> of World War I = = = 
 
 The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of a religious organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form . This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the historic peace churches : Mennonites ( and other Anabaptist groups such as <unk> ) , Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) and Church of the Brethren . The law gave the President authority to assign such draftees to any noncombatant military role . 
 Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis ( Washington ) , <unk> Island ( California ) and Fort <unk> ( Kansas ) . The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in their assigned military camps . Simultaneously the Justice Department was preparing to <unk> 181 Mennonite leaders for violating the espionage act because of a statement they adopted against performing military service . The draftees ' refusal to put on a uniform or cooperate in any way caused difficulties for both the government and the COs . The treatment received by nearly 2000 of these absolute COs included short rations , solitary confinement and physical abuse so severe as to cause the deaths of two <unk> draftees . 
 
 = = = Preparation for World War II = = = 
 
 After World War I , and with another European war looming , leaders from the historic peace churches met to <unk> about how to cooperate with the government to avoid the difficulties of World War I. Holding a common view that any participation in military service was not acceptable , they devised a plan of civilian alternative service , based on experience gained by American Friends Service Committee work in Europe during and after World War I and forestry service done by Russian Mennonites in lieu of military service in <unk> Russia . 
 As the United States prepared for another war , the historic peace churches , represented by Friends who understood inner dealings of Washington D.C. politics , attempted to influence new draft bills to ensure their men could fulfill their duty in an alternative , non @-@ military type of service . On June 20 , 1940 , the Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill came before Congress . The arrangements for conscientious objectors were almost identical to the World War I provisions . 
 
 = = = Selective Service Act = = = 
 
 The Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches . The Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14 , 1940 , becoming the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 . The influence of the churches was evident in section 5 ( g ) , which says in part : 
 Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service ... in lieu of such induction , be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction . 
 The bill offered four improvements from the perspective of the churches over the World War I provisions . The exemption applied to conscientious <unk> based on religious training or belief , opening the door for members of any religious denomination to apply for CO status . Draftees turned down by local draft board could appeal under the new law . Those assigned to " work of national importance " would be under civilian , not military , control and violations of law on the part of those in the program were subject to normal federal jurisdiction , not the military justice system . From the military perspective , it removed the burden of dealing with thousands of uncooperative draftees and segregated the COs and their philosophy from military service members . 
 Unlike <unk> methods , the military found that this gentler approach resulted in about one in eight eventually transferring to military service . 
 
 = = Organization = = 
 
 When registration commenced on October 16 , 1940 , no structure was in place to handle thousands of anticipated conscientious objectors . Church representatives meeting with government officials learned that little thought had been put into the program , and the churches were advised to create a plan . Because the government wanted to deal with one body , not individual religious denominations , the National Council for Religious Conscientious <unk> was formed as a liaison between the churches and the federal government . The historic peace churches outlined a plan that included running and maintaining CPS camps under church control . However , President Roosevelt opposed any plan not involving military control over the draftees . To save their plan and retain civilian direction of the program , the churches offered to fund the camps . <unk> convinced Roosevelt that putting the COs to work in out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way camps was <unk> to repeating the difficulties of World War I. Selective Service and the peace churches agreed to a six @-@ month trial of church supported and funded camps for conscientious objectors and thus Civilian Public Service was born . 
 The first camp opened on May 15 , 1941 near Baltimore , Maryland . A total of 152 camps and units were established over the next six years . The federal government provided work projects , housing , camp <unk> and paid for transportation to the camps . The responsibilities of the churches included day @-@ to @-@ day management of the camps , subsistence costs , meals and healthcare for the men . When the young men arrived at the first camps , they started a six @-@ month experiment that would extend to six years . 
 
 = = = Camp life = = = 
 
 Civilian Public Service men lived in barracks @-@ style camps , such as former Civilian Conservation Corps facilities . The camps served as a base of operations , from which the COs departed to their daily assignments . Sites were located typically in rural areas near the agricultural , soil conservation and forestry projects where the work took place . A large camp such as number 57 near Hill City , South Dakota , had five dormitories and housed as many as 172 men building the <unk> Dam . Later , with projects located in urban areas , the men lived in smaller units , communal housing near their assignments . CPS men typically worked nine hours , six days per week . 
 Mennonite Central Committee , American Friends Service Committee and Brethren Service Committee administered almost all of the camps . The Association of Catholic Conscientious <unk> managed four camps and the Methodist World Peace Commission two . Each camp was assigned a director responsible for supervising camp operation . The director managed the needs of the men , oversaw maintenance of the camp facilities , handled community relations and reported to Selective Service officials . Initially a pastor had the camp director role . Later , capable men from among the CPS workers directed the camps . 
 Besides the director , a <unk> , business manager and <unk> staffed a typical camp . An educational director was responsible for creating recreational , social and educational programs for the men . Church history , Bible and first aid were standard course topics . The strength of instructional programs varied from camp to camp , and after nine hours of physical labor , it could be difficult to motivate the men to attend classes . Most camps had libraries , some showed current films and camp number 56 ( Camp Angel ) near <unk> , Oregon had a particular emphasis on the arts . Camps produced <unk> and <unk> documenting their experiences . 
 The camp <unk> , with the help of men assigned as cooks , prepared all of the meals . Camps with large gardens provided their own fresh vegetables . <unk> congregations also supplied home canned and fresh produce . The camps were subject to the same shortages and rationing as the rest of the nation . 
 Sunday worship services were organized by the camp director if he was a pastor , by a visiting pastor , or by the CPS men themselves . While the historic peace churches organized the CPS , 38 % of the men came from other denominations and 4 % claimed no religious affiliation . 
 Men spent their free time doing crafts such as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and photography . Outdoor activities included hiking and swimming . Men formed choirs and music ensembles , performing in neighboring towns when relations were good . The men earned two days of <unk> for each month of service . These days could be saved to allow enough time to travel several hundred miles home or in some cases traded to other men in exchange for cash . 
 Men with wives and dependents found it difficult to support their families . Beyond a small allowance , the men did not get paid for their service , nor were their dependents given an allowance . To be closer to their husbands , women sought employment near their husband 's assignment . Later , when jobs on dairy farms became available , families could live together in housing provided for farm workers . 
 Men who became uncooperative with the CPS system and were unable to adjust to the church @-@ managed camps were reassigned to a few camps managed by the Selective Service System . These camps tended to be the least productive and most difficult to administer . Men who felt compelled to protest the restrictions of the conscription law attempted to disrupt the program through the use of various techniques , including the initiation of work <unk> and labor strikes . <unk> rule breaking frustrated camp directors . The most difficult cases were given to the federal court system and the men imprisoned . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Churches were primarily responsible for financing Civilian Public Service , providing for the men 's food , clothes , and other material needs . The churches also provided and paid for the camp director . The men received an allowance of between $ 2 @.@ 50 and $ 5 @.@ 00 monthly for personal needs . When jobs were available in surrounding farms and communities , those willing to work beyond their regular CPS jobs could earn extra spending money . The federal government spent $ 1 @.@ 3 million on the CPS program . The men performed $ 6 million of unpaid labor in return . 
 Men who worked for farmers or psychiatric hospitals received regular wages , which they were required to give to the federal government . <unk> to this practice developed immediately because the men felt they were helping to fund the war . A compromise was reached where the wages were put into a special fund that was unused until after the end of the war . At one point , church representatives attempted unsuccessfully to have these funds used for providing a living allowance for the men 's dependents . 
 
 = = Types of work = = 
 
 The first Civilian Public Service projects were in rural areas where the men performed tasks related to soil conservation , agriculture and forestry . Later men were assigned to projects in cities where they worked in hospitals , psychiatric wards , and university research centers . 
 
 = = = Soil conservation and agriculture = = = 
 
 <unk> the rural background of most men , the initial camps provided soil conservation and farming @-@ related projects . By August 1945 , 550 men worked on dairy farms and with milk testing . Labor @-@ intensive farming operations like <unk> were short of workers and accepted COs to help fill the gap . Men assigned to the Bureau of Reclamation built <unk> to prevent soil erosion , constructed 164 reservoirs and 249 dams . A sixth of all CPS work was performed in this area . 
 
 = = = <unk> and National Parks = = = 
 
 At Forest Service and National Park Service camps , CPS men were responsible for fire control . Between fires they built forest trails , cared for nursery stock , planted thousands of seedlings and engaged in pest control . <unk> and roadways on the Blue Ridge Parkway and <unk> Drive of Virginia are products of CPS labor . 
 Hundreds of men volunteered for smoke jumping , showing their willingness to take great personal risks . When fire was detected by a lookout , smoke jumpers were flown directly to the site and dropped by parachute to quickly contain and extinguish the fire . From base camps scattered through the forests of Montana , Idaho and Oregon , the men were flown as many as 200 miles to fire sites , carrying <unk> tools and a two @-@ day supply of K @-@ rations . For larger fires , additional men , supplies and food were <unk> to expand the effort . Up to 240 CPS men served in this specialized program . One of the <unk> schools was at Camp <unk> in Montana . 
 
 = = = Mental health = = = 
 
 As the war progressed , a critical shortage of workers in psychiatric hospitals developed , because staff had left for better paying jobs with fewer hours and improved working conditions . <unk> wards at Philadelphia State Hospital had one attendant member for 300 patients , the minimum ratio being 10 : 1 . The government <unk> at initial requests that CPS workers have these positions , believing it better to keep the men segregated in the rural camps to prevent the spread of their philosophy . 
 Eventually the men received permission to work for the mental institutions as attendants or psychiatric aides . Individuals who found jobs at the rural camps <unk> and meaningless , volunteered for this new type of assignment . The mental health field promised to provide the work of national importance that the program was designed to produce . By the end of 1945 , more than 2000 CPS men worked in 41 institutions in 20 states . 
 The CPS men discovered appalling conditions in the mental hospital wards . In an interview , a conscientious objector described his experience when he first entered a mental hospital in October 1942 : 
 It is sort of like a perpetual bad dream . The <unk> , the sounds of the insane voices , the bad equipment . The long , dark corridors . I tell you , it is all very much like a medieval <unk> of the <unk> regions . We ’ d heard about how these patients had been treated by the attendants , Beat with rods , you know , do all kind of things . We took a vow before we left the camp , we decided that we would not assault or in any way , strike a patient . 
 I opened one of those rooms , and there was a man lying on the floor . I leaned over to try to see what I could do to minister to him in some way , do something for him . He may have been on a <unk> or he may have been on the bare floor . No he was on the bare floor , because when I tried to move him , his skin came off . His skin was bloody and stuck to the floor and when I tried to lift him up it just <unk> his skin off . He was in the last stages of syphilis . He died less than a week afterwards . Now that was my first introduction to what was badly needed in that institution . 
 The CPS men objected to the mistreatment and abuse of patients and determined to improve conditions in the psychiatric wards . They wanted to show other attendants <unk> to violence when dealing with patients . 
 Frank <unk> , chairman of the War <unk> League observed : 
 One objector assigned to a violent ward refused to take the broomstick offered by the Charge . When he entered the ward the patients crowded around asking , " Where is your broomstick ? " He said he thought he would not need it . " But suppose some of us gang up on you ? " The CO guessed they wouldn 't do that and started talking about other things . Within a few days the patients were seen gathering around the unarmed attendant telling him of their troubles . He felt much safer than the Charge who had only his broomstick for company . 
 <unk> workers surveyed CPS men in other hospitals and learned of the degree of abuse throughout the psychiatric care system . <unk> church managers and government officials , the COs begin advocating for reforms to end the abuses . Conditions were exposed in institutions such as Cleveland State Hospital , Eastern State Hospital in Virginia and Hudson River State Hospital . One explained : 
 And the governor came in and they cleaned out the hospital . I mean , they had hearings . We all had to appear in court and all that kind of stuff . And within a month or so , the hospital was completely changed . The superintendent was fired and the new superintendent was put in , and not only did they do our hospital , they did all the hospitals , mental hospitals in Virginia . 
 The reformers were especially active at the <unk> Hospital in Philadelphia where four Friends initiated the The <unk> magazine as a way to communicate ideas and promote reform . This periodical later became The <unk> <unk> , a professional journal for mental health workers . On May 6 , 1946 Life Magazine printed an <unk> of the mental healthcare system based on the reports of COs . Another effort of CPS , Mental Hygiene Project became the National Mental Health Foundation . Initially skeptical about the value of Civilian Public Service , Eleanor Roosevelt , impressed by the changes introduced by COs in the mental health system , became a sponsor of the National Mental Health Foundation and actively inspired other prominent citizens including Owen J. Roberts , Pearl Buck and Harry Emerson <unk> to join her in advancing the organization 's objectives of reform and humane treatment of patients . 
 
 = = = Medical experiments = = = 
 
 Draftees in Civilian Public Service became medical and scientific research test subjects in human medical experiments under the direction of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and the Surgeon General at medical institutions such as Harvard Medical School , Yale and Stanford Universities , and Massachusetts General Hospital . These experiments involved a range of research topics , sometimes <unk> the health of the COs . 
 <unk> : During the 1940s the cause , method of communication and treatment of infectious <unk> was not well understood . <unk> began with COs working at psychiatric hospitals and was expanded to a major research project with 30 to 60 test subjects at the University of Pennsylvania and Yale University . The men were <unk> with infected blood plasma , swallowed nose and throat <unk> and the human body <unk> of infected patients , and drank contaminated water . 
 As a young surgeon , C. Everett <unk> was part of the research team at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine . He related his experience with CPS test subjects : 
 And the first time I was introduced to this whole program when I as a young surgeon , was asked to do serial <unk> on their <unk> to see what the effect of the virus was in the production of the changes in the liver . And in that way , I got to know that a lot of these young men had no idea that the risk they were taking also included death . And some of those youngsters did die and it was a very difficult thing for me to be part of , because you know , you ’ re powerless , when you ’ re part of the big team . 
 It couldn 't happen today . Internal Review Boards would not permit the use of a live virus in human subjects unless they really understood what was going to happen to them . And I doubt that even if they knew what the risk was , that an Internal Review Board in any academic institution would consent to that kind of experimental work . 
 The <unk> research was instrumental in determining a virus is responsible for the disease and that it is transmitted through human <unk> , <unk> and drinking water . 
 <unk> : During the early 1940s , quinine was the chief anti @-@ <unk> drug . Made from the bark of the South American <unk> tree , quinine was in short supply during the war , so scientists began searching for an alternative treatment . The test subjects allowed themselves to be bitten by <unk> mosquitoes and when the fever reached its peak in three to four days , were given experimental treatments . At the University of Minnesota , twelve CPS men underwent tests to determine the recovery period for those infected with malaria . This research documented the debilitating effects of the disease and the amount of time required for a complete recovery . 
 Common cold and atypical pneumonia : A hundred CPS men participated with tests such that they inhaled or drank throat <unk> from soldiers with <unk> and pneumonia . This research proved that <unk> and some types of pneumonia are cause by a virus , not bacteria . 
 Minnesota <unk> Experiment : To study the effects of diet and <unk> , Dr. <unk> Keys of the University of Minnesota Laboratory of <unk> Hygiene placed 32 conscientious objectors on a controlled diet . For three months they were given a normal 3 @,@ 200 calories ( 13 @,@ 000 <unk> ) diet . This was followed by six months of an 1 @,@ 800 calories ( 7 @,@ 500 <unk> ) diet , fewer calories than provided by the famine diet experienced by the civilian population in wartime Europe . The research documented the men 's ability to maintain physical output and the psychological effects such as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and severe depression . The study then followed the men 's long recovery as they returned to a normal diet and regained the weight lost during the experimentation . 
 The study provided valuable insights into hunger and starvation and the results were made available to all major relief agencies concerned with postwar food and <unk> problems , helping to inspire the Marshall Plan . 
 
 = = <unk> and impact = = 
 
 Civilian Public Service men were released from their assignments and the camps closed during March 1947 , nineteen months after the end of the war in the Pacific . <unk> in the mental health system continued after the war . The experience of Mennonite COs was instrumental in creating regional mental health facilities in California , Kansas and Maryland . 
 Lewis Hill , who was in CPS camp number 37 near <unk> , California , together with several other COs founded Pacifica Network and <unk> Radio in Berkeley , California , the world 's first listener @-@ sponsored radio station . Poets William Everson and William Stafford were both in CPS camps . Actor Francis ( <unk> ) William Weaver spent time in the Big <unk> ( New York ) CPS Camp number 46 . 
 Men from the historic peace churches volunteered for relief and reconstruction after their release from CPS . The 1947 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American and British Friends Service Committees for their relief work in Europe after the war . Mennonite Central Committee <unk> its effort from camp administration to relief and reconstruction in Europe after the war . 
 Civilian Public Service created a precedent for the Alternative Service Program for conscientious objectors in the United States during the Korean and Vietnam Wars . Although the CPS program was not <unk> , the idea of offering men an opportunity to do " work of national importance " instead of military service was established . 
 
 
 = Ireland = 
 
 Ireland ( / <unk> / ; Irish : <unk> [ <unk> ] ; Ulster @-@ Scots : <unk> [ <unk> ] ) is an island in the North Atlantic . It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel , the Irish Sea , and St George 's Channel . Ireland is the second @-@ largest island of the British Isles , the third @-@ largest in Europe , and the twentieth @-@ largest on Earth . 
 <unk> , Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland ( officially named Ireland ) , which covers five @-@ <unk> of the island , and Northern Ireland , which is part of the United Kingdom , in the northeast of the island . In 2011 the population of Ireland was about 6 @.@ 4 million , ranking it the second @-@ most populous island in Europe after Great Britain . Just under 4 @.@ 6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just over 1 @.@ 8 million live in Northern Ireland . 
 The island 's geography comprises relatively low @-@ lying mountains surrounding a central plain , with several navigable rivers extending inland . The island has lush vegetation , a product of its mild but changeable climate which avoids extremes in temperature . <unk> woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages . As of 2013 , the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11 % of the total , compared with a European average of 35 % . There are twenty @-@ six extant mammal species native to Ireland . The Irish climate is very moderated and classified as oceanic . As a result , winters are <unk> than expected for such a northerly area . However , summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe . Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant . 
 The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD and lasted until the First World War . The island was <unk> from the 5th century onward . Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century , England claimed sovereignty over Ireland . However , English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th – 17th century Tudor conquest , which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain . In the <unk> , a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters , and was extended during the 18th century . With the Acts of Union in 1801 , Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom . A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island , creating the Irish Free State , which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades , and Northern Ireland , which remained a part of the United Kingdom . Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s . This subsided following a political agreement in 1998 . In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom , and Northern Ireland , as part of it , did the same . 
 Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures , especially in the fields of literature . Alongside mainstream Western culture , a strong indigenous culture exists , as expressed through Gaelic games , Irish music , and the Irish language . The culture of the island also shares many features with that of Great Britain , including the English language , and sports such as association football , rugby , horse racing , and golf . 
 
 = = Name = = 
 
 Ireland consists of Old Irish <unk> + English land . <unk> derives from Proto @-@ Celtic * <unk> ( compare Welsh <unk> ) , which is also the source of Latin <unk> . <unk> derives from a root meaning " fat , prosperous " . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Prehistoric Ireland = = = 
 
 During the last glacial period , and up until about 9000 years ago , most of Ireland was covered with ice , most of the time . Sea levels were lower and Ireland , like Great Britain , formed part of continental Europe . By 12 @,@ 000 BC , rising sea levels due to ice melting caused Ireland to become separated from Great Britain . Later , around <unk> BC , Great Britain itself became separated from continental Europe . The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Until recently the earliest evidence of humans in Ireland were Mesolithic people who arrived by boat from Britain between 8000 BC and 7000 BC . 
 From about <unk> BC , Neolithic settlers arrived introducing cereal <unk> , a housing culture ( similar to those of the same period in Scotland ) and stone monuments . A more advanced agriculture was to develop . At the <unk> Fields , preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present @-@ day County Mayo , is an extensive field system , arguably the oldest in the world , dating from not long after this period . <unk> of small divisions separated by dry @-@ stone walls , the fields were farmed for several centuries between <unk> BC and 3000 BC . <unk> and barley were the principal crops imported from the Iberian Peninsula . 
 The Bronze Age – defined by the use of metal – began around 2500 BC , with technology changing people 's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel , <unk> oxen , weaving textiles , <unk> alcohol , and skilful <unk> , which produced new weapons and tools , along with fine gold decoration and jewellery , such as brooches and <unk> . According to John T. Koch and others , Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading @-@ <unk> culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included Britain , western France and Iberia , and that this is where Celtic languages developed . This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the <unk> culture . 
 
 = = = = <unk> of Celtic Ireland = = = = 
 
 During the Iron Age , a Celtic language and culture emerged in Ireland . How and when the island of Ireland became Celtic has been debated for close to a century , with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies . Today , there is more than one school of thought on how this occurred in Ireland . 
 The long @-@ standing traditional view , once widely accepted , is that Celtic language , <unk> script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating Celts from mainland Europe . This theory draws on the <unk> <unk> <unk> , a medieval Christian pseudo @-@ history of Ireland along with the presence of Celtic culture , language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze <unk> , shields , <unk> and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions . The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland . The <unk> were said to be the first , followed by the <unk> from northern Gaul and Britain . Later , <unk> tribes from <unk> ( present @-@ day Brittany ) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously . Lastly , the <unk> ( <unk> ) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul . It was claimed that a second wave named the <unk> , belonging to the <unk> people of northern Gaul , began arriving about the sixth century BC . They were said to have given their name to the island . 
 A more recent theory , with broad support among archaeologists , is that Celtic culture and language arrived in Ireland as a result of cultural <unk> . This theory proposes that the <unk> of Ireland may have been the culmination of a long process of social and economic interaction between Ireland , Britain and adjacent parts of Continental Europe . 
 The theory was advanced in part because of lack of archeological evidence for large @-@ scale Celtic immigration , though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify . Some proponents of this theory hold that it is likely that there was migration of smaller groups of Celts to Ireland , with sufficiently regular traffic to constitute a " migration stream , " but that this was not the fundamental cause of Insular <unk> . Historical linguists are <unk> that this method alone could account for the absorption of the Celtic language , with some saying that an assumed processional view of Celtic linguistic formation is ' an especially hazardous exercise ' . Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in mitochondrial DNA between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe , in contrast to parts of the Y @-@ chromosome pattern . When taking both into account a recent study drew the conclusion that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European " Atlantic Celts " showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European . 
 
 = = = Late antiquity and early medieval times = = = 
 
 The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco @-@ Roman <unk> . Ptolemy in his <unk> refers to Ireland as <unk> <unk> ( Little Britain ) , in contrast to the larger island , which he called <unk> <unk> ( Great Britain ) . In his later work , Geography , Ptolemy refers to Ireland as <unk> and to Great Britain as Albion . These " new " names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time . The earlier names , in contrast , were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made . 
 The Romans would later refer to Ireland by this name too in its <unk> form , <unk> , or Scotia . Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD . The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear . However , a number of finds of Roman coins have been made , for example at the Iron Age settlement of <unk> Hill near <unk> and <unk> . 
 Ireland continued as a <unk> of rival kingdoms but , beginning in the 7th century AD , a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland . Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of High Kings stretching back thousands of years but modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past . 
 The High King was said to <unk> over the provincial kingdoms that together formed Ireland . All of these kingdoms had their own kings but were at least nominally subject to the High King . The High King was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath , with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara . The concept only became a political reality in the Viking Age and even then was not a consistent one . Ireland did have a culturally <unk> rule of law : the early written judicial system , the <unk> Laws , administered by a professional class of jurists known as the <unk> . However , a united kingdom of Gaelic Ireland was never achieved . 
 The Chronicle of Ireland records that in <unk> AD Bishop <unk> arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish " already believing in Christ " . The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick , Ireland 's best known patron saint , arrived the following year . There is continued debate over the missions of <unk> and Patrick but the consensus is that they both took place and that the older <unk> tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion . Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology . In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland , Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Europe , where the Dark Ages followed the decline of the Roman Empire . 
 The arts of manuscript illumination , <unk> and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells , ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses that still dot the island today . A mission founded in <unk> on Iona by the Irish monk Saint Columba began a tradition of Irish missionary work that spread Celtic Christianity and learning to Scotland , England and the Frankish Empire on Continental Europe after the fall of Rome . These missions continued until the late Middle Ages , establishing monasteries and centres of learning , producing scholars such as <unk> <unk> and Johannes <unk> and <unk> much influence in Europe . 
 From the 9th century , waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns . These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep @-@ seated in Ireland . The Vikings also were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland : Dublin , Limerick , Cork , Wexford , Waterford , and also <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> Foyle and <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = Norman and English invasions = = = 
 
 On 1 May <unk> , an expedition of <unk> @-@ Norman knights with an army of about six hundred landed at <unk> Strand in present @-@ day County Wexford . It was led by Richard de Clare , called <unk> due to his prowess as an archer . The invasion , which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion , was at the invitation of <unk> Mac <unk> , the king of Leinster . 
 In 1166 , Mac <unk> had fled to <unk> , France , following a war involving <unk> Ua <unk> , of <unk> , and sought the assistance of the <unk> king , Henry II , in <unk> his kingdom . In <unk> , Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition . He wanted to re @-@ exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control . Henry successfully re @-@ imposed his authority over <unk> and the <unk> @-@ Norman <unk> and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord , an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor . 
 The invasion was <unk> by the provisions of the Papal Bull <unk> , issued by Adrian IV in 1155 . The bull encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church and its integration into the Roman Church system . Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the <unk> of Kells in <unk> . There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of <unk> , and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery . 
 In <unk> , the new pope , Alexander III , further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome . Henry was authorised to impose a <unk> of one <unk> per hearth as an annual contribution . This church levy , called Peter 's <unk> , is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation . In turn , Henry accepted the title of Lord of Ireland which Henry conferred on his younger son , John <unk> , in <unk> . This defined the Irish state as the Lordship of Ireland . When Henry 's successor died unexpectedly in <unk> , John inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland . 
 Over the century that followed , Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic <unk> Law so that by the late 13th century the Norman @-@ Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland . Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of <unk> , <unk> , towns and the seeds of the modern county system . A version of the Magna <unk> ( the Great Charter of Ireland ) , <unk> Dublin for London and Irish Church for Church of England , was published in 1216 and the Parliament of Ireland was founded in <unk> . 
 From the mid @-@ 14th century , after the Black Death , Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline . The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish <unk> <unk> and the areas under Norman rule became <unk> . In some parts , a hybrid Hiberno @-@ Norman culture emerged . In response , the Irish parliament passed the <unk> of Kilkenny in <unk> . These were a set of laws designed to prevent the <unk> of the <unk> into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English , follow English customs and abide by English law . 
 By the end of the 15th century central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared and a renewed Irish culture and language , albeit with Norman influences , was dominant again . English Crown control remained relatively <unk> in an <unk> foothold around Dublin known as The <unk> , and under the provisions of <unk> ' Law of <unk> , the Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Parliament . 
 
 = = = The Kingdom of Ireland = = = 
 
 The title of King of Ireland was re @-@ created in 1542 by Henry VIII , then King of England , of the Tudor dynasty . English rule of law was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century , leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland . A near complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century , following the Nine Years ' War and the Flight of the Earls . 
 This control was further consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century , which witnessed English and Scottish colonisation in the <unk> of Ireland , the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the <unk> War . Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms ( which , in Ireland , included the Irish Confederacy and the <unk> conquest of Ireland ) are estimated to include 20 @,@ 000 battlefield casualties . 200 @,@ 000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war @-@ related famine , displacement , guerrilla activity and pestilence over the duration of the war . A further 50 @,@ 000 were sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies . Some historians estimate that as much as half of the pre @-@ war population of Ireland may have died as a result of the conflict . 
 The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland . Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament . After the passing of the Test Act 1672 , and with the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the <unk> , Roman Catholics and <unk> Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament . Under the emerging <unk> Laws , Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various and <unk> civil rights even to the ownership of hereditary property . Additional <unk> punitive legislation followed 1703 , <unk> and <unk> . This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters , while <unk> a new ruling class of Anglican conformists . The new Anglo @-@ Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant <unk> . 
 An extraordinary climatic shock known as the " Great Frost " struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December <unk> and September 1741 , after a decade of relatively mild winters . The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples and the poor summers severely damaged <unk> . This resulted in the famine of 1740 . An estimated 250 @,@ 000 people ( about one in eight of the population ) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease . The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more . Local <unk> and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality . 
 In the aftermath of the famine , an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms . The population soared in the latter part of this century and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built . In 1782 , <unk> ' Law was repealed , giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since <unk> . The British government , however , still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament . 
 
 = = = Union with Great Britain = = = 
 
 In 1798 , members of the Protestant <unk> tradition ( mainly Presbyterian ) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United <unk> , with the aim of creating an independent Ireland . Despite assistance from France the rebellion was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces . In 1800 , the British and Irish parliaments both passed Acts of Union that , with effect from 1 January 1801 , merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . 
 The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial <unk> , having failed on the first attempt in <unk> . According to contemporary documents and historical analysis , this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery , with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office , and the <unk> of <unk> , places and honours to secure votes . Thus , the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a united parliament at Westminster in London , though resistance remained , as evidenced by Robert Emmet 's failed Irish Rebellion of 1803 . 
 Aside from the development of the linen industry , Ireland was largely passed over by the industrial revolution , partly because it lacked coal and iron resources and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England , which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital . 
 The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it . By the end of the decade , half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland . The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War . Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid @-@ 20th century . Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8 @.@ 2 million by the 1841 census . The population has never returned to this level since . The population continued to fall until 1961 and it was not until the 2006 census that the last county of Ireland ( County <unk> ) to record a rise in population since 1841 did so . 
 The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism , primarily among the Roman Catholic population . The pre @-@ eminent Irish political figure after the Union was Daniel O 'Connell . He was elected as Member of Parliament for Ennis in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic . O 'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister , the Irish @-@ born soldier and statesman , the Duke of Wellington . <unk> the Catholic Relief Bill through Parliament , aided by future prime minister Robert Peel , Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law . George 's father had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister , Pitt the Younger , to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801 , fearing Catholic <unk> to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701 . 
 Daniel O 'Connell led a subsequent campaign , for the repeal of the Act of Union , which failed . Later in the century , Charles Stewart <unk> and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union , or " Home Rule " . <unk> , especially those located in Ulster , were strongly opposed to Home Rule , which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests . After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament , it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914 . To prevent this from happening , the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Edward Carson . 
 Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers , whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed . The Act was passed but with the " temporary " exclusion of the six counties of Ulster that would become Northern Ireland . Before it could be implemented , however , the Act was suspended for the duration of the First World War . The Irish Volunteers split into two groups . The majority , approximately 175 @,@ 000 in number , under John <unk> , took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war . A minority , approximately 13 @,@ 000 , retained the Irish Volunteers ' name , and opposed Ireland 's involvement in the war . 
 The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia , the Irish Citizen Army . The British response , executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and <unk> or <unk> more than a thousand people , turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels . Support for Irish <unk> increased further due to the ongoing war in Europe , as well as the Conscription Crisis of 1918 . 
 The pro @-@ independence republican party , <unk> <unk> , received overwhelming endorsement in the general election of 1918 , and in 1919 proclaimed an Irish Republic , setting up its own parliament ( Dáil <unk> ) and government . Simultaneously the Volunteers , which became known as the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , launched a three @-@ year guerrilla war , which ended in a truce in July 1921 ( although violence continued until June 1922 , mostly in Northern Ireland ) . 
 
 = = = Partition = = = 
 
 In December 1921 , the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty was concluded between the British Government and representatives of the Second Dáil . It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy , but an opt @-@ out clause allowed Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom , which it immediately exercised as expected . Additionally , an oath of allegiance to the King was to be taken . <unk> over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty , led by <unk> de Valera . The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease @-@ fire order . 
 
 = = = = Independence = = = = 
 
 During its first decade , the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war . When de Valera achieved power , he took advantage of the <unk> of Westminster and political circumstances to build upon <unk> to greater sovereignty made by the previous government . The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted . This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence . However , it was not until 1949 that the state was declared , officially , to be the Republic of Ireland . 
 The state was neutral during World War II , but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies , particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland . Despite their country 's neutrality , approximately 50 @,@ 000 volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war , four being awarded Victoria Crosses . 
 The <unk> was also active in Ireland . German intelligence operations effectively ended in September 1941 when police made arrests on the basis of surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic <unk> in Dublin , including that of the United States . To the authorities , <unk> was a fundamental line of defence . With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war , and with limited supplies of modern weapons , the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict . 
 Large @-@ scale emigration marked most of the post @-@ WWII period ( particularly during the 1950s and 1980s ) , but beginning in 1987 the economy improved , and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth . This period of growth became known as the Celtic Tiger . The Republic 's real GDP grew by an average of 9 @.@ 6 % per annum between 1995 and 1999 , in which year the Republic joined the euro . In 2000 , it was the sixth @-@ richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita . 
 Social changes also occurred in this time , most markedly with the decline in authority of the Catholic Church . The financial crisis that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom . GDP fell by 3 % in 2008 and by 7 @.@ 1 % in 2009 , the worst year since records began ( although earnings by foreign @-@ owned businesses continued to grow ) . The state has since experienced deep recession , with unemployment , which doubled during 2009 , remaining above 14 % in 2012 . 
 
 = = = = Northern Ireland = = = = 
 
 Northern Ireland was created as a division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and until 1972 it was a self @-@ governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister . Northern Ireland , as part of the United Kingdom , was not neutral during the Second World War and Belfast suffered four bombing raids in 1941 . Conscription was not extended to Northern Ireland and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the south . One , James Joseph <unk> , received the Victoria Cross for <unk> . 
 Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the <unk> of the civil war , in decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter @-@ communal violence . Nationalists , mainly Roman Catholic , wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic , whereas unionists , mainly Protestant , wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom . The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines , meaning that the Government of Northern Ireland ( elected by " first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post " from 1929 ) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party . Over time , the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further <unk> fuelled by practices such as <unk> and discrimination in housing and employment . 
 In the late 1960s , nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests , which were often confronted by loyalist counter @-@ protests . The government 's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one @-@ sided and heavy @-@ handed in favour of unionists . Law and order broke down as unrest and inter @-@ communal violence increased . The Northern Ireland government requested the British Army to aid the police , who were exhausted after several nights of serious rioting . In 1969 , the paramilitary Provisional IRA , which favoured the creation of a united Ireland , emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army and began a campaign against what it called the " British occupation of the six counties " . 
 Other groups , on both the unionist side and the nationalist side , participated in violence and a period known as the Troubles began . Over 3 @,@ 600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict . Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles , the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule . There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically , such as the <unk> Agreement of 1973 . In 1998 , following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi @-@ party talks , the Good Friday Agreement was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments , <unk> the text agreed in the multi @-@ party talks . 
 The substance of the Agreement ( formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement ) was later endorsed by <unk> in both parts of Ireland . The Agreement restored self @-@ government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power @-@ sharing in a regional Executive drawn from the major parties in a new Northern Ireland Assembly , with entrenched <unk> for the two main communities . The Executive is jointly headed by a First Minister and deputy First Minister drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties . Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist <unk> in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its <unk> and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations . 
 The Assembly and power @-@ sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007 . In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland ( Operation Banner ) and began withdrawing troops . On 27 June 2012 , Northern Ireland 's deputy first minister and former IRA commander , Martin McGuinness , shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast , symbolising reconciliation between the two sides . 
 
 = = Politics = = 
 
 <unk> , the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland , an independent state , and Northern Ireland ( a constituent country of the United Kingdom ) . They share an open border and both are part of the Common Travel Area . 
 Both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom are members of the European Union , and as a consequence there is free movement of people , goods , services and capital across the border . 
 
 = = = Republic of Ireland = = = 
 
 The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy based on the British model , with a written constitution and a popularly elected president who has mostly ceremonial powers . The government is headed by a prime minister , the <unk> , who is appointed by the President on the nomination of the lower house of parliament , the Dáil . Members of the government are chosen from both the Dáil and the upper house of parliament , the <unk> . Its capital is Dublin . 
 The Republic today ranks amongst the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita and in 2012 was ranked the seventh most developed nation in the world by the United Nations ' Human Development Index . A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the Celtic Tiger period , was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented financial crisis and an economic depression in 2009 . 
 
 = = = Northern Ireland = = = 
 
 Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local executive and assembly which exercise devolved powers . The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy @-@ first minister , with the <unk> being allocated in proportion with each party 's representation in the assembly . Its capital is Belfast . 
 Ultimately political power is held by the UK government , from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended . Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK House of Commons ' 650 MPs . The Northern Ireland Secretary is a cabinet @-@ level post in the British government . 
 Along with England , Wales and Scotland , Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK , all of which share the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom as their court of final appeal . 
 
 = = = All @-@ island institutions = = = 
 
 As part of the Good Friday Agreement , the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all @-@ island institutions and areas of cooperation . 
 The North / South <unk> Council is an institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive agree all @-@ island policies . At least six of these policy areas must have an associated all @-@ island " implementation bodies " and at least six others must be implemented separately in each jurisdiction . The implementation bodies are : Waterways Ireland , the Food Safety Promotion Board , <unk> , the Special European Union Programmes Body , the North / South Language Body and the Foyle , <unk> and Irish Lights Commission . 
 The British – Irish <unk> Conference provides for co @-@ operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on all matter of mutual interest , especially Northern Ireland . In light of the Republic 's particular interest in the governance of Northern Ireland , " regular and frequent " meetings co @-@ chaired by the <unk> Minister for Foreign Affairs and the UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland , dealing with non @-@ devolved matters to do with Northern Ireland and non @-@ devolved all @-@ Ireland issues , are required to take place under the establishing treaty . 
 The North / South Inter @-@ Parliamentary Association is a joint parliamentary forum for the island of Ireland . It has no formal powers but operates as a forum for discussing matters of common concern between the respective legislatures . 
 
 = = Economy = = 
 
 Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies ( the euro and pound sterling ) , a growing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all @-@ Ireland basis . This has been facilitated by the two jurisdictions ' shared membership of the European Union , and there have been calls from members of the business community and <unk> for the creation of an " all @-@ Ireland economy " to take advantage of economies of scale and boost competitiveness . 
 There are two multi @-@ city regions on the island of Ireland : 
 Dublin @-@ Belfast corridor - 3 @.@ 3 m 
 Cork @-@ Limerick @-@ Galway corridor - 1 m 
 Below is a comparison of the Regional GDP on the island of Ireland . 
 The BMW region of the Republic of Ireland ( consisting of <unk> , Counties <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Longford , Donegal , Monaghan , <unk> , <unk> ) 
 The S & E region of the Republic of Ireland ( consisting of Munster , Counties Dublin , <unk> , Meath , Kildare , Kilkenny , <unk> , Wexford ) . 
 
 = = = Energy = = = 
 
 Ireland has an ancient industry based on peat ( known locally as " turf " ) as a source of energy for home fires . A form of <unk> energy , this source of heat is still widely used in rural areas . However , due to the ecological importance of <unk> in storing carbon and their rarity , the EU is attempting to protect this habitat by fining Ireland if they are dug up . In cities , heat is generally supplied by heating oil , although some urban suppliers distribute " <unk> of turf " as " <unk> fuel " . 
 An area in which the island operates as a single market is electricity . For much of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate . Both networks were designed and constructed independently post partition . However , as a result of changes over recent years they are now connected with three <unk> and also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe . The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying Northern Ireland Electricity ( <unk> ) with enough power . In the Republic of Ireland , the <unk> has failed to <unk> its power stations and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66 % , one of the worst such rates in Western Europe . <unk> is building a <unk> transmission line between Ireland and Great Britain with a capacity of 500 MW , about 10 % of Ireland 's peak demand . 
 As with electricity , the natural gas distribution network is also now all @-@ island , with a pipeline linking <unk> , County Meath , and <unk> , County Antrim completed in 2007 . Most of Ireland 's gas comes through <unk> between <unk> in Scotland and <unk> , County Antrim and <unk> , County Dublin . A decreasing supply is coming from the <unk> gas field off the County Cork coast and the <unk> Gas Field off the coast of County Mayo has yet to come on @-@ line . The County Mayo field is facing some localised opposition over a controversial decision to refine the gas onshore . 
 The Republic of Ireland has shown a strong commitment to renewable energy , ranking as one of the top 10 markets for <unk> investment in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index . Research and development in Ireland in renewable energy such as wind power has increased since 2004 . Large wind farms are being constructed in coastal counties such as Cork , Donegal , Mayo and Antrim . The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities , some of whom overall consider the wind turbines to be <unk> . The Republic of Ireland is also hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms . The <unk> 's <unk> Hill facility is the only power @-@ storage facility in the state . 
 
 = = Geography = = 
 
 The island of Ireland is located in the north @-@ west of Europe , between latitudes 51 ° and 56 ° N , and <unk> 11 ° and 5 ° W. It is separated from the neighbouring island of Great Britain by the Irish Sea and the North Channel , which has a width of 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) at its <unk> point . To the west is the northern Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Celtic Sea , which lies between Ireland and Brittany , in France . Ireland has a total area of 84 @,@ <unk> km2 ( 32 @,@ 595 sq mi ) . Ireland and Great Britain , together with many nearby smaller islands , are known collectively as the British Isles . As the term British Isles is controversial in relation to Ireland , the alternate term Britain and Ireland is often used as a neutral term for the islands . 
 A ring of coastal mountains surround low plains at the centre of the island . The highest of these is <unk> ( Irish : <unk> <unk> ) in County Kerry , which rises to 1 @,@ <unk> m ( 3 @,@ 406 ft ) above sea level . The most arable land lies in the province of Leinster . Western areas can be mountainous and rocky with green panoramic <unk> . The River Shannon , the island 's longest river at 386 km ( 240 mi ) long , rises in County <unk> in the north west and flows 113 kilometres ( 70 mi ) to Limerick city in the mid west . 
 The island 's lush vegetation , a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall , earns it the sobriquet the Emerald Isle . Overall , Ireland has a mild but changeable oceanic climate with few extremes . The climate is typically insular and is temperate avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes . This is a result of the <unk> moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the South @-@ Western Atlantic . 
 Precipitation falls throughout the year but is light overall , particularly in the east . The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms , especially in the late autumn and winter months . These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas , as well as sometimes snow and hail . The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island , with lightning occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas . Munster , in the south , records the least snow whereas Ulster , in the north , records the most . 
 Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter . Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) at inland weather stations , compared to 10 days at coastal stations . Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves , most recently in 1995 , 2003 , 2006 and 2013 . In common with the rest of Europe , Ireland experienced unusually cold weather during the winter of 2009 / 10 . Temperatures fell as low as − 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 1 ° F ) in County Mayo on 20 December and up to a metre ( 3 ft ) of snow fell in mountainous areas . 
 The island consists of varied geological provinces . In the far west , around County Galway and County Donegal , is a medium to high grade <unk> and igneous complex of <unk> affinity , similar to the Scottish Highlands . Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to Longford and south to <unk> is a province of Ordovician and <unk> rocks , with similarities to the Southern <unk> province of Scotland . Further south , along the County Wexford coastline , is an area of granite <unk> into more Ordovician and <unk> rocks , like that found in Wales . 
 In the southwest , around <unk> Bay and the mountains of <unk> 's <unk> , is an area of substantially deformed , but only lightly <unk> , Devonian @-@ aged rocks . This partial ring of " hard rock " geology is covered by a blanket of <unk> limestone over the centre of the country , giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape . The west @-@ coast district of the <unk> around <unk> has well @-@ developed <unk> features . Significant <unk> lead @-@ zinc <unk> is found in the <unk> around <unk> and <unk> . 
 <unk> exploration is ongoing following the first major find at the <unk> Head gas field off Cork in the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1999 , economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the <unk> Gas Field off the County Mayo coast . This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the " West of Shetland " step @-@ out development from the North Sea <unk> province . The <unk> oil field , estimated to contain over 28 million barrels ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , is another recent discovery . 
 <unk> 
 
 = = = Places of interest = = = 
 
 There are three World Heritage Sites on the island : the <unk> na <unk> , <unk> Michael and the Giant 's Causeway . A number of other places are on the tentative list , for example the <unk> , the <unk> Fields and Mount Stewart . 
 Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include <unk> Castle , the Rock of <unk> , the <unk> of <unk> , Holy Cross Abbey and <unk> Castle . Historically important monastic sites include <unk> and Clonmacnoise , which are maintained as national monuments in the Republic of Ireland . 
 Dublin is the most heavily <unk> region and home to several of the most popular attractions such as the Guinness <unk> and Book of Kells . The west and south west , which includes the Lakes of Killarney and the <unk> peninsula in County Kerry and <unk> and the <unk> Islands in County Galway , are also popular tourist destinations . 
 <unk> Island lies off the coast of County Mayo and is Ireland 's largest island . It is a popular tourist destination for surfing and contains 5 Blue Flag beaches and <unk> one of the worlds highest sea cliffs . <unk> homes , built during the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries in <unk> , <unk> and neo @-@ Gothic styles , such as , Castle Ward , <unk> House , <unk> House , <unk> Castle are also of interest to tourists . Some have been converted into hotels , such as <unk> Castle , Castle Leslie and <unk> Castle . 
 World Heritage Sites 
 
 = = Flora and fauna = = 
 
 Because Ireland became isolated from mainland Europe by rising sea levels before the last ice age had completely finished , it has fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain , which separated later , or mainland Europe . There are 55 mammal species in Ireland and of them only 26 land mammal species are considered native to Ireland . Some species , such as , the red fox , <unk> and <unk> , are very common , whereas others , like the Irish hare , red deer and pine <unk> are less so . <unk> wildlife , such as species of sea turtle , shark , seal , whale , and <unk> , are common off the coast . About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland . Many of these are migratory , including the barn swallow . 
 Several different habitat types are found in Ireland , including farmland , open woodland , temperate broadleaf and mixed forests , conifer plantations , peat <unk> and a variety of coastal habitats . However , agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland , limiting natural habitat preserves , particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs . With no large apex predators in Ireland other than humans and dogs , such populations of animals as semi @-@ wild deer that cannot be controlled by smaller predators , such as the fox , are controlled by annual culling . 
 There are no snakes in Ireland and only one species of reptile ( the common lizard ) is native to the island . Extinct species include the Irish elk , the great <unk> and the wolf . Some previously extinct birds , such as the golden eagle , been reintroduced in about the year 2000 after decades of <unk> . Until medieval times Ireland was heavily forested with oak , pine and birch . <unk> today cover about 12 @.@ 6 % of Ireland , of which 4 @,@ 450 km ² or one million acres is owned by <unk> , the Republic 's forestry service . 
 As of 2012 the Republic is one of the least forested countries in Europe . Much of the land is now covered with pasture and there are many species of wild @-@ flower . <unk> ( <unk> europaeus ) , a wild <unk> , is commonly found growing in the <unk> and <unk> are plentiful in the more moist regions , especially in the western parts . It is home to hundreds of plant species , some of them unique to the island , and has been " invaded " by some grasses , such as <unk> <unk> . 
 The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold @-@ temperate variety . The total number of species is <unk> and is distributed as follows : 
 264 <unk> ( red algae ) 
 152 <unk> ( brown algae including <unk> ) 
 114 <unk> ( green algae ) 
 31 <unk> ( Blue @-@ green algae ) 
 <unk> species include : 
 <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) <unk> & Guiry 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> & Guiry 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> & Guiry 
 <unk> <unk> Rico & Guiry 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> & <unk> ex <unk> . 
 The island has been invaded by some algae , some of which are now well established . For example : 
 <unk> <unk> Harvey , which originated in Australia and was first recorded by M. De Valera in 1939 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> , which is now locally abundant and first recorded in the 1930s 
 <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) <unk> , now well established in a number of localities on the south , west , and north @-@ east coasts 
 <unk> fragile ssp. fragile ( formerly reported as ssp. <unk> ) , now well established . 
 <unk> fragile ssp. <unk> has been established to be native , although for many years it was regarded as an alien species . 
 Because of its mild climate , many species , including sub @-@ tropical species such as palm trees , are grown in Ireland . <unk> , Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the <unk> Region within the <unk> Kingdom . The island itself can be subdivided into two <unk> : the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests . 
 
 = = = Impact of agriculture = = = 
 
 The long history of agricultural production , coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as <unk> and fertiliser use and runoff from <unk> into streams , rivers and lakes , impact the natural fresh @-@ water ecosystems and have placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland . 
 A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species . <unk> , however , traditionally used for maintaining and <unk> land boundaries , act as a refuge for native wild flora . This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and acts as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island . <unk> under the Common Agricultural Policy , which supported agricultural practices that preserved <unk> environments , are undergoing reforms . The Common Agricultural Policy had in the past <unk> potentially destructive agricultural practices , for example by emphasising production without placing limits on indiscriminate use of <unk> and <unk> ; but reforms have gradually <unk> subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements . 
 Forest covers about 12 @.@ 6 % of the country , most of it designated for commercial production . Forested areas typically consist of <unk> plantations of non @-@ native species , which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates . Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island , in particular in the Killarney National Park . Natural areas require fencing to prevent over @-@ grazing by deer and sheep that <unk> over <unk> areas . <unk> in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country . 
 
 = = Demographics = = 
 
 People have lived in Ireland for over 9 @,@ 000 years . The different eras are termed <unk> , <unk> , Bronze Age , and Iron Age . 
 Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of major groups such as the <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Dál Riata , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Ulaid . <unk> later major groups included the <unk> , <unk> , <unk> . 
 Smaller groups included the <unk> ( see <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Fir <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Uí Maine , Uí <unk> . Many survived into late medieval times , others vanished as they became politically unimportant . 
 Over the past 1200 years , Vikings , <unk> , Welsh , <unk> , Scots , English , Africans , Eastern Europeans and South Americans have all added to the population and have had significant influences on Irish culture . 
 Ireland 's largest religious group is Christianity . The largest denomination is Roman Catholicism representing over 73 % for the island ( and about 87 % of the Republic of Ireland ) . Most of the rest of the population <unk> to one of the various Protestant denominations ( about 48 % of Northern Ireland ) . The largest is the Anglican Church of Ireland . The Muslim community is growing in Ireland , mostly through increased immigration , with a 50 % increase in the republic between the 2006 and 2011 census . The island has a small Jewish community . About 4 % of the Republic 's population and about 14 % of the Northern Ireland population describe themselves as of no religion . In a 2010 survey conducted on behalf of the Irish Times , 32 % of <unk> said they went to a religious service more than once a week . 
 The population of Ireland rose rapidly from the 16th century until the mid @-@ 19th century , but a devastating famine in the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to <unk> in its immediate wake . Over the following century the population was reduced by over half , at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three @-@ fold . 
 
 = = = Divisions and settlements = = = 
 
 Traditionally , Ireland is subdivided into four provinces : <unk> ( west ) , Leinster ( east ) , Munster ( south ) , and Ulster ( north ) . In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries , Ireland has 32 traditional counties . Twenty @-@ six of these counties are in the Republic of Ireland and six are in Northern Ireland . The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster ( which has nine counties in total ) . As such , Ulster is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland , although the two are not <unk> . 
 In the Republic of Ireland , counties form the basis of the system of local government . Counties Dublin , Cork , Limerick , Galway , Waterford and <unk> have been broken up into smaller administrative areas . However , they are still treated as counties for cultural and some official purposes , for example postal addresses and by the Ordnance Survey Ireland . Counties in Northern Ireland are no longer used for local governmental purposes , but , as in the Republic , their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in cultural or tourism contexts . 
 City status in Ireland is decided by legislative or royal charter . Dublin , with over 1 million residents in the Greater Dublin Area , is the largest city on the island . Belfast , with <unk> @,@ <unk> residents , is the largest city in Northern Ireland . City status does not directly <unk> with population size . For example , Armagh , with 14 @,@ 590 is the seat of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic <unk> of All Ireland and was re @-@ granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 ( having lost that status in local government reforms of 1840 ) . In the Republic of Ireland , Kilkenny , seat of the Butler dynasty , while no longer a city for administrative purposes ( since the 2001 Local Government Act ) , is entitled by law to continue to use the description . 
 
 = = = Migration = = = 
 
 The population of Ireland collapsed dramatically during the second half of the 19th century . A population of over 8 million in 1841 was reduced to slightly more than 4 million by 1921 . In part , the fall in population was due to death from the Great Famine of 1845 to 1852 , which took about 1 million lives . However , by far the greater cause of population decline was the dire economic state of the country which led to an entrenched culture of emigration lasting until the 21st century . 
 Emigration from Ireland in the 19th century contributed to the populations of England , the United States , Canada and Australia , where a large Irish diaspora lives . As of 2006 , 4 @.@ 3 million Canadians , or 14 % of the population , are of Irish descent . As of 2013 , a total of 34 @.@ 5 million Americans claim Irish ancestry . 
 With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century , Ireland became a destination for immigrants . Since the European Union expanded to include Poland in 2004 , Polish people have made up the largest number of immigrants ( over 150 @,@ 000 ) from Central Europe . There has also been significant immigration from Lithuania , the Czech Republic and Latvia . 
 The Republic of Ireland in particular has seen large @-@ scale immigration , with 420 @,@ 000 foreign <unk> as of 2006 , about 10 % of the population . A quarter of births ( 24 percent ) in 2009 were to mothers born outside Ireland . Chinese and <unk> , along with people from other African countries , have accounted for a large proportion of the non – European Union migrants to Ireland . Up to 50 @,@ 000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis . 
 
 = = = Languages = = = 
 
 Two main languages are spoken in Ireland : Irish and English . Both languages have widely contributed to literature . Irish , now a minority but official language of the Republic of Ireland , was the vernacular of the Irish people for over two thousand years and was probably introduced by some sort of proto @-@ Gaelic migration during the Iron Age , possibly earlier . It began to be written down after Christianisation in the 5th century and spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man where it evolved into the Scottish Gaelic and <unk> languages respectively . 
 The Irish language has a vast treasure of written texts from many centuries , and is divided by linguists into Old Irish from the 6th to 10th century , Middle Irish from the 10th to 13th century , Early Modern Irish until the 17th century , and the Modern Irish spoken today . It remained the dominant language of Ireland for most of those periods , having influences from Latin , Old Norse , French and English . It declined under British rule but remained the majority tongue until the early 19th century , and since then has been a minority language , although revival efforts are continuing in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland . 
 Gaeltacht or Irish @-@ speaking areas are still seeing a decline in the language . The main Gaeltacht areas are down the west of the country , in Donegal , Mayo , Galway and Kerry with smaller Gaeltacht areas near <unk> in Waterford , <unk> , in Meath , and the Shaw 's Road in Belfast . Irish language is a compulsory subject in the state education system in the Republic , and the <unk> movement has seen many Irish medium schools established in both jurisdictions . 
 English was first introduced to Ireland in the Norman invasion . It was spoken by a few peasants and merchants brought over from England , and was largely replaced by Irish before the Tudor Conquest of Ireland . It was introduced as the official language with the Tudor and <unk> conquests . The Ulster plantations gave it a permanent foothold in Ulster , and it remained the official and upper @-@ class language elsewhere , the Irish @-@ speaking chieftains and nobility having been deposed . Language shift during the 19th century replaced Irish with English as the first language for a vast majority of the population . 
 Less than 10 % of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish regularly outside of the education system and 38 % of those over 15 years are classified as " Irish speakers " . In Northern Ireland , English is the de facto official language , but official recognition is afforded to Irish , including specific protective measures under Part III of the European Charter for Regional or <unk> Languages . A lesser status ( including recognition under Part II of the Charter ) is given to Ulster Scots dialects , which are spoken by roughly 2 % of Northern Ireland residents , and also spoken by some in the Republic of Ireland . Since the 1960s with the increase in immigration , many more languages have been introduced , particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe . 
 
 = = Culture = = 
 
 Ireland 's culture comprises elements of the culture of ancient peoples , later immigrant and broadcast cultural influences ( chiefly Gaelic culture , <unk> , <unk> and aspects of broader European culture ) . In broad terms , Ireland is regarded as one of the Celtic nations of Europe , alongside Scotland , Wales , Cornwall , Isle of Man and Brittany . This combination of cultural influences is visible in the intricate designs termed Irish interlace or Celtic <unk> . These can be seen in the ornamentation of medieval religious and secular works . The style is still popular today in jewellery and graphic art , as is the distinctive style of traditional Irish music and dance , and has become indicative of modern " Celtic " culture in general . 
 Religion has played a significant role in the cultural life of the island since ancient times ( and since the 17th century plantations , has been the focus of political identity and divisions on the island ) . Ireland 's pre @-@ Christian heritage fused with the Celtic Church following the missions of Saint Patrick in the 5th century . The Hiberno @-@ Scottish missions , begun by the Irish monk Saint Columba , spread the Irish vision of Christianity to pagan England and the Frankish Empire . These missions brought written language to an illiterate population of Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the fall of Rome , earning Ireland the sobriquet , " the island of saints and scholars " . 
 Since the 20th century the Irish <unk> worldwide have become , especially those with a full range of cultural and <unk> offerings , outposts of Irish culture . 
 The Republic of Ireland 's national theatre is the Abbey Theatre , which was founded in 1904 , and the national Irish @-@ language theatre is An <unk> , which was established in 1928 in Galway . <unk> such as <unk> O <unk> , Brian <unk> , Sebastian Barry , <unk> McPherson and Billy Roche are internationally renowned . 
 
 = = = Arts = = = 
 
 Ireland has made a large contribution to world literature in all its branches , particularly in the English language . Poetry in Irish is among the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe , with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century . In English , Jonathan Swift , still often called the foremost <unk> in the English language , was very popular in his day for works such as <unk> 's <unk> and A Modest <unk> , and Oscar Wilde is known most for his often quoted witticisms . 
 In the 20th century , Ireland produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature : George Bernard Shaw , William Butler Yeats , Samuel <unk> and Seamus Heaney . Although not a Nobel Prize winner , James Joyce is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century . Joyce 's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of <unk> literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as " <unk> " . Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage through writers such as John <unk> and poets such as Seamus Heaney . 
 Music has been in evidence in Ireland since prehistoric times . Although in the early Middle Ages the church was " quite unlike its counterpart in continental Europe " , there was considerable interchange between monastic settlements in Ireland and the rest of Europe that contributed to what is known as Gregorian chant . Outside religious establishments , musical genres in early Gaelic Ireland are referred to as a triad of weeping music ( <unk> ) , laughing music ( <unk> ) and sleeping music ( <unk> ) . Vocal and instrumental music ( e.g. for the <unk> , pipes , and various string instruments ) was transmitted orally , but the Irish <unk> , in particular , was of such significance that it became Ireland 's national symbol . Classical music following European models first developed in urban areas , in establishments of Anglo @-@ Irish rule such as Dublin Castle , St Patrick 's Cathedral and Christ Church as well as the country houses of the Anglo @-@ Irish ascendancy , with the first performance of Handel 's <unk> ( 1742 ) being among the highlights of the <unk> era . In the 19th century , public concerts provided access to classical music to all classes of society . Yet , for political and financial reasons Ireland has been too small to provide a living to many musicians , so the names of the better @-@ known Irish composers of this time belong to emigrants . 
 Irish traditional music and dance has seen a surge in popularity and global coverage since the 1960s . In the middle years of the 20th century , as Irish society was <unk> , traditional music had fallen out of favour , especially in urban areas . However during the 1960s , there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as The Dubliners , The <unk> , The Wolfe Tones , the Clancy Brothers , <unk> 's Men and individuals like <unk> <unk> <unk> and Christy Moore . Groups and musicians including <unk> , Van Morrison and <unk> <unk> incorporated elements of Irish traditional music into contemporary rock music and , during the 1970s and 1980s , the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred , with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing . This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like <unk> , The Saw Doctors , The <unk> , <unk> O 'Connor , <unk> , The <unk> and The <unk> among others . Since then there have been a number of stylistic <unk> including folk metal and others , while some contemporary music groups stick closer to a " traditional " sound . 
 The earliest known Irish graphic art and sculpture are Neolithic carvings found at sites such as <unk> and is traced through Bronze age artefacts and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the medieval period . During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries , a strong tradition of painting emerged , including such figures as John Butler Yeats , William <unk> , Jack Yeats and Louis le <unk> . Contemporary Irish visual artists of note include Sean Scully , Kevin <unk> , and Alice <unk> . 
 
 = = = Science = = = 
 
 The Irish philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus <unk> was considered one of the leading intellectuals of his early Middle Ages . Sir Ernest Henry <unk> , an Irish explorer , was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration . He , along with his expedition , made the first ascent of Mount <unk> and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole . Robert Boyle was a 17th @-@ century natural philosopher , chemist , physicist , inventor and early gentleman scientist . He is largely regarded one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of Boyle 's law . 
 19th century physicist , John Tyndall , discovered the Tyndall effect . Father Nicholas Joseph <unk> , Professor of Natural Philosophy in <unk> College , is best known for his invention of the induction coil , <unk> and he discovered an early method of <unk> in the 19th century . 
 Other notable Irish physicists include Ernest Walton , winner of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics . With Sir John Douglas <unk> , he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of wave equation . William Thomson , or Lord Kelvin , is the person whom the absolute temperature unit , the Kelvin , is named after . Sir Joseph <unk> , a physicist and mathematician , made innovations in the understanding of electricity , dynamics , <unk> and the electron theory of matter . His most influential work was <unk> and <unk> , a book on theoretical physics published in 1900 . 
 George Johnstone <unk> introduced the term electron in 1891 . John Stewart Bell was the originator of Bell 's <unk> and a paper concerning the discovery of the Bell @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> anomaly and was nominated for a Nobel prize . Notable mathematicians include Sir William Rowan Hamilton , famous for work in classical mechanics and the invention of <unk> . Francis <unk> Edgeworth 's contribution of the Edgeworth Box remains influential in neo @-@ classical <unk> theory to this day ; while Richard <unk> inspired Adam Smith , among others . John B. <unk> was a specialist in number theory and discovered a 2000 @-@ digit prime number in 1999 and a record composite <unk> number in 2003 . John <unk> <unk> made progress in different fields of science , including mechanics and <unk> methods in general relativity . He had mathematician John Nash as one of his students . 
 Ireland has nine universities , seven in the Republic of Ireland and two in Northern Ireland , including Trinity College , Dublin and the University College Dublin , as well as numerous third @-@ level colleges and institutes and a branch of the Open University , the Open University in Ireland . 
 
 = = = Sports = = = 
 
 The island of Ireland fields a single international team in most sports . One notable exception to this is association football , although both associations continued to field international teams under the name " Ireland " until the 1950s . An all @-@ Ireland club competition for soccer , the <unk> Cup , was created in 2005 . 
 Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement , with about 2 @,@ 600 clubs on the island . In 2003 it represented 34 % of total sports <unk> at events in Ireland and abroad , followed by hurling at 23 % , soccer at 16 % and rugby at 8 % and the All @-@ Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in the sporting calendar . Soccer is the most widely played team game on the island , and the most popular in Northern Ireland . <unk> , golf , aerobics , soccer , cycling , Gaelic football and <unk> / <unk> are the sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation . The sport is also the most notable exception where the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland field separate international teams . Northern Ireland has produced two World <unk> Champions . 
 Many other sports are also played and followed , including basketball , boxing , cricket , fishing , greyhound racing , <unk> , hockey , horse racing , motor sport , show jumping and tennis . 
 
 = = = = Field sports = = = = 
 
 Gaelic football , hurling and <unk> are the best @-@ known of the Irish traditional sports , collectively known as Gaelic games . Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association ( GAA ) , with the exception of ladies ' Gaelic football and <unk> ( women 's variant of hurling ) , which are governed by separate organisations . The headquarters of the GAA ( and the main stadium ) is located at the 82 @,@ 500 capacity <unk> Park in north Dublin . Many major GAA games are played there , including the semi @-@ finals and finals of the All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship and All @-@ Ireland Senior <unk> Championship . During the redevelopment of the Lansdowne Road stadium in 2007 – 10 , international rugby and soccer were played there . All GAA players , even at the highest level , are amateurs , receiving no wages , although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport @-@ related income from commercial sponsorship . 
 The Irish Football Association ( IFA ) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island . The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s , with <unk> F.C. in Belfast being Ireland 's oldest club . It was most popular , especially in its first decades , around Belfast and in Ulster . However , some clubs based outside Belfast thought that the IFA largely favoured Ulster @-@ based clubs in such matters as selection for the national team . In 1921 , following an incident in which , despite an earlier promise , the IFA moved an Irish Cup semi @-@ final replay from Dublin to Belfast , Dublin @-@ based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State . Today the southern association is known as the Football Association of Ireland ( FAI ) . Despite being initially <unk> by the Home Nations ' associations , the FAI was recognised by FIFA in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 ( against Italy ) . However , both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland , with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams . Both also referred to their respective teams as Ireland . 
 In 1950 , FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and , in 1953 , directed that the FAI 's team be known only as " Republic of Ireland " and that the IFA 's team be known as " Northern Ireland " ( with certain exceptions ) . Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup finals in 1958 ( reaching the quarter @-@ finals ) , 1982 and 1986 . The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in 1990 ( reaching the quarter @-@ finals ) , 1994 , 2002 and the European Championships in 1988 and 2012 . Across Ireland , there is significant interest in the English and , to a lesser extent , Scottish soccer leagues . 
 Unlike soccer , Ireland continues to field a single national rugby team and a single association , the Irish Rugby Football Union ( <unk> ) , governs the sport across the island . The Irish rugby team have played in every Rugby World Cup , making the quarter @-@ finals in four of them . Ireland also hosted games during the 1991 and the 1999 Rugby World Cups ( including a quarter @-@ final ) . There are four professional Irish teams ; all four play in the <unk> League ( now called the <unk> <unk> ) and at least three compete for the <unk> Cup . Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994 . During that time , Ulster ( 1999 ) , Munster ( 2006 and 2008 ) and Leinster ( 2009 , 2011 and 2012 ) have won the <unk> Cup . In addition to this , the Irish International side has had increased success in the Six Nations Championship against the other European elite sides . This success , including Triple Crowns in 2004 , 2006 and 2007 , culminated with a clean sweep of victories , known as a Grand Slam , in 2009 . 
 
 = = = = Other sports = = = = 
 
 Horse racing and greyhound racing are both popular in Ireland . There are frequent horse race meetings and greyhound stadiums are well @-@ attended . The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs . The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare . 
 Irish athletics has seen a heightened success rate since the year 2000 , with Sonia O <unk> winning two medals at 5 @,@ 000 metres on the track ; gold at the 1995 World Championships and silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics . Gillian O <unk> won silver in the <unk> walk at the 2003 World Championships , while sprint <unk> <unk> O 'Rourke won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow . Olive <unk> won a silver medal in the <unk> walk in the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009 . 
 Ireland has won more medals in boxing than in any other Olympic sport . Boxing is governed by the Irish Amateur Boxing Association . Michael <unk> won a gold medal and Wayne <unk> won a silver medal in the Barcelona Olympic Games and in 2008 Kenneth <unk> won a silver medal in the Beijing Games . Paddy Barnes secured bronze in those games and gold in the 2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships ( where Ireland came 2nd in the overall medal table ) and 2010 Commonwealth Games . Katie Taylor has won gold in every European and World championship since 2005 . In August 2012 at the Olympic Games in London Katie Taylor created history by becoming the first Irish woman to win a gold medal in boxing in the 60 kg lightweight . 
 Golf is very popular and golf tourism is a major industry attracting more than 240 @,@ 000 <unk> visitors annually . The 2006 Ryder Cup was held at The K Club in County Kildare . <unk> Harrington became the first <unk> since Fred Daly in 1947 to win the British Open at <unk> in July 2007 . He successfully defended his title in July 2008 before going on to win the <unk> Championship in August . Harrington became the first European to win the <unk> Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland . Three <unk> from Northern Ireland have been particularly successful . In 2010 , Graeme <unk> became the first Irish golfer to win the U.S. Open , and the first European to win that tournament since 1970 . Rory <unk> , at the age of 22 , won the 2011 U.S. Open , while Darren Clarke 's latest victory was the 2011 Open Championship at Royal St. George 's . In August 2012 , <unk> won his 2nd major championship by winning the <unk> Championship by a record margin of 8 shots . 
 
 = = = = Recreation = = = = 
 
 The west coast of Ireland , <unk> and Donegal Bay in particular , have popular surfing beaches , being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean . Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west / south @-@ west Atlantic winds , creating good surf , especially in winter . Since just before the year 2010 , <unk> has hosted European championship surfing . <unk> diving is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life , particularly along the western seaboard . There are also many <unk> along the coast of Ireland , with some of the best wreck dives being in <unk> Head and off the County Cork coast . 
 With thousands of lakes , over 14 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 700 mi ) of fish bearing rivers and over 3 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 300 mi ) of coastline , Ireland is a popular angling destination . The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling . While salmon and trout fishing remain popular with anglers , salmon fishing in particular received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon <unk> fishery . <unk> fishing continues to increase its profile . Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and <unk> , and the range of sea angling species is around 80 . 
 
 = = = Food and drink = = = 
 
 Food and cuisine in Ireland takes its influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in the island 's temperate climate and from the social and political circumstances of Irish history . For example , whilst from the Middle Ages until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century the dominant feature of the Irish economy was the herding of cattle , the number of cattle a person owned was equated to their social standing . Thus herders would avoid <unk> a milk @-@ producing cow . 
 For this reason , pork and white meat were more common than beef and thick fatty strips of salted <unk> ( or <unk> ) and the eating of salted butter ( i.e. a dairy product rather than beef itself ) have been a central feature of the diet in Ireland since the Middle Ages . The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter ( not unlike the practice of the Maasai ) was common and black pudding , made from blood , grain ( usually barley ) and <unk> , remains a breakfast staple in Ireland . All of these influences can be seen today in the phenomenon of the " breakfast roll " . 
 The introduction of the potato in the second half of the 16th century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter . Great poverty encouraged a subsistence approach to food and by the mid @-@ 19th century the vast majority of the population <unk> with a diet of potatoes and milk . A typical family , consisting of a man , a woman and four children , would eat 18 stone ( 110 kg ) of potatoes a week . Consequently , dishes that are considered as national dishes represent a fundamental <unk> to cooking , such as the Irish <unk> , <unk> and cabbage , <unk> , a type of potato <unk> , or <unk> , a dish of <unk> potatoes and <unk> or cabbage . 
 Since the last quarter of the 20th century , with a re @-@ emergence of wealth in Ireland , a " New Irish <unk> " based on traditional ingredients incorporating international influences has emerged . This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables , fish ( especially salmon , trout , <unk> , <unk> and other <unk> ) , as well as traditional <unk> <unk> and the wide range of hand @-@ made <unk> that are now being produced across the country . The potato remains however a fundamental feature of this cuisine and the Irish remain the highest per capita consumers of potatoes in Europe . An example of this new cuisine is " Dublin <unk> " : lobster cooked in whiskey and cream . Traditional regional foods can be found throughout the country , for example <unk> in Dublin or <unk> in Cork , both a type of sausage , or <unk> , a <unk> white bread particular to Waterford . 
 Ireland once dominated the world 's market for whiskey , producing 90 % of the world 's whiskey at the start of the 20th century . However , as a consequence of <unk> during the prohibition in the United States ( who sold poor @-@ quality whiskey bearing Irish @-@ sounding names thus eroding the pre @-@ prohibition popularity for Irish brands ) and tariffs on Irish whiskey across the British Empire during the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade War of the 1930s , sales of Irish whiskey worldwide fell to a mere 2 % by the mid @-@ 20th century . In 1953 , an Irish government survey , found that 50 per cent of whiskey <unk> in the United States had never heard of Irish whiskey . 
 Irish whiskey , as researched in 2009 by the CNBC American broadcaster , remains popular domestically and has grown in international sales steadily over a few decades . Typically CNBC states Irish whiskey is not as <unk> as a Scotch <unk> , but not as sweet as American or Canadian <unk> . Whiskey forms the basis of traditional cream <unk> , such as <unk> , and the " Irish coffee " ( a cocktail of coffee and whiskey <unk> invented at <unk> flying @-@ boat station ) is probably the best @-@ known Irish cocktail . 
 <unk> , a kind of <unk> beer , particularly Guinness , is typically associated with Ireland , although historically it was more closely associated with London . Porter remains very popular , although it has lost sales since the mid @-@ 20th century to <unk> . Cider , particularly <unk> ( marketed in the Republic of Ireland as <unk> ) , is also a popular drink . Red <unk> , a soft @-@ drink , is consumed on its own and as a mixer , particularly with whiskey . 
 
 
 = St Nazaire Raid = 
 
 The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France during the Second World War . The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the auspices of Combined Operations Headquarters on 28 March 1942 . St Nazaire was targeted because the loss of its dry dock would force any large German warship in need of repairs , such as the Tirpitz , to return to home waters via either the English Channel or the <unk> gap , both of which were heavily defended by British units including the Royal Navy 's Home Fleet , rather than having a haven available on the Atlantic coast . 
 The obsolete destroyer HMS Campbeltown , accompanied by 18 smaller craft , crossed the English Channel to the Atlantic coast of France and was rammed into the Normandie dock gates . The ship had been packed with delayed @-@ action explosives , well hidden within a steel and concrete case , that detonated later that day , putting the dock out of service for the remainder of the war and up to five years after . 
 A force of commandos landed to destroy machinery and other structures . Heavy German gunfire sank , set <unk> or <unk> all the small craft intended to transport the commandos back to England ; the commandos had to fight their way out through the town to try to escape overland . They were forced to surrender when their ammunition was expended and they were surrounded . 
 After the raid 228 men of the force of <unk> returned to Britain ; 169 were killed and 215 became prisoners of war . German casualties were over 360 dead , some killed after the raid when Campbeltown exploded . To recognise their bravery , 89 decorations were awarded to members of the raiding party , including five Victoria Crosses . After the war , St Nazaire was one of 38 battle honours awarded to the Commandos ; the operation has since become known as The Greatest Raid of All within military circles . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire 400 km ( 250 miles ) from the nearest British port . In 1942 , it had a population of 50 @,@ 000 . The St Nazaire port has an outer harbour known as the Avant Port , formed by two piers <unk> out into the Atlantic Ocean . This leads to two lock gates before the Bassin de St Nazaire . These gates control the water level in the basin so that it is not affected by the tide . 
 Beyond the basin is the larger inner dock called the Bassin de <unk> , which can accommodate ships up to 10 @,@ 000 tons . There is also an old entrance to the Bassin de St Nazaire located southwest of the Normandie dry dock . Built to house the ocean liner SS Normandie , this dock was the largest dry dock in the world when it was completed in 1932 . The " Old Mole " jetty <unk> into the Loire halfway between the southern pier of the Avant Port and the old entrance into the basin . 
 On 24 May 1941 , the Battle of the Denmark Strait was fought between the German ships Bismarck and <unk> <unk> and the British ships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Hood . Hood was sunk and the damaged Prince of Wales was forced to retire . Bismarck , also damaged , ordered her consort to proceed independently while she headed for the French port of St Nazaire , which was the only port on the Atlantic coast with a dry dock able to accommodate a ship of her size . She was intercepted by the British and sunk en route . 
 Britain 's Naval Intelligence Division first proposed a commando raid on the dock in late 1941 . When the German battleship Tirpitz was declared operational in January 1942 , the Royal Navy ( RN ) and Royal Air Force ( RAF ) were already drawing up plans to attack her . <unk> from Combined Operations Headquarters were looking at potential scenarios if Tirpitz escaped the naval blockade and reached the Atlantic . They decided the only port able to accommodate her was St Nazaire , especially if , like the Bismarck , she was damaged en route and needed repairs . They came to the conclusion that if the dock at St Nazaire were unavailable the Germans were unlikely to risk sending Tirpitz into the Atlantic . 
 Combined Operations examined a number of options while planning the destruction of the dock . At this stage of the war the British government still tried to avoid civilian casualties . This ruled out a bombing attack by the RAF , which at the time did not possess the accuracy needed to destroy the dock without serious loss of civilian life . 
 The Special Operations Executive were approached to see if its agents could destroy the dock gates . They decided that the mission was beyond their capabilities because the weight of explosives required would have needed too many agents to carry them . The Royal Navy was also unable to mount an operation , as St Nazaire is 8 km ( 5 miles ) up the Loire estuary . Any naval ships large enough to cause sufficient damage would be detected well before they were within range . 
 The planners then examined whether a commando force was feasible to accomplish the task . An unusually high spring tide was due in March 1942 which would allow a light ship to pass over the sand banks in the estuary and approach the docks , bypassing the heavily defended dredged channel . The approach was too shallow for an infantry landing ship , but the planners believed if a destroyer could be lightened it might have a draft shallow enough to enable it to get through . 
 
 = = Plan = = 
 
 The purpose of the raid was to destroy three objectives : the Normandie dock , the old gates into the Bassin de St Nazaire together with the water pumping machinery and other installations , and any U @-@ boats or other shipping in the area . The initial Combined Operations plan required two specially lightened destroyers to carry out the raid . The first would be packed with explosives and rammed into the dock gates . 
 Commandos on board would then disembark and use demolition charges to destroy nearby dock installations , searchlights and gun emplacements . The destroyer would then be blown up , and the second ship would come in and evacuate the ship 's crew and the commandos . At the same time the RAF would carry out a number of diversionary air raids in the area . 
 When the plan was presented to the Admiralty they refused to support it . The certain loss of one or both destroyers to eliminate the dry dock was out of the question . They suggested they could provide an old Free French destroyer , the <unk> , and a flotilla of small motor launches to transport the commandos and evacuate them afterwards . 
 <unk> for the mission , codenamed Operation Chariot , was given on 3 March 1942 . Using a French ship would involve using the Free French forces and increase the number of people aware of the raid . Consequently , it was decided the navy would have to provide a ship of their own . The RAF complained that the raid would draw heavily on their resources ; the number of aircraft assigned by RAF <unk> Command was reduced time and again before the day of the raid . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill further complicated matters when he ordered that bombing should only take place if targets were clearly identified . 
 Combined Operations Headquarters worked closely with several intelligence organisations to plan the raid . The Naval Intelligence Division compiled information from a variety of sources . A detailed plan of the town of St Nazaire was provided by the Secret Intelligence Service , and information on the coastal artillery nearby was sourced from the War Office 's Military Intelligence branch . Intelligence about the dock itself came from pre @-@ war technical journals . 
 The RN 's Operational Intelligence Centre selected the route and timing for the raid based on intelligence about the location of minefields and German recognition signals sourced from <unk> <unk> and knowledge of Luftwaffe patrols compiled by the Air Ministry 's Air Intelligence Branch . When all the plans had been pulled together and the timing worked out , the raid was expected to last no longer than two hours . The commandos and crew from Campbeltown would board the motor launches at the Old Mole jetty and then return to base . 
 
 = = Composition of the raiding force = = 
 
 The revised Combined Operations plan required one destroyer to ram the dock gates and a number of smaller craft to transport the Commandos . The Royal Navy would therefore provide the largest contingent for the raid , under the overall command of the senior naval officer , Commander Robert Ryder . The ship selected to ram into the dock gates was HMS Campbeltown , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Stephen <unk> Beattie . Campbeltown was a First World War destroyer and had previously been the USS Buchanan in the United States Navy . She had come into RN service in 1940 as one of 50 destroyers transferred to the United Kingdom under the Destroyers for <unk> Agreement . 
 <unk> Campbeltown for the raid took ten days . She had to be lightened to raise her draught to get over the sand banks in the estuary . This was achieved by completely stripping all her internal compartments . The dockyard removed her three 4 inch ( 100 mm ) guns , torpedoes and depth charges from the deck and replaced the forward gun with a light quick – firing 12 pounder ( 3 " ) . Eight 20 mm <unk> were installed on mountings raised above deck level . The bridge and <unk> were given extra armour @-@ plate protection , and two rows of armour were fixed along the sides of the ship to protect the Commandos on the open deck . 
 Two of her four funnels were removed , and the forward two were cut at an angle to resemble those of a German destroyer . The bow was packed with 4 @.@ 5 tons of high explosives , which were set in concrete . It was decided that the explosive charge would be timed to <unk> after the raiders had left the harbour . To prevent the Germans <unk> her away , the crew would open the ship 's <unk> before abandoning the ship . Should she become disabled or sunk before getting to the dock , four motor launches had been detailed to take off the crew and put the commandos ashore . The charge would be reset to explode after the last boat had left . 
 Other naval units involved were two Hunt class destroyers , HMS Tynedale ( <unk> ) and Atherstone ( <unk> ) , which would accompany the force to and from the French coast and remain out at sea during the raid . A Motor Gun Boat ( MGB 314 ) was the headquarters ship for the raid , with Commander Ryder and the commanding officer of the Commandos on board . A Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB 74 ) , commanded by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Michael Wynn , had two objectives : If the outer Normandie dock gates were open , she had to torpedo the inner dock gates . If the gates were closed she would instead torpedo the gates at the old entrance into the St Nazaire basin . 
 To assist in transporting the Commandos , 12 motor launches ( ML ) were assigned from the 20th and 28th Motor <unk> flotillas . These boats were re @-@ armed with two Oerlikon 20 mm guns mounted forward and aft to complement their twin Lewis guns . At the last minute another four MLs were assigned from the 7th Motor <unk> flotilla ( see <unk> for flotilla details ) . These four boats were also armed with two torpedoes each . Instead of transporting the Commandos , these boats were to engage any German shipping found in the estuary . All the MLs had a 500 @-@ gallon auxiliary fuel tank fixed to the upper deck to increase their range . The S class submarine HMS Sturgeon would leave before the rest of the convoy and be in position to act as a navigational beacon to guide the convoy into the Loire estuary . 
 The man selected to lead the Commando force was Lieutenant Colonel Charles Newman ; his No. 2 Commando would provide the largest Commandos contingent , 173 men , for the raid . The Special Service Brigade headquarters used the raid to provide experience for their other units and 92 men were drawn from Nos 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 , and 12 Commandos . 
 The Commandos were divided into three groups ; One and Two would travel in the MLs , while Three would be in Campbeltown . Under the command of Captain <unk> , Group One had the objectives of securing the Old Mole and eliminating the anti @-@ aircraft gun positions around the southern <unk> . They were then to move into the old town and blow up the power station , bridges and locks for the new entrance into the basin from the Avant port . The capture of the mole was a major objective , as it was to be the embarkation point for the evacuation after the mission . 
 Group Two , under the command of Captain Burn , would land at the old entrance to the St Nazaire basin . Their objectives were to destroy the anti @-@ aircraft positions in the area and the German headquarters , to blow up the locks and bridges at the old entrance into the basin and then to guard against a counter @-@ attack from the submarine base . Group Three was under the command of Major William ' Bill ' Copland , who was also the Commandos ' second in command . They were to secure the immediate area around Campbeltown , destroy the dock 's water @-@ pumping and gate @-@ opening machinery and the nearby underground fuel tanks . All three groups were subdivided into assault , demolition and protection teams . The assault teams would clear the way for the other two . The demolition teams carrying the explosive charges only had <unk> for self @-@ defence ; the protection teams , armed with Thompson <unk> guns , were to defend them while they completed their tasks . 
 The Commandos were aided in their planning for the operation by Captain Bill <unk> of the Royal Engineers , who had pre @-@ war experience as an apprentice in the Great Western Railway dockyards and whose father was the dock master of Cardiff Docks . In 1940 while part of the British Expeditionary Force in France , his duties had included determining how to <unk> the French dockyards if they were captured . One of the dockyards he had studied was St Nazaire , and he had submitted a report detailing how to put the dock out of action . 
 
 = = German forces = = 
 
 The Germans had around 5 @,@ 000 troops in the immediate area of St Nazaire . The port was defended by the 280th Naval Artillery Battalion under the command of Kapitän zur See Edo <unk> . The battalion was composed of 28 guns of various <unk> from 75 mm to 280 mm railway guns , all positioned to guard the coastal approaches . The heavy guns were supplemented by the guns and searchlights of the 22nd Naval Flak Brigade under the command of Kapitän zur See Karl @-@ Konrad Mecke . 
 The brigade was equipped with 43 anti @-@ aircraft guns ranging in calibre from 20 to 40 mm . These guns had a dual role as both anti @-@ aircraft and coastal defence weapons . Many were in concrete emplacements on top of the submarine pens and other <unk> installations of the St Nazaire submarine base . 
 The harbour defence companies were responsible for local defence and for the security of the ships and submarines moored in the harbour . These companies and the harbour defence boats used to patrol the river were under the command of Harbour Commander Korvettenkapitän <unk> . The <unk> Infantry Division was the German Army unit responsible for the defence of the coast between St Nazaire and <unk> . The division had no troops based in the town , but some were located in villages nearby and would be able to respond to any attack on the port . 
 The Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) had at least three surface ships in the Loire estuary : a destroyer , an armed trawler and a <unk> ( minesweeper ) , the latter being the guard ship for the port . On the night of the raid there were also four harbour defence boats and ten ships from the 16th and 42nd <unk> flotillas berthed in the basin , while two tankers were berthed inside the Normandie dock . The 6th and 7th U @-@ boat flotillas , commanded by <unk> Georg @-@ Wilhelm Schulz and Korvettenkapitän Herbert <unk> respectively , were permanently based in the port . It is not known how many submarines were present on the day of the raid . The submarine base had been inspected by the U @-@ boat Commander in Chief , <unk> Karl <unk> , the day before the raid . He asked what would they do if the base was subject to an attack by British Commandos . <unk> replied that " an attack on the base would be hazardous and highly <unk> " . 
 
 = = The raid = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> journey = = = 
 
 The three destroyers and 16 small boats left Falmouth , Cornwall at 14 : 00 on 26 March 1942 . They formed into a convoy of three lanes , with the destroyers in the middle . On arrival at St Nazaire the <unk> MLs were to head for the Old Mole to disembark their Commandos , while the starboard lane would make for the old entrance to the basin to disembark theirs . Not having the range to reach St Nazaire unaided , the MTB and MGB were taken under tow by Campbeltown and Atherstone . 
 On 27 March at 07 : 20 Tynedale reported a U @-@ boat on the surface and opened fire . The two escort destroyers left the convoy to engage the U @-@ boat , later identified as U @-@ 593 . The U @-@ boat promptly <unk> and was unsuccessfully attacked by depth charges . The two destroyers returned to the convoy at 09 : 00 . 
 The convoy next encountered two French fishing <unk> . Both crews were taken off and the ships sunk for fear they might report the composition and location of the convoy . At 17 : 00 the convoy received a signal from Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Plymouth that five German torpedo boats were in the area . Two hours later another signal informed them that another two Hunt class destroyers , HMS Cleveland and HMS <unk> , had been dispatched at full speed to join the convoy . 
 The convoy reached a position 65 nautical miles ( 120 km ; 75 mi ) off St Nazaire at 21 : 00 and changed course toward the estuary , leaving Atherstone and Tynedale as a sea patrol . The convoy adopted a new formation with the MGB and two torpedo MLs in the lead , followed by Campbeltown . The rest of the MLs formed two columns on either side and <unk> of the destroyer , with the MTB bringing up the rear . The first casualty of the raid was ML 341 , which had developed engine trouble and was abandoned . At 22 : 00 the submarine Sturgeon directed her navigation beacon out to sea to guide the convoy in . At about the same time Campbeltown raised the German naval <unk> in an attempt to <unk> any German lookouts into thinking she was a German destroyer . 
 At 23 : 30 on 27 March , five RAF squadrons ( comprising 35 <unk> and 27 <unk> ) started their bombing runs . The bombers had to stay above 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) and were supposed to remain over the port for 60 minutes to divert attention toward themselves and away from the sea . They had orders to only bomb clearly identified military targets and to drop only one bomb at a time . As it turned out , poor weather over the port ( 10 / <unk> cloud ) meant that only four aircraft bombed targets in St Nazaire . Six aircraft managed to bomb other nearby targets . 
 The unusual behaviour of the bombers concerned Kapitän zur See Mecke . At 00 : 00 on 28 March , he issued a warning that there might be a parachute landing in progress . At 01 : 00 on 28 March , he followed up by ordering all guns to cease firing and searchlights to be <unk> in case the bombers were using them to locate the port . Everyone was placed on a heightened state of alert . The harbour defence companies and ships ' crews were ordered out of the air raid shelters . During all this a lookout reported seeing some activity out at sea , so Mecke began <unk> some type of landing and ordered extra attention to be paid to the approaches to the harbour . 
 
 = = = <unk> the dry dock = = = 
 
 At 00 : 30 hours on 28 March the convoy crossed over the <unk> at the mouth of the Loire estuary , with Campbeltown scraping the bottom twice . Each time she was able to pull free , and the group proceeded on up toward the harbour in darkness . They had got to within about eight minutes passage from the dock gates when at 01 : 22 the entire convoy was illuminated by the combined searchlights of both banks of the estuary . A naval signal light demanded their identification . 
 The MGB @-@ 314 replied in a coded response obtained from a German trawler boarded during the <unk> raid . A few bursts were fired from a shore battery and both Campbeltown and MGB @-@ 314 replied : " Ship being fired upon by friendly forces " . The deception gave them a little more time before every German gun in the bay opened fire . At 01 : 28 , with the convoy 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the dock gates , Beattie ordered the German flag lowered and the White Ensign raised . The intensity of the German fire seemed to increase . The guard ship opened fire and was quickly <unk> when the ships in the convoy responded , shooting into her as they passed . 
 By now all the ships in the convoy were within range to engage targets ashore and were firing at the gun emplacements and searchlights . Campbeltown was hit a number of times and increased her speed to 19 kn ( 35 km / h ) . The <unk> on her bridge was killed ; his replacement was wounded and replaced as well . <unk> by the searchlights , Beattie knew they were close to their objective . Still under heavy fire , the MGB turned into the estuary as Campbeltown cleared the end of the Old Mole , cut through anti @-@ torpedo netting strung across the entrance and rammed the dock gates , striking home at 01 : 34 , three minutes later than scheduled . The force of the impact drove the ship 33 feet ( 10 m ) onto the gates . 
 
 = = = <unk> from Campbeltown and the MLs = = = 
 
 The Commandos on Campbeltown now disembarked : two assault teams , five demolition teams with their <unk> and a mortar group . Three demolition teams were tasked with destroying the dock pumping machinery and other installations associated with the dry dock . The <unk> @-@ wearing Captain Donald Roy - ' The Laird ' - and his 14 @-@ man assault troop were tasked with <unk> two pump @-@ house roof @-@ top gun emplacements high above the <unk> and securing a bridge to provide a route for the raiding parties to exit the dock area . Roy and <unk> Don Randall used scaling <unk> and grenades to accomplish the former , and a head @-@ on rush to secure the bridge and form a bridgehead that enabled <unk> Bob Montgomery and Lt Corran <unk> and their demolition teams to exit the area . 
 They lost 4 men in this action . The fifth team also succeeded in completing all their objectives but almost half its men were killed . The other two Commando groups were not as successful . The MLs transporting Groups One and Two had almost all been destroyed on their approach . ML 457 was the only boat to land its Commandos on the Old Mole and only ML 177 had managed to reach the gates at the old entrance to the basin . That team succeeded in planting charges on two <unk> moored in the basin . 
 There were only two other MLs in the vicinity : ML 160 had continued past the dock and was engaging targets upriver , ML 269 appeared to be out of control and was running in circles . By this time the crew of Campbeltown had detonated the scuttling charges and gathered at the rear of the ship to be taken off . ML 177 came alongside the destroyer and took 30 men on board including Beattie and some of the wounded . Major Copland went through Campbeltown and evacuated the wounded towards the Old Mole , not knowing that there were no other boats there to take the Commandos off . 
 Lt <unk> Newman aboard the MGB , need not have landed , but he was one of the first ashore . One of his first actions was to direct mortar fire onto a gun position on top of the submarine pens that was causing heavy casualties among the Commandos . He next directed machine @-@ gun fire onto an armed trawler , which was forced to withdraw upriver . Newman organised a defence that succeeded in keeping the increasing numbers of German reinforcements at bay until the demolition parties had completed their tasks . 
 Some 100 Commandos were still ashore when Newman realised that evacuation by sea was no longer an option . He gathered the survivors and issued three orders : 
 To do our best to get back to England ; 
 Not to surrender until all our ammunition is exhausted ; 
 Not to surrender at all if we can help it . 
 Newman and Copland led the charge from the old town across a bridge raked by machine gun fire and advanced into the new town . The Commandos attempted to get through the narrow streets of the town and into the surrounding countryside , but were eventually surrounded . When their ammunition was expended their only option was to surrender . Not all the Commandos were captured ; five men reached neutral Spain , from where they eventually returned to England . 
 
 = = = Small ships = = = 
 
 Most of the MLs had been destroyed on the run in and were burning . The first ML in the starboard column was the first boat to catch fire ; her captain managed to beach her at the end of the Old Mole . Some starboard boats managed to reach their objective and disembark their Commandos . ML 443 , the leading boat in the port column , got to within 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of the mole in the face of heavy direct fire and hand grenades before being set on fire . The crew were rescued by ML 160 , one of the torpedo MLs which had been looking for targets of opportunity such as the two large tankers reported to be in the harbour . The commanders of MLs 160 and 443 , <unk> T Boyd and T D L Platt , were awarded the Distinguished Service Order for their bravery . The rest of the port column had been destroyed or disabled before reaching the mole . MLs 192 and 262 were set on fire ; there were only six survivors . ML 268 was blown up ; one man survived . 
 ML 177 , the launch that had successfully taken off some of the crew from Campbeltown , was sunk on her way out of the estuary . ML 269 , another torpedo @-@ armed boat , had the unenviable task of moving up and down the river at high speed to draw German fire away from the landings . Soon after passing Campbeltown it was hit and its steering damaged . It took ten minutes to repair the steering . They turned and started in the other direction , opening fire on an armed trawler in passing . Return fire from the trawler set their engine on fire . 
 ML <unk> also came under heavy fire when it arrived near the port . Sergeant Thomas Durrant of No. 1 Commando , manning the aft Lewis gun , engaged gun and <unk> positions on the run in . He was wounded but refused to leave the gun for treatment . The ML reached the open sea but was attacked at short range by the German torpedo boat Jaguar . Durrant returned fire , aiming for the torpedo boat 's bridge . He was wounded again but remained at his gun even after the German commander asked for their surrender . <unk> drum after drum of ammunition , he refused to give up until after the ML had been boarded . Durrant died of his wounds and , after the recommendation of the Jaguar 's commander , was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross . 
 After the Commando headquarters group had landed , Commander Ryder went to check for himself that Campbeltown was firmly stuck in the dock . Some of her surviving crewmen were being taken on board the MGB . Ryder returned to the boat and ordered the MTB to carry out its alternative task and torpedo the lock gates at the old entrance to the basin . After a successful torpedo attack , Ryder ordered the MTB to leave . On their way out of the estuary they stopped to collect survivors from a sinking ML and were hit and set on fire . Back at the docks the MGB had positioned itself in mid @-@ river to engage enemy gun emplacements . The forward 2 pounder was manned by Able Seaman William Alfred Savage . Commander Ryder reported that 
 " The rate of supporting fire had evidently been felt , and the Commandos in the area of the Tirpitz dock had undoubtedly overcome the resistance in that area . There was an <unk> <unk> in the enemy 's fire . " 
 Ryder could see no ships other than seven or eight burning MLs . He then realised that the landing places at the Old Mole and the entrance to the basin had both been recaptured by the Germans . There was nothing more they could do for the Commandos , so they headed out to sea . On their way they were continuously illuminated by German searchlights and were hit at least six times by the German guns . Passing ML 270 , they ordered her to follow and made smoke to hide both boats . 
 When they reached the open sea the smaller calibre guns were out of range and stopped firing but the heavier artillery continued to engage them . The boats were about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) off @-@ shore when the last German salvo <unk> them and killed Savage , who was still at his gun . He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his exploits . His citation recognised both Savage and the bravery of " the many unnamed crews of the Motor Gun Boat , Motor Torpedo Boat and Motor <unk> who continued to carry out their duties in exposed positions , in the face of close range enemy fire . " 
 
 = = = Return journey = = = 
 
 At 06 : 30 the five German torpedo boats that the convoy had <unk> the previous day were sighted by HMS Atherstone and Tynedale . The two destroyers turned toward them and opened fire at a range of 7 miles ( 11 km ) . After ten minutes the German boats turned away , making smoke . The destroyers sighted the MGB and two accompanying MLs soon after and transferred their casualties to the Atherstone . Not expecting any more boats to arrive , they headed for home . Just after 09 : 00 the Hunt @-@ class escort destroyers HMS <unk> and HMS Cleveland arrived , sent by Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Plymouth . Shortly after this the ships were spotted by a Heinkel 115 <unk> of the Luftwaffe . 
 The next German aircraft on the scene , a Junkers 88 , was engaged by a RAF Bristol Beaufighter which had appeared in the area earlier . Both machines crashed into the sea . Other German planes arrived but were driven off by Beaufighters and <unk> from Coastal Command . The Atlantic weather conditions deteriorated . Amid concerns about the growing German threat and the realisation that the damaged small ships would not be able to keep up , Commander <unk> ordered the crews off the smaller boats and had them sunk . 
 Three of the small vessels managed to return to England : MLs 160 , <unk> and 443 . They had reached the rendezvous and waited until 10 : 00 for the destroyers to appear . Having already been attacked once , they moved further out into the Atlantic to try and avoid the German Air Force , but a Junkers 88 appeared overhead at 07 : 30 and approached them at low level for a closer look . The ships opened fire and hit the Junkers in the cockpit . The plane went into the sea . The next aircraft to appear was a <unk> and <unk> seaplane which attempted to bomb the ships , but left after being damaged by machine @-@ gun fire . The surviving MLs eventually reached England unaided the following day . 
 
 = = = Campbeltown explodes = = = 
 
 The explosive charges in HMS Campbeltown detonated at noon on 28 March 1942 , and the dry dock was destroyed . Reports vary on the fate of the two tankers that were in the dock ; they were either swept away by the wall of water and sunk , or swept to the far end of the dock , but not sunk . A party of 40 senior German officers and civilians who were on a tour of Campbeltown were killed . In total , the explosion killed about 360 men . The wreck of Campbeltown could still be seen inside the dry dock months later when RAF photo reconnaissance planes were sent to photograph the port . 
 According to Captain Robert Montgomery ( Royal Engineers , attached to <unk> Commando ) , Campbeltown was meant to have detonated at 4 : <unk> , the delay caused , he believes , by some of the acid in the pencil fuses being <unk> away . As the morning progressed , more and more captured comrades joined him in the German HQ . 
 The day after the explosion , Organisation Todt workers were assigned to clean up the debris and wreckage . On 30 March at 16 : 30 the torpedoes from MTB 74 , which were on a delayed fuse setting , exploded at the old entrance into the basin . This raised alarms among the Germans . The Organisation Todt workers ran away from the dock area . German guards , <unk> their <unk> uniforms for British uniforms , opened fire , killing some of them . The Germans also thought that some Commandos were still hiding in the town , and made a street by street search , during which some <unk> were also killed . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 The explosion put the dry dock out of commission for the remainder of the war . The St Nazaire raid had been a success , but at a cost . Of the <unk> men of the Royal Navy and Commandos who took part in the raid , only 228 men returned to England . Five commandos escaped via neutral Spain and Gibraltar with the help of French citizens , and took a ship to England from Gibraltar . 169 men were killed ( 105 RN and 64 Commandos ) and another 215 became prisoners of war ( 106 RN and 109 Commandos ) . They were first taken to La <unk> and then sent to <unk> 133 at Rennes . The fallen British raiders were buried at the La <unk> @-@ <unk> cemetery with military honours . The cemetery is located 13 kilometres west of St Nazaire . 
 To recognise their achievement , 89 decorations were awarded for the raid . This total includes the five Victoria Crosses awarded to Lieutenant Commander Beattie , Lieutenant Colonel Newman and Commander Ryder , and posthumous awards to Sergeant Durrant and Able Seaman Savage . Four Distinguished Service Orders were awarded to Major William Copland , Captain Donald Roy , Lieutenant T Boyd and Lieutenant T D L Platt . Other decorations awarded were four <unk> <unk> Medals , five Distinguished Conduct Medals , 17 Distinguished Service Crosses , 11 Military Crosses , 24 Distinguished Service Medals and 15 Military Medals . Four men were awarded the Croix de guerre by France , and another 51 were mentioned in despatches . 
 Adolf Hitler was furious that the British had been able to sail a flotilla of ships up the Loire <unk> . His immediate reaction was to dismiss <unk> Carl <unk> , chief @-@ of @-@ staff to the Commander in Chief West . The raid <unk> German attention on the Atlantic Wall , and special attention was given to ports to prevent any repeat of the raid . By June 1942 the Germans began using concrete to <unk> gun emplacements and bunkers in quantities previously only used in U @-@ boat pens . Hitler laid out new plans in a meeting with <unk> Minister Albert <unk> in August 1942 , calling for the construction of 15 @,@ 000 bunkers by May 1943 to defend the Atlantic coast from Norway to Spain . 
 The battleship Tirpitz never entered the Atlantic . She remained in Norwegian <unk> to threaten Allied shipping until she was destroyed by the RAF on 12 November 1944 . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 St Nazaire was one of the 38 battle honours presented to the Commandos after the war . The raid has since been called The Greatest Raid of All . The survivors formed their own association , the St Nazaire Society , which is a registered charity in the United Kingdom . 
 A memorial to the raid erected in Falmouth bears the following inscription : 
 A new HMS Campbeltown , a Type 22 Frigate , was launched on 7 October 1987 . She carried the ship 's bell from the first Campbeltown which was rescued during the raid and had been presented to the town of <unk> , Pennsylvania at the end of the Second World War . In 1988 the people of <unk> voted to lend the bell to the new ship for as long as she remained in Royal Navy service . The bell was returned to the town on 21 June 2011 when HMS Campbeltown was decommissioned . 
 On 4 September 2002 , a tree and seat at the National Memorial <unk> were dedicated to the men of the raid . The seat bears the inscription : 
 In memory of the Royal Navy Sailors and Army Commandos killed in the raid on St Nazaire on 28 March 1942 
 
 = = Documentaries and <unk> = = 
 
 A <unk> version of the raid was the climax of the 1952 British war film , Gift Horse . The film follows the career of an ex @-@ US Navy destroyer , HMS <unk> ( actually HMS <unk> ) ; the raid is named Operation Boadicea and portrays the main events of the actual battle . 
 The war film Attack on the Iron Coast was released in 1968 and was a highly fictionalized version of the raid . 
 In 2007 , Jeremy Clarkson presented the story of the raid in a BBC documentary entitled The Greatest Raid of All Time . 
 An episode of the television series ; " World War II 's Greatest <unk> " on the Military Channel ( now the American Heroes Channel ) devoted an episode to this raid . <unk> " Commando Do or Die ! " it was released in early 2014 ; and has been <unk> several times . 
 A mission in the video game Enemy Front re @-@ <unk> the mission from the first person perspective of a British Commando . 
 A mission in the video game Medal Of Honour : European Assault also re @-@ <unk> the mission from the perspective of fictional soldier William Holt . 
 
 
 = Hellblazer = 
 
 Hellblazer ( also known as John Constantine , Hellblazer ) is an American contemporary horror comic book series , originally published by DC Comics , and subsequently by the Vertigo imprint since March 1993 when the imprint was introduced . Its central character is the <unk> magician John Constantine , who was created by Alan Moore and Stephen R. <unk> , and first appeared as a supporting character in The Saga of the Swamp Thing # 37 ( June 1985 ) , during that creative team 's run on that title . Hellblazer had been published continuously since January 1988 , and was Vertigo 's longest running title , the only remaining publication from the imprint 's launch . In 2013 , the series concluded with issue 300 , and has been replaced by a DC Universe title , Constantine . Well known for its political and social commentary , the series has spawned a film adaptation , television show , novels , multiple spin @-@ offs and <unk> . 
 The series was the longest @-@ running and one of the most successful titles of DC 's Vertigo imprint , and was the stepping stone to many British writers . Notable writers who have contributed to the series include Jamie Delano , Garth Ennis , Paul Jenkins , Warren Ellis , Grant Morrison , Neil Gaiman , Mike Carey , Andy Diggle , and Peter Milligan . Hellblazer was one of the first modern occult detective fiction works and heavily influenced the genre to come . 
 
 = = Production history = = 
 
 After favorable reader reaction to John Constantine 's appearances in the comic book series Swamp Thing , where he had been introduced by Alan Moore during his authorship of the title , the character was given his own comic book series in 1988 . The series was intended to bear the title <unk> , but this title was revised before publication due to the contemporaneous release of Clive Barker 's unrelated film of the same name . Initial writer Jamie Delano was , in his own words , " fairly ambivalent " about the change of title . 
 The initial creative team was writer Jamie Delano and artist John Ridgway , with Dave McKean supplying distinctive painted and <unk> covers . Delano introduced a political aspect to the character , about which he stated : " ... generally I was interested in commenting on 1980s Britain . That was where I was living , it was shit , and I wanted to tell everybody . " The book , originally published as a regular DC Comics title , became a Vertigo title with the imprint 's launch in March 1993 ( issue # 63 of the series ) . In October 2011 , it was announced that this would join DC titles in being published digitally on the same day as its physical release , starting in January 2012 . 
 
 = = = Creative personnel = = = 
 
 Many writers had lengthy runs on the series , such as Garth Ennis and Mike Carey , who respectively had the second- and third @-@ longest runs on the book , ( only behind Peter Milligan ) . Other writers who wrote for the series include Paul Jenkins , Warren Ellis , Brian Azzarello , Neil Gaiman , Grant Morrison , Denise Mina , and Peter Milligan . 
 Numerous artists worked on the series as well , such as John Ridgway ( the original series artist ) , Simon <unk> , Mark Buckingham , Richard <unk> , Steve Dillon , Marcelo <unk> , Jock , David Lloyd , Leonardo <unk> , and Sean Phillips . Cover artists included Dave McKean ( who designed the first run of the series ' covers ) , Tim Bradstreet ( who designed the most ) , Glenn <unk> , Kent Williams , David Lloyd , and Sean Phillips . 
 
 = = In the comics = = 
 
 
 = = = Setting and protagonist = = = 
 
 Hellblazer was set in a contemporary world , albeit a world of magic and supernatural conflict behind the scenes . Although issue 14 made a passing reference to <unk> , the series since developed its own pocket universe in which the supernatural or paranormal did not play a large role in the lives of most ordinary people , and in Earth @-@ threatening circumstances no superhero <unk> were shown or hinted at , suggesting that <unk> no longer existed there . However , some DC Comics characters — most notably the fringe supernatural characters such as Zatanna , The Phantom Stranger , Shade , The Changing Man , Dream of the <unk> , and Swamp Thing made appearances . 
 John Constantine , the main character of Hellblazer , was portrayed as a kind of confidence man and occult detective who did morally questionable things , arguably for the greater good . He usually triumphed through <unk> , deceit , and <unk> , but often made more enemies in the process than he defeated . Indeed , it was a common theme in the book that Constantine was unable to effect any lasting change or enjoy <unk> victories . While sometimes striving for the good of mankind , Constantine was often <unk> and a dangerous person to have as a friend , as the lives and souls of those around him became <unk> involved in his <unk> . He took pains to protect himself from direct attacks , but his friends and relatives were often endangered in order to strike at him . The spirits of deceased friends haunted him , individually or as an entourage of ghosts . 
 Constantine made appearances in other comic book titles , such as Crisis on <unk> <unk> , <unk> Crisis , Green Arrow , Green Lantern , The Sandman , Lucifer , and Shade , the Changing Man . He was a recurring supporting character in both Swamp Thing and The Books of Magic throughout their numerous <unk> . Some attempts to use the character in other superhero or family @-@ friendly comics were altered due to editorial mandate , such as " <unk> <unk> <unk> " in <unk> and Captain <unk> ( who refers to Constantine as " an <unk> <unk> in England " ) . Grant Morrison created " Willoughby Kipling " for Doom Patrol after being refused Constantine by DC , changing his appearance to that of Richard E Grant in <unk> and I , following which Phil <unk> was forced to create " Ambroise <unk> " in Stanley and His Monster , having been refused both Constantine and Willoughby Kipling . 
 John Constantine was reintroduced into the DC Universe in 2011 , initially in the <unk> Day crossover event title Search for the Swamp Thing , and in the ongoing The New 52 title Justice League Dark . 
 
 = = = 1988 – 1991 : Jamie Delano ( # 1 – 40 , # 84 ) = = = 
 
 Having previously worked on <unk> & <unk> for 2000 AD , a title made popular by John Constantine 's creator Alan Moore , Delano was selected to start the character 's first run in his own comic by then editor Karen Berger in 1988 . Delano 's run was characterised by his political satire , taking on late 1980s and 1990s tropes such as with city <unk> being literal demons , and Constantine meeting with <unk> from the Houses of Parliament . He also had <unk> issues crop up , especially in " The Fear Machine " ( issues # 15 @-@ 22 ) , where John fell in with a travelling community of environmental activists . Indeed , editor Karen Berger noted on Delano 's departure the irony that his final issue was handed in the week that Margaret Thatcher was forced out of office . 
 There were five main storylines in the run . The first , collected as " Original <unk> " , deals with John travelling to America to <unk> a demon , <unk> , and investigate a strange cult known as <unk> 's Army , crossing paths with a demon called Nergal ( from whom he gains demon blood ) , and having to be responsible for killing an old friend , Gary Lester , and betraying another , called <unk> , in the process . The following four issues , " The Devil You Know " finally explain John 's failure to save a young girl , <unk> , from a demon in Newcastle , an event that left him near insane and incarcerated in an <unk> known as <unk> , and still haunted him to the comic 's end . He eventually discovers that the demon responsible for this was Nergal , and uses a technological scheme to trap him , and lead him back to hell . It also contains a crossover with Swamp Thing , where Constantine loses his body while the Swamp Thing uses it to <unk> . 
 This was followed by a lengthy nine @-@ issue story arc , " The Fear Machine " , revolving around a <unk> plot to collect people 's fears , in order to resurrect a <unk> god known as <unk> , and his efforts to prevent this with the help of environmentalists , including Mercury , a young psychic girl , and <unk> , her mother , with whom he becomes romantically involved . The penultimate major run of Delano 's tenure was " The Family Man " , which differed from the main body of the series thus far in that Constantine 's nemesis is not supernatural ( beyond an opening <unk> encounter with a fictional fence ) , but a former policeman turned serial killer . John 's ethical quandary as to whether murder is ever acceptable , and his <unk> with the murder of his father , Thomas , frames this story . During this run on the title , Grant Morrison ( issues # 25 & 26 ) and Neil Gaiman ( issue # 27 ) both filled in during a three @-@ month break , Grant Morrison 's story dealing with nuclear fear , and Neil Gaiman 's being a simple romantic ghost story . 
 Delano 's run ended with " The Golden Child " , where John is reunited with <unk> and Mercury , who help him discover that he murdered his more perfect twin in the <unk> , culminating in an extended story , in which we are shown what would have occurred had the other twin survived in his place . During his run , there was also a stand @-@ alone issue , the Hellblazer Annual # 1 , exploring Constantine 's ancestry , and featuring the video to John 's punk band , <unk> Membrane 's song " Venus of the <unk> " . 
 Jamie Delano returned to the title on several occasions . Between the Garth Ennis and Paul Jenkins runs on Hellblazer , he finally told the story of why John 's best friend Chas ' <unk> ' him , and he returned again for one of the five Christmas stories in issue # 250 . He also wrote the mini series The <unk> in 1995 , and Bad Blood in 2000 , both featuring John Constantine . A more substantial return was made in 2010 for a hardcover graphic novel Hellblazer : <unk> with artist Jock to commemorate the 25th anniversary of John Constantine 's first appearance in Swamp Thing . 
 
 = = = 1991 – 1999 : Garth Ennis ( # 41 – 83 , # 129 – 133 ) and Paul Jenkins ( # 89 – 128 ) = = = 
 
 Irish writer Garth Ennis then took over the title in 1991 , again from 2000 AD , where he had been working on Judge <unk> . He proceeded to write the longest run for any writer on the title . His take on the title was more personal than Jamie Delano 's , with John 's relationships coming to the fore . It also had a strong religious theme , with John 's dealings with the First of the Fallen , and some storylines , such as the relationship between an angel , <unk> , and a <unk> demon , Ellie , would go on to be used again as a major plot device in Preacher , one of his most popular works . He also references the music of The <unk> and the poetry of Brendan <unk> , both of these being relevant to Ennis ' Irish heritage . 
 His run started with " Dangerous Habits " ( 41 @-@ 46 ) , which was the basis for the 2005 film Constantine , and dealt with John Constantine contracting lung cancer , and the desperate deal he makes with the First of the Fallen , and various other lords of Hell , to save himself . In the course of trying to save himself , he visits Ireland , where he becomes <unk> with Kit Ryan , an old friend . The following few issues follow the early stages of his relationship with Kit , a plot to install a demon on the British throne in the plotline " Royal Blood " , and in the extended issue # 50 , his first meeting with the King of the <unk> . One minor story in this arc ( issue # 51 ) was written by guest writer John Smith . 
 The next major arc , " Fear and <unk> " ( issues 62 @-@ 67 ) covers a high point of John 's personal life , with his relationship with Kit going well , and a <unk> birthday party where his friends Ellie , Zatanna , and the Swamp Thing attend , and use their various abilities to create a large quantity of <unk> whiskey and marijuana . The story then takes him to his lowest point , through his dealings with the National Front , their threats towards Kit , and her leaving him to return to Ireland . Following this , John is defeated , and lives homeless on the streets , drinking to forget his life . This remains the case until the King of the <unk> hunts him out , and is poisoned by his demon blood , leaving him out in the sun at dawn , killing him . Following his recovery , the storyline " <unk> 's Flame " ( <unk> # 72 – 77 ) follows a trip to the US , where Constantine is put into an alternative America by his old <unk> Papa <unk> , a <unk> <unk> . He is accompanied by the spirit of JFK , who has to hold his brain in place from his infamous wound . He eventually learns how to escape , shortly before running into the First of the Fallen , in the guise of Abraham Lincoln . There then follows a small break where he meets the spirit of a dead friend in Dublin , offering some closure to his recent problems . Ennis ' run ends with " <unk> at the Gates of Hell " , a story which finally brings together the racism storyline , with riots in Mile End , echoing the real @-@ life Brixton and <unk> Farm riots in London , the revenge attempt of the First of the Fallen , started in " Dangerous Habits " , and the end of John 's relationship with Kit Ryan . John 's eventual <unk> victory leaves this run with closure , and a relatively clean slate for a new writer to take over . 
 Following a brief interlude by From Hell artist Eddie Campbell , the series ' direction was taken over by Paul Jenkins in 1995 . He had been former editor of Teenage <unk> <unk> Turtles and other <unk> Studios lines . He had pitched to several comic houses , having tired of editing , and eventually managed to gain stewardship of Hellblazer , the first largely <unk> writer to achieve this . His four @-@ year run is the longest run to remain <unk> . Jenkins ' run is more traditionally English in its themes , with Albion , <unk> legend , and old English battles all featuring , and even an appearance by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , and a speculative explanation of the writing of Kubla Khan , and what the <unk> of the ' man from <unk> ' may have been . He also returns to Jamie Delano 's coverage of <unk> lifestyles , and the effects of the Criminal Justice Act of 1994 , a controversial law which restricted the ability of the public to throw <unk> and large demonstrations . 
 Major storylines in this run include " Critical Mass " , where Constantine is forced to use magic to purge his darker side into another human body , in order to avoid being <unk> to Hell as part of a trade to save the possessed son of a friend , thus creating the antagonistic character , Demon Constantine , with the assistance of Aleister Crowley . The landmark hundredth issue gave more detail on John Constantine 's father , and the abusive relationship that they had shared . However , it is unclear as to whether this is happening in reality , or in his mind as John <unk> in a coma . " Last Man Standing " reveals that his friend Rich is the current descendant of King Arthur , and <unk> 's attempt to discover God 's secret , an act which would destroy England , using John 's few remaining friends as bait . 
 The tenth anniversary issue breaks from the usual format , in breaking the fourth wall , and addressing the reader as if they are in a pub with Constantine for a monthly get together to hear his stories . Over the course of the issue , most of the characters from Constantine 's history appear , along with Death of the <unk> from Sandman . There are also appearances by writers and artists , including series creator Alan Moore , Garth Ennis , and Jenkins himself . Jenkins ' run then draws to a close with two storylines , " Up the Down <unk> " and " How to Play With Fire " , which relate the First of the Fallen 's new plan , to essentially let mankind ruin itself through television and <unk> , and Ellie 's plot to leave Constantine <unk> and alone . John eventually saves himself , through a literal <unk> ex <unk> , in a <unk> conversation with God . However , at that time Rich and his family finally <unk> their friendship with John , and the latter ends the run alone . Paul Jenkins later returned for one of the five stories in issue # 250 . 
 Ennis briefly returned to the title in 1998 with " Son of Man " , filling the gaps between Paul Jenkins ' and Warren Ellis ' runs on the title . This more <unk> story is about the consequences of Constantine <unk> the dead son of an East London gangster , using the spirit of a demon . He also had two <unk> published during his run on the title , the Hellblazer Special and <unk> , which follows Kit Ryan 's return to Ireland . 
 
 = = = 1999 – 2002 = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Warren Ellis ( # 134 – 143 ) = = = = 
 
 Warren Ellis took over the title in 1999 , after his work on <unk> which had moved to the Vertigo imprint , following the closure of <unk> Comics . He was meant to become a full @-@ time writer for several years , as Delano , Ennis and Jenkins before him , but left the title early after DC refused to publish the story " Shoot " , about high school shootings , following the <unk> High School massacre , despite the fact it had been written and submitted prior to the event . The story was finally published in 2010 . 
 His brief run began with " <unk> " , a London @-@ based story in which John investigates the brutal murder of a former girlfriend , Isabel by an Aleister Crowley style magician , Josh Wright . The story introduces , or <unk> many characters who became an important part of the Hellblazer universe , including Inspector <unk> ( originally from Jamie Delano 's run on the title ) , aging magician <unk> , and Map , a powerful magician who works on tube renovations in his part as <unk> of London . The remainder of Ellis ' brief tenure was taken up with single issue stories , collected as " Setting Sun " . 
 
 = = = = Brian Azzarello ( # 146 – 174 ) = = = = 
 
 Following a brief interlude by Croatian writer <unk> <unk> , the series was then taken over by Brian Azzarello , once again hired on the strength of his own series for Vertigo , 100 <unk> . Azzarello 's run is one large meta @-@ story , that follows John Constantine on a trip across America , starting with his incarceration in prison , then variously uncovering a pornography ring , catching a serial killer , taking on a Neo Nazi group before finally dealing with the architect of his incarceration , Stanley W. Manor , a thinly @-@ veiled pastiche of Batman . Brian Azzarello did return for one of the five stories in issue # 250 . 
 
 = = = 2002 – 2006 : Mike Carey ( # 175 – 215 , # <unk> ) = = = 
 
 Following Azzarello 's run , writer Mike Carey took over the title , following his <unk> award @-@ winning title Lucifer , set in the Sandman universe . Carey 's run attempted to return John Constantine to his roots , with the title largely set back in London , and featuring many characters from former runs on the title . Mike Carey also has the honour of being the first <unk> to write the <unk> character . His was the second longest run by any single author on the title , second only to Garth Ennis . 
 The start of his run introduces Angie <unk> , a fellow magician , and <unk> his niece , Gemma Constantine , who has also fallen into magic use , to her uncle 's consternation . After <unk> his sister 's house of an evil spirit , and finding out Gemma has gone missing , John returns to London , to find his old colleagues and enemies are all taking sides in the hunt for a mythical item , known as the Red <unk> . John eventually locates the item , and finds Gemma , freeing her from his old enemy Josh Wright . Following several <unk> , Constantine then travels the world to set up a plan for a forthcoming tragedy , which will occur when " Three doors are opened " , involving Swamp Thing and the Garden of Eden amongst others . 
 John 's preparations have no effect , however , as he is <unk> into killing the guardian that had been preventing the tragedy , freeing a beast which can control the collective unconsciousness of mankind . John Constantine cuts his own wrists , in order to free himself from consciousness , and plays a confidence trick on the beast , allowing his friends time to use the collective consciousness to rebuild the guardian that had kept the beast trapped . However , in this process , Swamp Thing has his human soul removed , setting up the fourth run of the comic , relaunched shortly afterward . In the process John loses his memory , setting up the events leading up to the 200th issue . Leading up to the landmark issue , John has little control over events , and is led along by a psychic serial killer , who threatens to kill Chas and his family , and a demon , Rosacarnis , who offers his memories back , at the cost of 24 hours in her service . John eventually gives into this offer , and the 200th issue shows how Rosacarnis manipulates his reality , making him raise three children with her , in the guise of Kit Ryan , from Garth Ennis ' time on the title , <unk> , from Jamie Delano 's , and Angie , from the current run , with three different artists , Steve Dillon , Marcelo <unk> and Leonardo <unk> each drawing one story , as the past , present and future of the title . 
 Carey 's final run followed the attempts of John 's three new children attempting to kill all of his family and friends , culminating in the death of his sister , <unk> , at the hands of her possessed husband . John then travels into Hell to try to rescue her soul , with the assistance of Rosacarnis ' father , Nergal . The plan ultimately fails , and John returns broken , and intending to renounce magic . 
 Mike Carey returned to the title for a single issue between Denise Mina and Andy Diggle 's runs on the title , and also wrote the well @-@ received Hellblazer graphic novel All His <unk> about a strange illness sweeping the globe . 
 
 = = = 2006 – 2013 = = = 
 
 
 = = = = Denise Mina ( # 216 – 228 ) = = = = 
 
 Denise Mina had not written for comics when she took over the title in 2006 , but had three acclaimed crime novels to her name , the <unk> trilogy , the first of which won the <unk> award for best debut crime novel . Her run on the title took John to Scotland , to attempt to stop a plot to make everybody <unk> with each other . However , John fails to stop this , and , overwhelmed by the grief and horror they 're forced to <unk> share , suicides <unk> through the people of Glasgow . With help from Gemma Constantine , Angie <unk> and Chas Chandler , a plan to reverse the problem is made , as tension builds among the soldiers now surrounding the city . The soldiers <unk> listen to a World Cup match between England and Portugal on the radio . When England loses the match , it seems all is lost , but the expected psychic riot fails to materialize . The soldiers are Scottish , so England 's loss is celebrated , saving the day , and proving there 's no source of joy like <unk> . 
 
 = = = = Andy Diggle ( # 230 – 249 ) = = = = 
 
 Andy Diggle , having previously written the Hellblazer special , Lady Constantine , and Vertigo titles The <unk> and Swamp Thing , took over the title in 2007 , another former writer for 2000 AD to have done this . He left the title in 2009 after accepting an exclusive contract with Marvel . 
 The run starts by introducing two main antagonists , an aging politician , who is using a strange portal to enter other people 's minds and commit crimes , and Mako , a <unk> <unk> who <unk> other <unk> in order to obtain their power . Constantine 's attempt to play them off one another only succeeds in making them join forces in a further plot . Constantine then traps them both with considerable ease , and questions how this has been so easy . It then becomes apparent that he has been manipulated by the ' Golden Child ' , his twin who did not survive childbirth , and has been manipulating events for the whole of the series , including his battle with cancer and many other events . He declines his twin 's offer to merge souls , suspicious that his twin has been weakening his will in past years to make him accept this offer , choosing instead to take control of his own destiny . 
 
 = = = = Peter Milligan ( # 250 – 300 ) = = = = 
 
 Peter Milligan , a veteran of the Vertigo line , having written both Shade , The Changing Man and Animal Man at the publisher 's inception , then took over , starting with a short story in the landmark <unk> issue , and taking over full @-@ time following this . His run implemented several major changes , including John Constantine 's wedding and the loss of his thumb . 
 In a rare change , Milligan 's run on the title starts with John living in domestic <unk> with a nurse , Phoebe . Over the course of the first storyline , several new characters are introduced , including Epiphany Greaves , the <unk> daughter of a notorious London gangster , and Julian , a Babylonian demon . Over the course of the run , John dealt with a demon taking revenge on people involved in the Liverpool <unk> ' strike gone insane and sought help from Shade , The Changing Man , after <unk> off his own thumb , seen Phoebe die at the hands of Julian , and traveled to India to try to find a way of saving her . Following this , he realised that he was in love with Epiphany , and married her in the <unk> issue . However , the events of this wedding turned Constantine 's niece Gemma against him , due to the Demon Constantine sexually assaulting her in the <unk> . The strain of this traumatic incident turned her against John , and she enlisted the help of a coven of witches to kill him , which later came to a head when John was forced to fight off a brutal Demon summoned by them using John 's iconic <unk> to target him . 
 Afterwards , John 's coat ( which Gemma sold on <unk> ) began to manipulate its various new owners into murder , suicide , or other horrific acts until coming into the hands of a man from the U.S. , who tried to kill John and Epiphany . During the time the coat was missing , John 's magical abilities had begun to go out of control . John eventually resolves this , and he was re @-@ united with his coat . Since this , Gemma and John have a very <unk> relationship with one another , and she began a sexual relationship with Epiphany 's crime @-@ boss father Terry in order to " punish " John . When he confronted her about this relationship though , she told him that she would not stop unless he was able to retrieve her mother 's soul from Hell . John agreed . In order to get his sister to leave Hell , John agreed to track down her son , his adopted nephew , in Ireland . 
 On October 8 , 2012 , the series was announced as ending with issue 300 , following which a new title , Constantine started at the main imprint of DC comics . By 2013 , Constantine was contacted by the Three <unk> , who tell him that he will finally meet his end in five days . Having lived a good and adventurous life , he happily accepts his fate rather than trying to fight it like he always does . When the last day came , Constantine was ambushed and shot in his own home right in front of a horrified Epiphany . After he died , Epiphany and Finn had an affair as a way to comfort each other . John 's ghost saw them having sex in a graveyard and seemed to give his blessing , making the fates decide that John wasn 't going to try to come back to life . Then , of course , he did . He contacted Epiphany and asked her to help resurrect him by making him cigarettes from his ashes , which , after he smoked them , made him <unk> again . <unk> to disappear and live happily ever after with Epiphany , they moved to a tiny house in Ireland , courtesy of Finn , that was totally off the grid and far removed from any apparent trouble , the last place anyone would think to look for John . That didn 't last long , though , as John realized he can never run from his past . 
 So John left Epiphany in Ireland and returned to England to confront Gemma . He stole the last dart holding the <unk> that killed his demon twin , but ultimately gave it back to Gemma and told her either she could kill him , and live her life without him in but consumed with guilt for killing him , or she could let him disappear from her life forever , without any guilt for murdering him . Gemma shot the dart at him , but John disappeared . The final panel of Hellblazer reveals John , looking shocked and much older than we 'd previously seen him , standing in a bar appropriately called " A Long Journey 's End " surrounded by people , in front of a shelf full of bottles with the names of the comic 's staff over the years . 
 
 = = Justice League Dark , Constantine and cancellation = = 
 
 In 2011 , it was announced that a younger John Constantine would feature in Justice League Dark , one of the new titles launched as part of September 2011 's DC Universe reboot . He was to be part of a team including Shade , The Changing Man , <unk> and Madame <unk> , known as Justice League Dark . As part of the DC universe reboot in September 2011 , Peter Milligan started the title which featured an alternate version of John Constantine as a prominent part of the team . Milligan wrote eight issues of Justice League Dark , with writer Jeff <unk> taking over on issue nine . 
 On November 8 , 2012 , DC announced that Hellblazer would be cancelled following its 300th issue , and would be replaced by Constantine written by Robert <unk> and drawn by <unk> <unk> starring the younger New 52 John Constantine , rather than the version from Hellblazer , depicted as being in his late 50s . The Constantine series finally ended its run on its 23rd issue in May 1 , 2015 . Nonetheless , the character would again star in another solo series entitled Constantine : The Hellblazer , written by Ming Doyle and art by Riley <unk> , and released in June 10 , 2015 . Writer Ming Doyle expressed excitement in her chance to write Constantine , stating that the reason of putting the term Hellblazer back to the character 's title was to " take Constantine back to what he was at the start . " 
 
 = = Themes and style = = 
 
 Hellblazer was first published during the early days of the Modern Age of Comics , and so its themes were dark , <unk> , politically and morally complex as its contemporaries . Hellblazer mixes supernatural and real life horror , akin to contemporary gothic , with <unk> , surrealism and occult detective fiction elements . Unlike other comic books , Hellblazer is unique as it follows real time in its span of 20 years , with its protagonist John Constantine aging in every publication . Because of this , writers of the series often places their era 's culture and social commentary in their run . When Jamie Delano first wrote the series in the late 1980s and early 1990s , his issues were heavily inspired by the era such as punk rock and the British economy . Delano would be the first to put his political views in the series , an element never before seen in mainstream comics , such as his negative views of Thatcher 's regime and by 2005 includes the War on Terror . This made John Constantine different from other comic book characters at that time , in that he fights the political and social injustice of Great Britain . 
 When Garth Ennis took over writing , he included his trademark representation of racism and religious <unk> , as well his depictions of the <unk> War . The most controversial writer , Brian Azzarello , tackled issues such as Neo @-@ Nazism , prison rape and homosexuality . During Warren Ellis ' run , he included American school shootings in a one @-@ shot issue which led to a major controversy . In his run , Peter Milligan managed to put punk ideology in the series , with the protagonist trying to <unk> his former punk self , while also characterizing the Conservative government as a demon infestation with the punk <unk> fighting against this supposed subversion and abuse . As such , much of Hellblazer 's horror often comes in the crisis and controversies of its time . Being set in the UK , many famous British personalities have appeared or made cameos such as Sid <unk> , Margaret Thatcher , Aleister Crowley and Alan Moore . 
 As stated by Warren Ellis , Hellblazer 's major themes were cynicism , <unk> and " sudden violence " , with the protagonist <unk> <unk> the story in dark <unk> with occasional breaking of the fourth wall . In many story arcs every victory Constantine makes has a negative side effect and often leads to tragedy . His friends , family , and others would be sacrificed or be caught in the crossfire , many of them dead or have left him . John tries his best to make something good in his life , but most of it leading to failure . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 Over the two decades that it had been published , Hellblazer had normally been quite well received . While not attaining the sales of ' mainstream ' comics , it had sustained healthy figures , consistently being one of the top selling Vertigo titles , and was sustained by healthy sales of trade <unk> . Hillary Goldstein of IGN described it as , " Sometimes surreal , often provocative and almost always entertaining , the adventures of the Hellblazer are among the best Vertigo has to offer . " Well @-@ known comic book writer Warren Ellis also praised the series as his favorite , calling it as " among the very best horror works of the 1990 's . " Andre <unk> from DNA India listed it in the " 15 Must Read Graphic Novels " , describing it as " one of the first of its kind " , and that its " writing and art work have been praised throughout its run . " Robert <unk> of Paste Magazine listed the series at # 4 in its " 13 <unk> Modern Horror Comics " , stating that " Constantine ’ s most frightening encounters have hewn close enough to that <unk> of truth to remind readers that real life can be as terrifying as any <unk> or demon spawn . " 
 Jamie Delano 's original run on the title is looked on fondly , with journalist Helen <unk> stating , " His take on the character of John Constantine has never been equalled . Delano 's Original <unk> graphic novel should be in every comic book fan 's collection . " She added that , " His writing evokes an incredible sense of <unk> and terror in a reader . " IGN listed the title as one of the 25 Best Vertigo Books , calling John Constantine as " one of Vertigo 's best characters . " 
 Garth Ennis ' run is also much loved , particularly Dangerous Habits , which was voted the best Garth Ennis story on Comic Book Resources , ahead of his work on Preacher , The Boys and The <unk> . In the same article Brian <unk> describes John 's one time love , Kit Ryan , as one of the series ' most memorable characters . The popularity of Ennis and Dillon 's run on Hellblazer is also credited for Vertigo agreeing to publish their seminal series Preacher . Empire Magazine called Dangerous Habits storyline as " rightly one of the most celebrated in comic book history . " Glenn <unk> who was the cover artist during Ennis ' run , won an <unk> Ward for " Best Cover Artist " in 1995 . 
 The creator of the protagonist , Alan Moore , praised Jamie Delano 's portrayal of the character , commenting " [ Delano ] demonstrates brilliantly that English horror didn 't vanish with the fog and gas lit <unk> at the end of the Victorian era . " Moore also liked Brian Azzarello 's run on the series , commenting that Azzarello and <unk> captured the character " down , cold and to the life . " 
 The character received positive critical reception while starring in the series . Empire Magazine ranked Constantine third in their 50 Greatest Comic Characters of All Time , while IGN ranked him # 29 in their Top 100 Comic Book Heroes , and the character ranked # 10 in <unk> Magazine 's Top 200 Comic Book Characters of All Time . 
 
 = = = Legacy = = = 
 
 The comic book 's initial cancellation , and the introduction of the character to DC led to many negative feedback and reception . I , Vampire writer Joshua Hale <unk> expressed sadness he would never get to write " the ' real ' John Constantine " , noted crime author and former Hellblazer writer Ian Rankin stated that Constantine was the only comic book character he ever wanted to write for , and Alan Moore 's daughter , Leah Moore expressing doubt that Constantine could replace Hellblazer , among others . As a result , DC co @-@ publisher Dan <unk> issued a statement defending this decision , stating that , " Hellblazer 's had a long and incredibly successful run and that 's a tip of the hat to all the great creators that have worked on the book over the years . The new Constantine series will return him back to his roots in the <unk> and hopefully be the start of another incredible run . " Comic Alliance described Hellblazer 's cancellation as marking " the end of an era for Vertigo " while adding it to be " one of a handful of comics from the late eighties that helped comic books and their readers grow up . " 
 Hellblazer boosted the popularity and image of the occult detective fiction genre and shaped it to its modern form . Many modern examples of the genre such as <unk> , Supernatural , <unk> , The <unk> , and The Dresden Files have been influenced by it , and many <unk> of both the series and its character flourished such as Criminal <unk> , <unk> , Planetary , and others . Its elements and style have been used countless of times in other works and many <unk> of the cynical John Constantine have appeared . 
 
 = = Publications = = 
 
 
 = = <unk> editions = = 
 
 
 = = = Trade <unk> = = = 
 
 
 = = Adaptations = = 
 
 
 = = = Film = = = 
 
 The first adaptation of Hellblazer ever filmed for the screen is one of the scenes in the documentary feature film The <unk> of Alan Moore , which was shot in early 2002 . The <unk> consists of the John Constantine character wandering through London and , in the film ending , experiencing a mystical <unk> of sorts . 
 In 2005 , Constantine was released , a feature film that did not use the same title as the comic book , in order to avoid confusion with the <unk> horror franchise . The only links to the character of John Constantine were the name and a plotline loosely based on the " Dangerous Habits " story arc ( Hellblazer # 41 – 46 ) . DC Comics announced a sequel to the 2005 Constantine movie was in the works , with producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura linked to the project . He stated : " I 'd love to do it ... We want to do a hard , R @-@ rated version of it . We 're going to scale back the size of the movie to try and persuade the studio to go ahead and make a tough version of it . " In late 2012 , director Guillermo del Toro publicly discussed the notion of creating a film that would star John Constantine alongside other DC / Vertigo characters such as Zatanna , Swamp Thing , and more . 
 
 = = = Television = = = 
 
 In January 2014 it was announced that David <unk> and Daniel <unk> were developing a TV series based on Hellblazer and that NBC had ordered a pilot for it . A few weeks later it was announced that Neil Marshall would be directing the pilot . The series will follow Constantine in his early years , defending humanity against dark forces from beyond . On February , 21 it was announced that Welsh actor Matt Ryan ( whose credits include Criminal <unk> : <unk> Behavior and Edward <unk> in <unk> 's Creed IV : Black Flag ) will play the role of Constantine in the TV series pilot . On May 8 , NBC announced it had officially picked up Constantine for the Fall 2014 season . The show ran for 13 episodes , and on May 8 , 2015 , NBC cancelled Constantine after the end of its first season . It was later announced that the character of Constantine as portrayed by Ryan would be <unk> in the fourth season of the CW 's Arrow . 
 
 = = = Others = = = 
 
 <unk> released a video game film tie @-@ in of the film entitled Constantine . The song Stranger in the Mirror by <unk> the <unk> is written from Constantine 's point of view , including a lyrical reference to ' the Newcastle incident ' . The song " Venus of the <unk> " , which first appeared in Hellblazer Annual # 1 and written by Jamie Delano , was adapted by the rock group <unk> . 
 Fantasy fiction author John Shirley is credited in making three Hellblazer novels , including the <unk> of the Constantine film . The novel Hellblazer : War Lord features Constantine talking about " another John Constantine in an alternate universe , [ who ] has black hair and lives most of his life in Los Angeles " whilst giving a brief summary of the film 's plot . 
 
 
 = Curtis Woodhouse = 
 
 Curtis Woodhouse ( born 17 April 1980 ) is an English former professional footballer turned professional boxer and football manager . Most recently manager of Hull United , Woodhouse played football as a central midfielder , and competed as a light @-@ welterweight boxer . He is the former British light @-@ welterweight champion . His career in the Football League spanned across nine seasons , earning four caps for the England under @-@ 21 football team . Woodhouse 's professional boxing record stands at 29 fights 22 wins , 13 of which are by knock @-@ out , and 7 defeats . 
 He started his <unk> career with York City 's centre of excellence before joining Sheffield United . In November 2001 , he was transferred to Birmingham City for a fee of £ 1 million , before joining Rotherham United in January 2003 , on loan for five months . He then joined Peterborough United on a free transfer in October 2003 . In May 2005 , he joined Hull City for £ 25 @,@ 000 , before joining Grimsby Town just eight months later in January 2006 . He retired at the end of the 2006 – 07 season . 
 Woodhouse stated that he had " fallen out of love " with football and decided to turn to professional boxing , despite no previous experience . In September 2006 , he won his first professional boxing match , defeating Dean Marcantonio , on points , knocking him down twice in the final round . His only defeat was by Jay Morris in April 2009 , losing 37 – 36 on points . 
 He was convicted of assaulting a police officer and of using threatening , abusive or insulting words or behaviour in April 2006 . As a result , he had his boxing licence suspended for five months by the British Boxing Board of Control , despite the incident happening before he was under the <unk> 's jurisdiction . Woodhouse returned to football in November 2006 , joining Rushden & Diamonds in the Conference National before moving to Mansfield Town in January 2009 . After leaving them , he moved to Harrogate Town . At the end of February 2010 , he joined Sheffield in the Northern Premier League . Before the start of the 2011 – 12 football season , he moved up two divisions in the football league system when he joined Conference North outfit Eastwood Town . 
 
 = = Career = = 
 
 
 = = = York City and Sheffield United = = = 
 
 Woodhouse began his football career at York City 's centre of excellence in 1994 , before being transferred to Sheffield United for an initial compensation fee of £ 2 @,@ 200 . Sheffield United and York City later agreed on an additional £ 15 @,@ 000 fee plus a five @-@ percentage sell @-@ on clause . He made his debut for Sheffield United at the age of 17 , coming on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 home win against Crewe Alexandra in the First Division on 29 November 1997 . He made a total of nine First Division appearances in the 1997 – 98 season . Woodhouse holds the record for being the club 's youngest ever captain , aged 19 . He earned a call @-@ up to the England under @-@ 21 team , and made his debut in a 2 – 2 away draw against Hungary on 27 April 1999 . He went on to earn another three caps against Sweden , Bulgaria and Poland in England 's 2000 European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying group . He made a total of 104 appearances in the Football League , scoring six goals , before being sold to Birmingham City for £ 1 million in February 2001 . 
 
 = = = Birmingham City = = = 
 
 He made his debut for Birmingham City on 3 February 2001 , in a 2 – 1 home victory against Norwich City . He made 17 appearances for Birmingham during the 2000 – 01 season , scoring twice . Both goals came in the final league match of the season , a 2 – 1 away win against Huddersfield Town , sealing their relegation fate . Birmingham reached the League Cup final , however , Woodhouse was unable to play as he was cup @-@ tied , having previously played in three League Cup games for Sheffield United that season . He was arrested after the final of the League Cup , on 25 February 2001 , having been charged with affray along with two others after they " <unk> " an Indian restaurant and he wielded a chair in a brawl with university students . In July 2002 , he was sentenced to 120 hours of community service and ordered to pay £ 250 costs . Birmingham finished fifth in the First Division , and reached the play @-@ offs , losing in a penalty shootout in the semi @-@ final , after the game was drawn 2 – 2 on aggregate . Woodhouse played in both semi @-@ final matches . The following season , 2001 – 02 , he made 28 appearances in the First Division . Birmingham reached the play @-@ offs again for the fourth consecutive season , this time gaining <unk> after beating <unk> in the semi @-@ final and Norwich City in the final . This time , Woodhouse did not play in any of the play @-@ off matches . He made just three appearances for Birmingham City in the Premier League , before being loaned out to Rotherham United in January 2003 . Grimsby Town and Brighton & Hove Albion were also reportedly interested in signing the midfielder . During his loan spell at Rotherham , he turned out 11 times in the First Division . 
 
 = = = Peterborough United = = = 
 
 Woodhouse signed for Peterborough United on 14 October 2003 , the same day that he made his debut against Torquay United in a 3 – 2 victory in the Football League Trophy . However , he had been training with Peterborough a month prior to signing for them , whilst he " sorted out some problems at Birmingham City " . He went on to captain the side , and was later described as " Captain Marvel " by manager , Barry Fry . In 2003 – 04 , he made 27 appearances in the Second Division , scoring seven goals . Peterborough finished 18th in the Second Division , two points from relegation , with Woodhouse being named as Peterborough 's player of the season . In May 2004 , Hull City manager , Peter Taylor , made a failed £ 100 @,@ 000 bid to try and sign the midfielder . The following season , 2004 – 05 , he made 34 appearances in the newly named League One and scored four goals . Peterborough suffered relegation , after finishing 23rd in the league . 
 
 = = = Hull City = = = 
 
 He joined Hull City in May 2005 , the club he supported as a child , on a two @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 , with the potential to rise to £ 150 @,@ 000 depending on appearances . His debut for Hull was as a late substitute in a 2 – 0 victory against Brighton & Hove Albion on 20 August 2005 . Though he lacked fitness at the start of the season , injuries to Keith Andrews and Ian Ashbee gave him the chance of a regular starting place , and manager Taylor also handed him the team captaincy . Despite consistent performances , by December 2005 he had lost his place and there was speculation that he had fallen out with Taylor and wanted to leave ; this was strongly denied by the player : " I 'm shocked that people are saying I want to go . I 'm very happy here . ... It 's taken me long enough to get to Hull so I 'm not going to walk out after a few months , or whatever . " In the following six weeks he made only two brief substitute appearances – in five months with the club he played 18 games in the Championship without scoring – and the strength of Hull 's squad was such that he could not be guaranteed regular first @-@ team football . 
 
 = = = Grimsby Town = = = 
 
 In the January 2006 transfer window , he joined Grimsby Town on a two @-@ year deal , three years after they first expressed an interest in signing him . He made his debut against former club Peterborough United in League Two , on 28 January 2006 in a 2 – 1 home defeat , and scored his first and what turned out to be only goal for the club against Mansfield on 14 February 2006 . On 26 April 2006 , Woodhouse said he planned to retire from football at the end of the 2005 – 06 season and embark on a career as a professional boxer . He made 16 appearances in League Two , helping them to finish fourth place , reaching the play @-@ offs . Woodhouse played in both of Grimsby 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victories over Lincoln City , setting up the only goal of the game in the first leg . He played his last Football League game in the play @-@ off final at the Millennium Stadium on 28 May 2006 . Grimsby were defeated 1 – 0 in the final by Cheltenham Town . Woodhouse gave away a penalty in the 70th minute that was saved by goalkeeper Steve <unk> . 
 
 = = = <unk> to boxing = = = 
 
 Woodhouse had a history of theft , robbery and affray , and said that he had " fallen out of love " with football . He admitted to have been involved in around 100 street fights . He said ; " Boxing has always been my first love , even as a kid " , and " I love fighting ... Rather than get locked up for it , I might as well get paid for it . " He also stated that he used to spar in the boxing gym after football training without his manager 's knowledge , saying " A few times at Sheffield United , Neil Warnock would drag me in and say ‘ I hear you ’ ve been boxing ’ . I ’ d be standing there with a big black eye and a fat lip and deny it . " He trained under former British <unk> champion , Gary De <unk> , and made his boxing debut on 8 September 2006 at <unk> House Hotel , London , in a welterweight contest against Dean Marcantonio , despite not having any previous amateur experience . The former footballer had lost two stone in weight since his playing days with Grimsby Town . The fight was scheduled for four rounds of two minutes , Woodhouse knocked his opponent down twice in the final round and won on points . 
 
 = = = Return to football part @-@ time = = = 
 
 After only one professional fight , Woodhouse returned to football in November 2006 , signing for Rushden & Diamonds , who were playing in the Conference National , the highest @-@ tier of non @-@ league football . His boxing licence was suspended by the British Boxing Board of Control , following a conviction for assaulting a police officer whilst drunk and of using threatening , abusive or insulting words or behaviour in April 2006 , when he was still playing for Grimsby Town , and not under the <unk> 's jurisdiction at the time of the incident . He was ordered to pay £ 100 compensation to PC Andrew Whitehead and £ 350 in costs . Woodhouse chose to play for Rushden & Diamonds to fulfil a promise he made to someone who was part of the consortium that took over the <unk> based club . He made his debut against Aldershot Town on 25 November 2006 , in a 1 – 0 defeat . He made five appearances in the Conference National for Rushden , before deciding to leave to concentrate on his boxing career . 
 He then returned to Rushden on 1 March 2007 , and made a further 11 appearances in the Conference in the 2006 – 07 season , scoring three goals , including a 30 @-@ yard long range effort against <unk> Victoria on 23 April . After five months away from boxing , Woodhouse returned to the ring for his second fight on 15 April , defeating Duncan <unk> on points after four rounds . On 1 May , he signed a new two @-@ year deal with Rushden & Diamonds . He then defeated Peter Dunn in a bout on 3 June , again on points , in a contest of four three @-@ minute rounds . In his fourth fight on 5 December 2007 , he defeated Craig <unk> by way of knock @-@ out after just 1 minute and 57 seconds , landing a left hook that <unk> <unk> as the referee decided his opponent as unfit to continue . Matt Seawright was Woodhouse 's next boxing opponent on 16 March 208 , he defeated him after Seawright felt he was unable to continue after the third round . Woodhouse finished the 2007 – 08 football season having played in 29 Conference National matches , scoring once and receiving two red cards . On 17 May , Woodhouse achieved his sixth straight victory , maintaining his undefeated record against Dave Murray at Bramall Lane , defeating his opponent by knock @-@ out in the second round . Murray managed to beat the standing eight count , but the referee deemed him unable to continue after 1 minute and 23 seconds . 
 After defeating Wayne <unk> in 57 seconds on 21 June 2008 , Woodhouse stated his intention to retire from football at the end of the 2008 – 09 season , to concentrate on his boxing career . He was later appointed as team captain for his final season at the club . Woodhouse scored a decisive penalty in Rushden 's opening game of the 2008 – 09 season , away on 9 August , against newly promoted <unk> Borough . He was sent off again in the home game against <unk> on 25 August , after receiving two yellow cards . In his eighth boxing match , Woodhouse defeated Jimmy <unk> on points on 20 September . He then proceeded to defeat Peter Dunn on 30 November , stopping him 23 seconds in the sixth and final round at <unk> 's <unk> Hotel , Rotherham . 
 He signed for Mansfield Town on 5 January on a contract until the end of the 2008 – 09 season . Woodhouse made his debut for Mansfield Town on 24 January in a Conference National match against Lewes . Mansfield won 1 – 0 . Matt <unk> was Woodhouse 's next opponent in the ring on 29 March at Bramall Lane . The fight went the distance of six rounds and Woodhouse was given the decision over <unk> . His first professional loss as a boxer was on 25 April at Ulster Hall , in Belfast at the hands of Jay Morris . The fight went the distance , but Woodhouse lost 37 – 36 on points over six rounds . Mansfield manager David Holdsworth hoped Woodhouse would stay at the club , but on 18 June , he joined Conference North team Harrogate Town . On 27 November , he defeated Dean <unk> by TKO in round 6 . This was Woodhouse 's first fight in the light @-@ welterweight division , having dropped down from welterweight . 
 On 13 January 2010 , in an interview to the Grimsby Telegraph , Woodhouse commented he would definitely consider a move back to former club Grimsby Town after expressing his dismay at The Mariners <unk> near the bottom of the League Two , within danger of being relegated from the Football League . He commented " If they are looking for a central midfielder , though , they are welcome to give me a call " . Harrogate released him by mutual consent on 25 February . Three days later he avenged his defeat by Jay Morris by beating him with a TKO in round 3 . This gave Woodhouse the first title of his boxing career , the International Masters light @-@ welterweight title . On 25 April , Woodhouse defended the title with a 4th round knockout of <unk> <unk> , who stepped in as a late replacement for Steve Saville . Next , on 2 July , Woodhouse knocked out veteran <unk> Bull in round 9 . His next fight was due to be against 2006 Commonwealth Games gold medallist and former world amateur champion Frankie Gavin on 18 September , but Woodhouse pulled out days after the bout was announced in July . He moved up the non @-@ League football ladder in June 2011 , after signing for Conference North side Eastwood Town . 
 
 = = Managerial career = = 
 
 It was announced on 2 May 2012 , that Woodhouse was the new manager of Northern Premier League Division One South club Sheffield . Woodhouse resigned in December 2012 after admitting having difficulty to managing a football team as well as being a professional boxer . 
 On 14 October 2013 , Woodhouse was announced as the assistant manager at Northern Premier League Division One South club <unk> , with former team mate David Holdsworth being appointed manager . In January 2014 Woodhouse replaced Holdsworth as manager following Holdsworth 's resignation . Woodhouse then left <unk> after some issues with the board , and took over at Hull United in January 2015 . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Woodhouse was born in <unk> and raised in <unk> . His father , Bernard Woodhouse , died at the age of 51 after he had a fatal stroke . Unlike other boys who <unk> footballers , Woodhouse stated his heroes were Nigel Benn and Mike Tyson . He admits to fighting at school and in the streets after being racially abused : " I went from scrapping in the street and at school to fighting in the boxing ring from the age of 12 . I was called a few names due to the colour of my skin , but with a quick <unk> in the mouth they soon backed off . " He used to visit <unk> Park to support Hull City before pursuing his career in professional football . He has a wife , Charlotte , and two children : a son named Kyle and a daughter , <unk> . 
 
 = = Career statistics = = 
 
 As of 29 January 2011 . 
 
 = = Professional boxing record = = 
 
 
 
 = 2010 Haiti earthquake = 
 
 The 2010 Haiti earthquake ( French : <unk> de 2010 à <unk> ; Haitian Creole : <unk> 12 <unk> 2010 <unk> <unk> <unk> ) was a catastrophic magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake , with an epicenter near the town of <unk> ( <unk> ) , approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti 's capital . The earthquake occurred at 16 : 53 local time ( 21 : 53 UTC ) on Tuesday , 12 January 2010 . 
 By 24 January , at least 52 aftershocks measuring 4 @.@ 5 or greater had been recorded . An estimated three million people were affected by the quake . Death toll estimates range from 100 @,@ 000 to about 160 @,@ 000 to Haitian government figures from 220 @,@ 000 to 316 @,@ 000 that have been widely characterized as deliberately inflated by the Haitian government . The government of Haiti estimated that 250 @,@ 000 residences and 30 @,@ 000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged . There has been a history of national debt , <unk> trade policies by other countries , and foreign intervention into national affairs that contributed to the pre @-@ existing poverty and poor housing conditions that exacerbated the death toll . 
 The earthquake caused major damage in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Jacmel and other settlements in the region . Notable landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed , including the Presidential Palace , the National Assembly building , the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Cathedral , and the main jail . Among those killed were Archbishop of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Joseph Serge <unk> , and opposition leader <unk> Gaillard . The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) , located in the capital , collapsed , killing many , including the Mission 's Chief , <unk> <unk> . 
 Many countries responded to appeals for humanitarian aid , pledging funds and dispatching rescue and medical teams , engineers and support personnel . Communication systems , air , land , and sea transport facilities , hospitals , and electrical networks had been damaged by the earthquake , which hampered rescue and aid efforts ; confusion over who was in charge , air traffic congestion , and problems with <unk> of flights further complicated early relief work . Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's <unk> were overwhelmed with tens of thousands of bodies . These had to be buried in mass graves . As rescues tailed off , supplies , medical care and sanitation became priorities . <unk> in aid distribution led to angry appeals from aid workers and survivors , and looting and sporadic violence were observed . On 22 January the United Nations noted that the emergency phase of the relief operation was drawing to a close , and on the following day the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 The island of Hispaniola , shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic , is <unk> active and has a history of destructive earthquakes . During Haiti 's time as a French colony , earthquakes were recorded by French historian Moreau de Saint @-@ <unk> ( <unk> – 1819 ) . He described damage done by an earthquake in 1751 , writing that " only one masonry building had not collapsed " in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince ; he also wrote that the " whole city collapsed " in the 1770 Port @-@ au @-@ Prince earthquake . Cap @-@ <unk> , other towns in the north of Haiti and the Dominican Republic , and the Sans @-@ <unk> Palace were destroyed during an earthquake on 7 May 1842 . A magnitude 8 @.@ 0 earthquake struck the Dominican Republic and shook Haiti on 4 August 1946 , producing a tsunami that killed 1 @,@ 790 people and injured many others . 
 Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere , and is ranked <unk> of 182 countries on the Human Development Index . The Australian government 's travel advisory site had previously expressed concerns that Haitian emergency services would be unable to cope in the event of a major disaster , and the country is considered " economically vulnerable " by the Food and Agriculture Organization . Haiti is no stranger to natural disasters . In addition to earthquakes , it has been struck frequently by tropical cyclones , which have caused flooding and widespread damage . The most recent cyclones to hit the island before the earthquake were Tropical Storm Fay and Hurricanes Gustav , Hanna and Ike , all in the summer of 2008 , causing nearly 800 deaths . 
 
 = = Geology = = 
 
 The magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake occurred inland , on 12 January 2010 at 16 : 53 ( UTC @-@ 05 : 00 ) , approximately 25 km ( 16 mi ) <unk> from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince at a depth of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) on blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault system . There is no evidence of surface rupture and based on <unk> , geological and ground <unk> data it is thought that the earthquake did not involve significant lateral slip on the main Enriquillo fault . Strong shaking associated with intensity IX on the <unk> <unk> scale ( MM ) was recorded in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and its suburbs . It was also felt in several surrounding countries and regions , including Cuba ( MM III in <unk> ) , Jamaica ( MM II in Kingston ) , Venezuela ( MM II in <unk> ) , Puerto Rico ( MM II – III in San Juan ) , and the bordering Dominican Republic ( MM III in Santo Domingo ) . According to estimates from the United States Geological Survey , approximately 3 @.@ 5 million people lived in the area that experienced shaking intensity of MM VII to X , a range that can cause moderate to very heavy damage even to earthquake @-@ resistant structures . <unk> damage was more severe than for other <unk> of similar magnitude due to the shallow depth of the quake . 
 The quake occurred in the vicinity of the northern boundary where the Caribbean <unk> plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) per year in relation to the North American plate . The strike @-@ slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti , the Septentrional @-@ Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault in the south ; both its location and focal mechanism suggested that the January 2010 quake was caused by a rupture of the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault , which had been locked for 250 years , gathering stress . However , a study published in May 2010 suggested that the rupture process may have involved slip on multiple blind thrust faults with only minor , deep , lateral slip along or near the main Enriquillo – Plantain Garden fault zone , suggesting that the event only partially relieved centuries of accumulated left @-@ lateral strain on a small part of the plate @-@ boundary system . The rupture was roughly 65 km ( 40 mi ) long with mean slip of 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Preliminary analysis of the slip distribution found <unk> of up to about 4 m ( 13 ft ) using ground motion records from all over the world . 
 A 2007 earthquake hazard study by C. <unk> and M. <unk> @-@ <unk> noted that the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst @-@ case forecast would involve a 7 @.@ 2 Mw earthquake , similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake . Paul Mann and a group including the 2006 study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean <unk> Conference in March 2008 , noting the large strain ; the team recommended " high priority " historical geologic rupture studies , as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years . An article published in Haiti 's Le <unk> newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) recorded eight aftershocks in the two hours after the main earthquake , with <unk> between 4 @.@ 3 and 5 @.@ 9 . Within the first nine hours 32 aftershocks of magnitude 4 @.@ 2 or greater were recorded , 12 of which measured magnitude 5 @.@ 0 or greater , and on 24 January USGS reported that there had been 52 aftershocks measuring 4 @.@ 5 or greater since 12 January quake . 
 On 20 January at 06 : 03 local time ( 11 : 03 UTC ) the strongest aftershock since the earthquake , measuring magnitude 5 @.@ 9 Mw , struck Haiti . USGS reported its epicenter was about 56 km ( 35 mi ) <unk> of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , which would place it almost exactly under the coastal town of Petit @-@ Goâve . A UN representative reported that the aftershock collapsed seven buildings in the town . According to staff of the International Committee of the Red Cross , which had reached Petit @-@ Goâve for the first time the day before the aftershock , the town was estimated to have lost 15 percent of its buildings , and was suffering the same shortages of supplies and medical care as the capital . Workers from the charity Save the Children reported hearing " already weakened structures collapsing " in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , but most sources reported no further significant damage to infrastructure in the city . Further casualties are thought to have been minimal since people had been sleeping in the open . There are concerns that 12 January earthquake could be the beginning of a new long @-@ term sequence : " the whole region is fearful " ; historical accounts , although not precise , suggest that there has been a sequence of <unk> progressing <unk> along the fault , starting with an earthquake in the Dominican Republic in 1751 . 
 
 = = = Tsunami = = = 
 
 The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning immediately after the initial quake , but quickly cancelled it . Nearly two weeks later it was reported that the beach of the small fishing town of Petit <unk> was hit by a localised tsunami shortly after the earthquake , probably as a result of an underwater slide , and this was later confirmed by researchers . At least three people were swept out to sea by the wave and were reported dead . Witnesses told reporters that the sea first retreated and a " very big wave " followed rapidly , crashing ashore and sweeping boats and debris into the ocean . 
 
 = = Damage to infrastructure = = 
 
 
 = = = Essential services = = = 
 
 Amongst the widespread devastation and damage throughout Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and elsewhere , vital infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was severely damaged or destroyed . This included all hospitals in the capital ; air , sea , and land transport facilities ; and communication systems . 
 The quake affected the three Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ) medical facilities around Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , causing one to collapse completely . A hospital in <unk> , a wealthy suburb of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , also collapsed , as did the St. Michel District Hospital in the southern town of Jacmel , which was the largest referral hospital in south @-@ east Haiti . 
 The quake seriously damaged the control tower at Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport . Damage to the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince seaport rendered the harbor unusable for immediate rescue operations ; its container crane subsided severely at an angle because of weak foundations . <unk> seaport in northern Haiti remained operational . 
 Roads were blocked with road debris or the surfaces broken . The main road linking Port @-@ au @-@ Prince with Jacmel remained blocked ten days after the earthquake , hampering delivery of aid to Jacmel . When asked why the road had not been opened , <unk> el @-@ <unk> , head of the south @-@ east division of the UN World Food Programme said that " We ask the same questions to the people in charge ... They promise rapid response . To be honest , I don 't know why it hasn 't been done . I can only think that their priority must be somewhere else . " 
 There was considerable damage to communications infrastructure . The public telephone system was not available , and two of Haiti 's largest cellular telephone providers , <unk> and <unk> Haiti , both reported that their services had been affected by the earthquake . <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> was also disrupted . According to <unk> Sans Frontières ( <unk> ) , Radio <unk> , which broadcasts out of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and reaches 90 percent of Haiti , was initially knocked off the air , but it was able to resume broadcasting across most of its network within a week . According to <unk> , some 20 of about 50 stations that were active in the capital region prior to the earthquake were back on air a week after the quake . 
 
 = = = General infrastructure = = = 
 
 In February 2010 Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive estimated that 250 @,@ 000 residences and 30 @,@ 000 commercial buildings were severely damaged and needed to be demolished . The deputy mayor of <unk> reported that 90 percent of the town 's buildings had been destroyed . Many government and public buildings were damaged or destroyed including the Palace of Justice , the National Assembly , the Supreme Court and Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Cathedral . The National Palace was severely damaged , though President René Préval and his wife Elisabeth <unk> Préval escaped injury . The Prison <unk> de Port @-@ au @-@ Prince was also destroyed , allowing around 4 @,@ 000 inmates to escape . 
 Most of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's municipal buildings were destroyed or heavily damaged , including the City Hall , which was described by the Washington Post as , " a skeletal <unk> of concrete and stucco , <unk> <unk> to the left . " Port @-@ au @-@ Prince had no municipal petrol reserves and few city officials had working mobile phones before the earthquake , complicating communications and transportation . 
 Minister of Education Joel Jean @-@ Pierre stated that the education system had " totally collapsed " . About half the nation 's schools and the three main universities in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince were affected . More than 1 @,@ 300 schools and 50 health care facilities were destroyed . 
 The earthquake also destroyed a nursing school in the capital and severely damaged the country 's primary <unk> school . The Haitian art world suffered great losses ; artworks were destroyed , and museums and art galleries were extensively damaged , among them Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's main art museum , Centre d <unk> , College Saint Pierre and Holy Trinity Cathedral . 
 The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) at Christopher Hotel and offices of the World Bank were destroyed . The building housing the offices of Citibank in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince collapsed , killing five employees . The clothing industry , which accounts for two @-@ thirds of Haiti 's exports , reported structural damage at manufacturing facilities . 
 The quake created a landslide dam on the Rivière de Grand Goâve . As of February 2010 the water level was low , but engineer Yves <unk> believed the dam could collapse during the rainy season , which would flood Grand @-@ Goâve 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) downstream . 
 
 = = Conditions in the aftermath = = 
 
 In the nights following the earthquake , many people in Haiti slept in the streets , on <unk> , in their cars , or in makeshift <unk> towns either because their houses had been destroyed , or they feared standing structures would not withstand aftershocks . Construction standards are low in Haiti ; the country has no building codes . Engineers have stated that it is unlikely many buildings would have stood through any kind of disaster . Structures are often raised wherever they can fit ; some buildings were built on slopes with insufficient foundations or steel supports . A representative of Catholic Relief Services has estimated that about two million Haitians lived as squatters on land they did not own . The country also suffered from shortages of fuel and <unk> water even before the disaster . 
 President Préval and government ministers used police headquarters near the Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport as their new base of operations , although their effectiveness was extremely limited ; several <unk> were still trapped in the Presidential Palace , and offices and records had been destroyed . Some high @-@ ranking government workers lost family members , or had to tend to wounded relatives . Although the president and his remaining cabinet met with UN planners each day , there remained confusion as to who was in charge and no single group had organized relief efforts as of 16 January . The government handed over control of the airport to the United States to hasten and ease flight operations , which had been hampered by the damage to the air traffic control tower . 
 Almost immediately Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's morgue facilities were overwhelmed . By 14 January , a thousand bodies had been placed on the streets and <unk> . Government crews manned trucks to collect thousands more , burying them in mass graves . In the heat and humidity , corpses buried in rubble began to <unk> and smell . <unk> Goldstein , head of the Israeli <unk> International Rescue Unit delegation to Haiti , described the situation as " <unk> from hell . Everywhere , the acrid smell of bodies hangs in the air . It 's just like the stories we are told of the Holocaust – thousands of bodies everywhere . You have to understand that the situation is true madness , and the more time passes , there are more and more bodies , in numbers that cannot be grasped . It is beyond comprehension . " 
 Mayor Jean @-@ Yves Jason said that officials argued for hours about what to do with the volume of corpses . The government buried many in mass graves , some above @-@ ground tombs were forced open so bodies could be stacked inside , and others were burned . Mass graves were dug in a large field outside the settlement of <unk> , north of the capital ; tens of thousands of bodies were reported as having been brought to the site by dump truck and buried in trenches dug by earth <unk> . Max <unk> , a <unk> priest , protested the lack of dignity in mass burials , stating , " ... it is not in our culture to bury people in such a fashion , it is <unk> " . 
 Towns in the eastern Dominican Republic began preparing for tens of thousands of refugees , and by 16 January hospitals close to the border had been filled to capacity with Haitians . Some began reporting having expended stocks of critical medical supplies such as antibiotics by 17 January . The border was reinforced by Dominican soldiers , and the government of the Dominican Republic asserted that all Haitians who crossed the border for medical assistance would be allowed to stay only temporarily . A local governor stated , " We have a great desire and we will do everything <unk> possible to help Haitian families . But we have our limitations with respect to food and medicine . We need the helping hand of other countries in the area . " 
 Slow distribution of resources in the days after the earthquake resulted in sporadic violence , with looting reported . There were also accounts of <unk> wounded or killed by <unk> and neighbourhoods that had constructed their own roadblock barricades . Dr Evan Lyon of Partners in Health , working at the General Hospital in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , claimed that <unk> and overblown reports of violence had hampered the delivery of aid and medical services . 
 Former US president Bill Clinton acknowledged the problems and said Americans should " not be <unk> from supporting the relief effort " by upsetting scenes such as those of looting . Lt. Gen. <unk> <unk> , deputy commander of US Southern Command , however , announced that despite the stories of looting and violence , there was less violent crime in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince after the earthquake than before . 
 In many neighbourhoods , singing could be heard through the night and groups of men coordinated to act as security as groups of women attempted to take care of food and hygiene <unk> . During the days following the earthquake , hundreds were seen marching through the streets in peaceful processions , singing and clapping . 
 The earthquake caused an urgent need for outside rescuers to communicate with Haitians whose main or only language is Haitian Creole . As a result , a mobile translation program to translate between English and Haitian Creole had to be written quickly . 
 
 = = Casualties = = 
 
 The earthquake struck in the most populated area of the country . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies estimated that as many as 3 million people had been affected by the quake . In mid February 2010 , the Haitian government reported the death toll to have reached 230 @,@ 000 . However , an investigation by Radio Netherlands has questioned the official death toll , reporting an estimate of 92 @,@ 000 deaths as being a more realistic figure . On the first anniversary of the earthquake , 12 January 2011 , Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive said the death toll from the quake was more than 316 @,@ 000 , raising the figures from previous estimates . 
 Several experts have questioned the validity of the death toll numbers ; Anthony <unk> , professor emeritus in environmental history at Northeastern University , warned that casualty estimates could only be a " <unk> " , and Belgian disaster response expert Claude de <unk> de <unk> noted that " round numbers are a sure sign that nobody knows . " Edmond <unk> , UN Assistant Secretary @-@ General for <unk> Operations , said , " I do not think we will ever know what the death toll is from this earthquake " , while the director of the Haitian Red Cross , Jean @-@ Pierre <unk> , noted that his organization had not had the time to count bodies , as their focus had been on the treatment of survivors . 
 While the vast majority of casualties were Haitian civilians , the dead included aid workers , embassy staff , foreign tourists — and a number of public figures , including Archbishop of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Monsignor Joseph Serge <unk> , aid worker <unk> <unk> and officials in the Haitian government , including opposition leader Michel " <unk> " Gaillard . Also killed were a number of well @-@ known Haitian musicians and sports figures , including thirty members of the Fédération <unk> de Football . At least 85 United Nations personnel working with MINUSTAH were killed , among them the Mission Chief , <unk> <unk> , his deputy , Luiz Carlos da Costa , and police commissioner Douglas <unk> . Around 200 guests were killed in the collapse of the <unk> Montana in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . 
 On 31 May 2011 , an unreleased draft report based on a survey commissioned by the US Agency for International Development ( USAID ) challenged the Haiti earthquake death toll and several damage estimates . The unpublished report put the death toll between 46 @,@ 000 and 85 @,@ 000 and put the number of displaced persons at 895 @,@ 000 , of which only 375 @,@ 000 remained in temporary shelters . The unreleased report , which compiled its figures from a door @-@ to @-@ door survey , was done by a Washington consulting firm , <unk> <unk> . A US State Department spokesperson said the report had inconsistencies and would not be released until they were resolved . As of January 2012 , USAID has not released the report and states at its website that 1 @.@ 5 million people were displaced , of which 550 @,@ 000 remain without permanent shelter . The most reliable academic estimate of the number of earthquake casualties in Haiti ( over 95 % were in the immediate Port @-@ au @-@ Prince area ) " within six weeks of the earthquake " appears to be the 160 @,@ 000 estimate in a 2010 University of Michigan study . 
 
 = = Early response = = 
 
 Appeals for humanitarian aid were issued by many aid organizations , the United Nations and president René Préval . Raymond Joseph , Haiti 's ambassador to the United States , and his nephew , singer <unk> Jean , who was called upon by Préval to become a " <unk> ambassador " for Haiti , also pleaded for aid and donations . <unk> and <unk> circulating after the earthquake across the internet and through social media helped to intensify the reaction of global engagement . 
 Many countries responded to the appeals and launched fund @-@ raising efforts , as well as sending search and rescue teams . The neighbouring Dominican Republic was the first country to give aid to Haiti , sending water , food and heavy @-@ lifting machinery . The hospitals in the Dominican Republic were made available ; a combined effort of the Airports Department ( <unk> ) , together with the Dominican Naval <unk> , the UN and other parties formed the Dominican @-@ Haitian Aerial Support Bridge , making the main Dominican airports available for support operations to Haiti . The Dominican website <unk> made available to the internet , daily updates on airport information and news from the operations center on the Dominican side . The Dominican emergency team assisted more than 2 @,@ 000 injured people , while the Dominican Institute of <unk> ( <unk> ) helped with the restoration of some telephone services . The Dominican Red Cross coordinated early medical relief in conjunction with the International Red Cross . The government sent eight mobile medical units along with 36 doctors including <unk> specialists , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . In addition , 39 trucks carrying canned food were dispatched , along with 10 mobile kitchens and 110 cooks capable of producing 100 @,@ 000 meals per day . 
 Other nations from farther afield also sent personnel , medicines , materiel , and other aid to Haiti . The first team to arrive in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince was <unk> @-@ <unk> from Iceland , landing within 24 hours of the earthquake . A 50 @-@ member Chinese team arrived early Thursday morning . From the Middle East , the government of <unk> sent a strategic transport aircraft ( C @-@ 17 ) , loaded with 50 tonnes of urgent relief materials and 26 members from the <unk> armed forces , the internal security force ( <unk> ) , police force and the <unk> Medical Corporation , to set up a field hospital and provide assistance in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and other affected areas in Haiti . A rescue team sent by the Israel Defense Forces ' Home Front Command established a field hospital near the United Nations building in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince with specialised facilities to treat children , the elderly , and women in labor . It was set up in eight hours and began operations on the evening of 16 January . A Korean International Disaster Relief Team with 40 rescuers , medical doctors , nurses and 2 k @-@ <unk> was deployed to <unk> to assist <unk> efforts of Haitian Government . 
 The American Red Cross announced on 13 January that it had run out of supplies in Haiti and appealed for public donations . Giving Children Hope worked to get much @-@ needed medicines and supplies on the ground . Partners in Health ( <unk> ) , the largest health care provider in rural Haiti , was able to provide some emergency care from its ten hospitals and clinics , all of which were outside the capital and undamaged . MINUSTAH had over 9 @,@ 000 <unk> peacekeepers deployed to the area . Most of these workers were initially involved in the search for survivors at the organization 's collapsed headquarters . 
 The International Charter on Space and Major Disasters was activated , allowing satellite imagery of affected regions to be shared with rescue and aid organizations . Members of social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook spread messages and pleas to send help . Facebook was overwhelmed by — and blocked — some users who were sending messages about updates . The American Red Cross set a record for mobile donations , raising US $ 7 million in 24 hours when they allowed people to send US $ 10 donations by text messages . The <unk> community responded to the disaster by greatly improving the level of mapping available for the area using post @-@ earthquake satellite photography provided by <unk> , and tracking website <unk> coordinated messages from multiple sites to assist Haitians still trapped and to keep families of survivors informed . Some online poker sites hosted poker tournaments with tournament fees , prizes or both going to disaster relief charities . Google Earth updated its coverage of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince on 17 January , showing the earthquake @-@ ravaged city . 
 <unk> refugee immigration into Canada was discussed by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper , and in the US Haitians were granted <unk> protected status , a measure that permits about 100 @,@ 000 illegal alien Haitians in the United States to stay legally for 18 months , and <unk> the <unk> of 30 @,@ 000 more , though it does not apply to Haitians outside the US . Local and state agencies in South Florida , together with the US government , began implementing a plan ( " Operation <unk> <unk> " ) for a mass migration from the Caribbean that had been laid out in 2003 . 
 Several <unk> were destroyed in the earthquake . After the process for the adoption of 400 children by families in the US and the Netherlands was expedited , <unk> and SOS Children urged an immediate halt to <unk> from Haiti . Jasmine <unk> , chief executive of Save the Children said : " The vast majority of the children currently on their own still have family members alive who will be desperate to be reunited with them and will be able to care for them with the right support . Taking children out of the country would permanently separate thousands of children from their families — a separation that would compound the acute trauma they are already suffering and inflict long @-@ term damage on their chances of recovery . " However , several organizations were planning an <unk> of thousands of orphaned children to South Florida on humanitarian <unk> , modelled on a similar effort with Cuban refugees in the 1960s named " Pedro Pan " . The Canadian government worked to expedite around 100 adoption cases that were already underway when the earthquake struck , issuing temporary permits and <unk> regular processing fees ; the federal government also announced that it would cover adopted children 's healthcare costs upon their arrival in Canada until they could be covered under <unk> administered public healthcare plans . 
 
 = = Rescue and relief efforts = = 
 
 Rescue efforts began in the immediate aftermath of the earthquake , with able @-@ bodied survivors <unk> the living and the dead from the rubble of the many buildings that had collapsed . Treatment of the injured was hampered by the lack of hospital and morgue facilities : the Argentine military field hospital , which had been serving MINUSTAH , was the only one available until 13 January . Rescue work intensified only slightly with the arrival of doctors , police officers , military personnel and <unk> from various countries two days after the earthquake . 
 From 12 January , the International Committee of the Red Cross , which has been working in Haiti since 1994 , focused on bringing emergency assistance to victims of the catastrophe , in close cooperation with its partners within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , particularly the Haitian Red Cross and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies . 
 Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ; MSF ) reported that the hospitals that had not been destroyed were overwhelmed by large numbers of seriously injured people , and that they had to carry out many <unk> . Running short of medical supplies , some teams had to work with any available resources , constructing <unk> out of cardboard and reusing latex gloves . Other rescue units had to withdraw as night fell amid security fears . Over 3 @,@ 000 people had been treated by Médecins Sans Frontières as of 18 January . Ophelia Dahl , director of Partners in Health , reported , " there are hundreds of thousands of injured people . I have heard the estimate that as many as 20 @,@ 000 people will die each day that would have been saved by surgery . " 
 An MSF aircraft carrying a field hospital was repeatedly turned away by US air traffic controllers who had assumed control at Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport . Four other MSF aircraft were also turned away . In a 19 January press release MSF said , " It is like working in a war situation . We don 't have any more morphine to manage pain for our patients . We cannot accept that planes carrying <unk> medical supplies and equipment continue to be turned away while our patients die . <unk> must be given to medical supplies entering the country . " First <unk> voiced frustration with the number of relief trucks sitting unused at the airport . Aid workers blamed US @-@ controlled airport operations for <unk> the transportation of security troops over rescuers and supplies ; evacuation policies favouring citizens of certain nations were also criticised . 
 The US military acknowledged the non @-@ governmental organizations ' complaints concerning flight @-@ operations bias and promised improvement while noting that up to 17 January 600 emergency flights had landed and 50 were diverted ; by the first weekend of disaster operations <unk> had been reduced to three on Saturday and two on Sunday . The airport was able to support 100 landings a day , up from the 35 a day that the airport gets during normal operation . A spokesman for the joint task force running the airport confirmed that though more flights were requesting landing slots , none were being turned away . 
 Brazilian Foreign Minister <unk> <unk> and French Minister of State for Cooperation Alain <unk> criticised the perceived <unk> treatment for US aid arriving at the airport , though a spokesman for the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that there had been no official protest from the French government with regard to the management of the airport . US officials acknowledged that coordination of the relief effort is central to Haitian recovery , and President Préval asked for calm coordination between assisting nations without mutual accusations . 
 US Air Force logs documenting activity at the airport obtained by the Associated Press largely <unk> the claim that the US held up aid in favor of military flights . The US military initially did give priority to military units needed to secure the airport , distribute aid , and provide security , but after that , incoming relief flights were cleared or rejected on a first @-@ come , first @-@ served basis . According to a US Air Force Captain who had coordinated flight schedules , nearly all groups sending aid insisted their shipment was urgent . Those flights that were rejected were diverted to the Dominican Republic , where their cargoes were <unk> and taken to Haiti by land . 
 At the peak of the relief efforts , the airport was in a state of chaos . Normally , the airport , with a single runway and 10 spaces for large planes , handled 20 flights a day . After the earthquake struck , hundreds of planes rushed to Haiti without designated landing time . On average , a plane would land or take off every two minutes . The situation was further complicated by the fact that there was no room on ramps for planes to <unk> their cargo , and some planes did not have enough fuel to leave . 
 While the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince airport ramp has spaces for over a dozen <unk> , in the days following the quake it sometimes served nearly 40 at once , creating serious delays . The supply backup at the airport was expected to ease as the apron management improved , and when the perceived need for heavy security diminished . Airport congestion was reduced further on 18 January when the United Nations and US forces formally agreed to <unk> humanitarian flights over security reinforcement . 
 By 14 January , over 20 countries had sent military personnel to the country , with Canada , the United States and the Dominican Republic providing the largest <unk> . The <unk> USS Carl <unk> arrived at maximum possible speed on 15 January with 600 @,@ 000 emergency food rations , 100 @,@ 000 ten @-@ litre water containers , and an enhanced wing of 19 helicopters ; 130 @,@ 000 litres of drinking water were transferred to shore on the first day . 
 The helicopter carrier USS <unk> sailed with three large dock landing ships and two survey / salvage vessels , to create a " sea base " for the rescue effort . They were joined by the French Navy vessel Francis Garnier on 16 January , the same day the hospital ship <unk> <unk> and guided @-@ missile cruiser USS Bunker Hill left for Haiti . Another large French vessel was later ordered to Haiti , the amphibious transport dock <unk> . 
 International rescue efforts were restricted by traffic congestion and blocked roads . Although US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates had previously ruled out dropping food and water by air as too dangerous , by 16 January , US helicopters were distributing aid to areas impossible to reach by land . 
 In Jacmel , a city of 50 @,@ 000 , the mayor claimed that 70 percent of the homes had been damaged and that the quake had killed 300 to 500 people and left some 4 @,@ 000 injured . The small airstrip suffered damage that rendered it unusable for supply flights until 20 January . The Canadian navy vessel HMCS Halifax was deployed to the area on 18 January ; the Canadians joined Colombian rescue workers , Chilean doctors , a French mobile clinic , and Sri Lankan relief workers who had already responded to calls for aid . 
 About 64 @,@ 000 people living in the three adjacent agricultural communities of <unk> , <unk> a <unk> , and Les <unk> were relatively unharmed because most of the people were working in the fields ; but all churches , chapels and at least 8 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . 
 British search and rescue teams were the first to arrive in <unk> , the town at the epicenter of the quake , on 17 January . The Canadian ship HMCS <unk> reached the area on 19 January , and by 20 January there were 250 – 300 Canadian personnel assisting relief efforts in the town . By 19 January , staff of the International Red Cross had also managed to reach the town , which they described as " severely damaged ... the people there urgently need assistance " , and by 20 January they had reached Petit @-@ Goâve as well , where they set up two first @-@ aid posts and distributed first @-@ aid kits . 
 Over the first weekend 130 @,@ 000 food <unk> and 70 @,@ 000 water containers were distributed to Haitians , as safe landing areas and distribution centers such as golf courses were secured . There were nearly 2 @,@ 000 rescuers present from 43 different groups , with 161 search dogs ; the airport had handled 250 tons of relief supplies by the end of the weekend . Reports from Sunday showed a record @-@ breaking number of successful rescues , with at least 12 survivors pulled from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's rubble , bringing the total number of rescues to 110 . 
 The buoy tender <unk> Oak and <unk> <unk> ( T @-@ ARS @-@ 51 ) were on scene by 18 January to assess damage to the port and work to reopen it , and by 21 January one pier at the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince seaport was functional , <unk> humanitarian aid , and a road had been repaired to make transport into the city easier . In an interview on 21 January , Leo <unk> , Haiti 's ambassador to the UN , said that he expected the port to be fully functional again within two weeks . 
 The US Navy listed its resources in the area as " 17 ships , 48 helicopters and 12 fixed @-@ wing aircraft " in addition to 10 @,@ 000 sailors and Marines . The Navy had conducted <unk> air deliveries , delivered 32 @,@ 400 US gallons ( 123 @,@ 000 L ) of water , <unk> @,@ 440 bottles of water , 111 @,@ <unk> meals and 9 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) of medical supplies by 20 January . Hospital ship <unk> began operations on 20 January , completing the arrival of the first group of sea @-@ base vessels ; this came as a new flotilla of USN ships were assigned to Haiti , including survey vessels , ferries , elements of the maritime <unk> and underway <unk> fleets , and a further three amphibious operations ships , including another helicopter carrier , USS Nassau ( <unk> @-@ 4 ) . 
 On 22 January the UN and United States <unk> the coordination of relief efforts by signing an agreement giving the US responsibility for the ports , airports and roads , and making the UN and Haitian authorities responsible for law and order . The UN stated that it had resisted <unk> the organization of the relief effort to allow as much <unk> as possible for those wishing to assist in the relief effort , but with the new agreement " we 're leaving that emergency phase behind " . The UN also urged organizations to coordinate aid efforts through its mission in Haiti to allow for better scheduling of the arrival of supplies . On 23 January the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors , and most search and rescue teams began to prepare to leave the country . However , as late as 8 February 2010 , survivors were still being discovered , as in the case of Evan <unk> , 28 , found in the rubble of a grocery store . 
 On 5 February , ten Baptist missionaries from Idaho led by Laura <unk> were charged with criminal association and kidnapping for trying to smuggle 33 children out of Haiti . The missionaries claimed they were rescuing orphaned children but investigations revealed that more than 20 of the children had been taken from their parents after they were told the children would have a better life in America . In an interview , the United States Ambassador to Haiti Kenneth <unk> , stated that the US justice system would not interfere and that " the Haitian justice system will do what it has to do . " By 9 March 2010 , all but <unk> were deported and she remained incarcerated . 
 Social networking organizations such as Crisis Camp Haiti were developed to aid in the structure and coordination of relief efforts in Haiti and future catastrophic events as well . 
 On 10 April , due to the potential threat of mudslides and flooding from the upcoming rainy season , the Haitian government began operations to move thousands of refugees to a more secure location north of the capital . 
 
 = = Recovery = = 
 
 US President Barack Obama announced that former presidents Bill Clinton , who also acts as the UN special envoy to Haiti , and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti 's recovery . Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Haiti on 16 January to survey the damage and stated that US $ 48 million had been raised already in the US to help Haiti recover . Following the meeting with Secretary Clinton , President Préval stated that the highest priorities in Haiti 's recovery were establishing a working government , clearing roads , and ensuring the streets were cleared of bodies to improve <unk> conditions . 
 US Vice President Joe <unk> stated on 16 January that President Obama " does not view this as a humanitarian mission with a life cycle of a month . This will still be on our radar screen long after it 's off the <unk> at CNN . This is going to be a long <unk> . " 
 Trade and Industry Minister <unk> <unk> <unk> estimated that the earthquake 's toll on the Haitian economy would be massive , with one in five jobs lost . In response to the earthquake , foreign governments offered badly needed financial aid . The European Union promised € 330 million for emergency and long @-@ term aid . Brazil announced R $ 375 million for long @-@ term recovery aid , R $ 25 million of which in immediate funds . The United Kingdom 's Secretary of State for International Development Douglas Alexander called the result of the earthquake an " almost unprecedented level of devastation " , and committed the UK to ₤ 20 million in aid , while France promised € 10 million . Italy announced it would waive repayment of the € 40 million it had loaned to Haiti , and the World Bank waived the country 's debt <unk> for five years . On 14 January , the US government announced it would give US $ 100 million to the aid effort and pledged that the people of Haiti " will not be forgotten " . 
 In the aftermath of the earthquake , the government of Canada announced that it would match the donations of Canadians up to a total of C $ 50 million . Canadians were able to donate through the Humanitarian Coalition which distributed funds to partner organizations working in the field . During this time the Humanitarian Coalition raised over C $ 15 Million . After a United Nations call for help for the people affected by the earthquake , Canada pledged an additional C $ 60 million in aid on 19 January 2010 , bringing Canada 's total contribution to C $ 135 million . By 8 February 2010 , the federal International Co @-@ operation Department , through the Canadian International Development Agency ( <unk> ) , had already provided about C $ 85 million in humanitarian aid through UN agencies , the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and to organizations such as <unk> , Médecins du <unk> , Save the Children , Oxfam Quebec , the Centre for International Studies and co @-@ operation , and World Vision . On 23 January 2010 , Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the federal government had lifted the limit on the amount of money allocated for matching individual donations to relief efforts , and that the federal government would continue to match individual donations until 12 February 2010 ; by the deadline , Canadians had privately raised C $ 220 million . On top of matching donations , International Co @-@ operation Minister <unk> <unk> pledged an additional C $ 290 million in long @-@ term relief to be spent between 2010 and 2012 , including C $ 8 million in debt relief to Haiti , part of a broader cancellation of the country 's overall World Bank debt . The government 's commitment to provide C $ 550 million in aid and debt relief and Canadians ' individual donations amount to a total of C $ 770 million . 
 In addition to Canada 's federal government , the governments of several of the provinces and territories of Canada also announced that they would provide immediate emergency aid to Haiti . On 18 January 2010 , the province of Quebec , whose largest city – Montreal – houses the world 's largest Haitian diaspora , pledged C $ 3 million in emergency aid . Both the provincial government of Quebec and the Canadian federal government reaffirmed their commitment to rebuilding Haiti at the 2010 <unk> Summit ; Prime Minister Harper used his opening speech to " tell the head of the Haitian delegation to keep up their spirits " and to urge other nations to continue to support recovery efforts . 
 President <unk> Wade of Senegal offered interested Haitians free land in Senegal ; depending on how many respond to the offer , this could include up to an entire region . 
 Prime Minister Bellerive announced that from 20 January , people would be helped to relocate outside the zone of devastation , to areas where they may be able to rely on relatives or better fend for themselves ; people who have been made homeless would be relocated to the makeshift camps created by residents within the city , where a more focused delivery of aid and sanitation could be achieved . Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , according to an international studies professor at the University of Miami , was ill @-@ equipped before the disaster to sustain the number of people who had migrated there from the countryside over the past ten years to find work . After the earthquake , thousands of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince residents began returning to the rural towns they came from . 
 On 25 January a one @-@ day conference was held in Montreal to assess the relief effort and discuss further plans . Prime Minister Bellerive told delegates from 20 countries that Haiti would need " massive support " for its recovery from the international community . A donors ' conference was expected to be held at the UN headquarters in New York in March , however , took more than three months to hold the UN conference . The 26 @-@ member international Interim Haiti Reconstruction Commission , headed by Bill Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive , convened in June 2010 . That committee is overseeing the US $ 5 @.@ 3 billion pledged internationally for the first two years of Haiti 's reconstruction . 
 The commission was critiqued by Haitian groups for lacking Haitian civil society representation and accountability mechanisms . Half the representation on the commission was given to foreigners who effectively bought their seats by pledging certain amounts of money . An international development consultant contracted by the commission was quoted as saying , “ Look , you have to realize the <unk> [ commission ] was not intended to work as a structure or entity for Haiti or Haitians . It was simply designed as a vehicle for donors to funnel <unk> ’ and <unk> ’ project contracts . ” 
 The Netherlands sponsored a project , called <unk> . The Dutch radio channels <unk> , Radio 538 and Radio Veronica all broadcast under the name of <unk> , funded by a contribution of € 80 million . 
 Several organizations of the US building industry and government , such as the Department of Homeland Security and the International Code Council , among others , reported that they were compiling a " Haiti <unk> " coordinated by the National Institute of Building Sciences . The <unk> would comprise building technology resources and best practices for consideration by the Haitian government with the goal of creating a more <unk> infrastructure to prevent future losses of life . 
 Immediately following the earthquake , Real Medicine Foundation began providing medical staffing , in @-@ kind medical supplies and strategic coordination to help meet the <unk> needs of the health crisis on the ground . Working in close partnership with other relief organizations , Real Medicine organized deployments of volunteer medical specialists to meet the needs of partner hospitals and clinics at the Haiti – Dominican Republic border and in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , provided direct funding , medical supplies and <unk> to local health facilities and partner hospitals , provided advisory services and coordination to local health facilities , including physical therapy support , and coordinated mobile health <unk> , field clinics and food supplies to outlying villages overlooked in the relief effort . 
 On 15 January 2011 , the Catholic Relief Services announced a US $ 200 million , five @-@ year relief and reconstruction program that covers shelter , health , livelihoods , and child protection among its program areas . 
 
 = = = Status of the recovery = = = 
 
 Six months after the quake as much as 98 percent of the rubble remained <unk> . An estimated 26 million cubic yards ( 20 million cubic meters ) remained , making most of the capital impassable , and thousands of bodies remained in the rubble . The number of people in relief camps of tents and tarps since the quake was 1 @.@ 6 million , and almost no transitional housing had been built . Most of the camps had no electricity , running water , or sewage disposal , and the tents were beginning to fall apart . Crime in the camps was widespread , especially against women and girls . Between 23 major charities , US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts , but only two percent of the money had been released . According to a CBS report , US $ 3 @.@ 1 billion had been pledged for humanitarian aid and was used to pay for field hospitals , plastic tarps , bandages , and food , plus salaries , transportation and upkeep of relief workers . By May 2010 , enough aid had been raised internationally to give each displaced family a <unk> for US $ 37 @,@ 000 . 
 In July 2010 , CNN returned to Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and reported , " It looks like the quake just happened yesterday " , and <unk> Wall , spokeswoman for the United Nations office of humanitarian affairs in Haiti , said that " six months from that time it may still look the same . " Land ownership posed a particular problem for rebuilding because so many pre @-@ quake homes were not officially registered . " Even before the national registry fell under the rubble , land tenure was always a complex and contentious issue in Haiti . Many areas of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince were settled either by <unk> <unk> – <unk> 's death squads – given land for their service or by squatters . In many cases land ownership was never officially registered . Even if this logistical <unk> were to be cleared , the vast majority of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince residents , up to 85 percent , did not own their homes before the earthquake . " 
 Haitian <unk> groups advocated for the government to fulfill the right to housing as designated in the Haitian constitution , and for donor governments to support this as well . They also worked to push the international community to recognize the wave of <unk> from camps that started as early as three months after the earthquake and to put <unk> in place , but little was done in response . 
 In September 2010 there were over one million refugees still living in tents , and the humanitarian situation was characterized as still being in the emergency phase , according to the Apostolic <unk> to Haiti , Archbishop Bernard <unk> . He went on to say that the number was rising instead of diminishing , and reported that the state had decided to first rebuild downtown Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and a new government center , but reconstruction had not yet begun . 
 In October 2010 , <unk> International characterized the aid agencies as dysfunctional and inexperienced saying , " The people of Haiti are still living in a state of emergency , with a humanitarian response that appears <unk> " . It was reported that gang leaders and land owners were intimidating the displaced and that sexual , domestic , and gang violence in and around the camps was rising . They claimed that rape of Haitian women and girls who had been living in camps since the January earthquake was increasing , in part , because the United Nations wasn 't doing enough to protect them . 
 In October , a cholera epidemic broke out , probably introduced by foreign aid workers . Cholera most often affects poor countries with limited access to clean water and proper sanitation . By the end of 2010 , more than 3 @,@ 333 had died at a rate of about 50 deaths a day . 
 
 = = = = 2011 = = = = 
 
 In January 2011 , one year after the quake , Oxfam published a report on the status of the recovery . According to the report , relief and recovery were at a standstill due to government inaction and <unk> on the part of the donor countries . The report stated , " One year on , only five percent of the rubble has been cleared and only 15 percent of the required basic and temporary houses have been built . House building on a large scale cannot be started before the enormous amount of rubble is cleared . The government and donors must <unk> this most basic step toward helping people return home " . Robert Fox , executive director of Oxfam Canada , said " The <unk> has been aided unabated by the way the international community has organized itself , where pledges have been made and they haven 't followed through [ and ] where they come to the table with their own <unk> and own priorities . Most donors provided funds for transitional housing but very little money for clearing rubble or repairing houses " . Fox said that in many instances rubble removal " means it was [ moved ] off someone 's property onto the road in front of the property " . According to a UNICEF report , " Still today more than one million people remain displaced , living in crowded camps where livelihoods , shelter and services are still hardly sufficient for children to stay healthy " . Amnesty International reported that armed men were preying with <unk> on girls and women in displacement camps , worsening the trauma of having lost homes , livelihoods and loved ones . 
 On the first anniversary of the earthquake , Haitian @-@ born <unk> Jean , who served as the Governor General of Canada at the time of the disaster and who became United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) Special <unk> for Haiti on 8 November 2010 , voiced her anger at the slow rate of aid delivery , placing much of the blame on the international community for abandoning its commitments . In a public letter co @-@ authored with UNESCO head <unk> <unk> , Jean said , " As time passes , what began as a natural disaster is becoming a <unk> reflection on the international community . " The Interim Haiti Recovery Commission , led by former US President Bill Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive , had been set up to facilitate the flow of funds toward reconstruction projects in April 2010 , but as of January 2011 , no major reconstruction had started . 
 
 = = = = 2012 = = = = 
 
 In January 2012 , two years since the quake , figures released by the United Nations show that of the nearly US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion pledged for reconstruction projects in 2010 and 2011 , only 43 percent has been delivered . Venezuela and the US , which promised the major share of reconstruction funds , have <unk> only 24 percent and 30 percent , respectively . Japan and Finland are among the few donors to have fully met their pledges . The data shows that some crucial sectors face particularly large funding gaps . In 2010 and 2011 , for example , donors <unk> just US $ 125 million of the US $ 311 million in grants allocated to agriculture projects , and only US $ 108 million of the US $ 315 million in grants allocated to health projects . Only 6 percent of bilateral aid for reconstruction projects has gone through Haitian institutions , and less than 1 percent of relief funding has gone through the government of Haiti . 
 A January 2012 Oxfam report said that a half a million Haitians remained homeless , still living under tarps and in tents . <unk> groups have criticized the reconstruction process saying that part of the problem is that charities spent a considerable amount of money on " soaring rents , board members ' needs , <unk> supplies and imported personnel " . The Miami Herald reports . " A lot of good work was done ; the money clearly didn 't all get <unk> , " but , " A lot just wasn 't responding to needs on the ground . Millions were spent on ad campaigns telling people to wash their hands . <unk> them to wash their hands when there 's no water or soap is a <unk> in the face . " 
 The Institute of Justice & Democracy in Haiti , Let Haiti Live , and The Center For Constitutional Rights have recommended immediate changes to recovery efforts to ensure that critical human rights concerns are addressed . A report found that , " The conditions in the displaced persons camps are <unk> , particularly for women and girls who too often are victims of gender <unk> based violence " . They call for more oversight of accountability of reconstruction plans , asking , " Why have only 94 @,@ 000 transitional shelters been built to date despite a stated goal of 125 @,@ 000 in the first year ? " . 
 On 25 August 2012 , recovery was hampered due to Tropical Storm Isaac impacting Haiti 's southern peninsula . There it caused flooding and 29 deaths according to local reporting . As a result of the 2010 earthquake , more than 400 @,@ 000 Haitians continue to live in tents and experienced the storm without adequate shelter . In late October , with over 370 @,@ 000 still living in tent camps , a second tropical storm , Hurricane Sandy , killed 55 and left large portions of Haiti under water . 
 At the 2012 <unk> Group meeting of the Global <unk> for Disaster <unk> and Recovery ( <unk> ) , the Haitian delegation shared a " bottom @-@ up " approach to disaster reduction and management based on community integration and sustainable development with a group of experts from approximately 38 nations . 
 
 = = = = 2013 = = = = 
 
 According to the International <unk> Fund , more than half of the 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of debris have been removed , and 20 percent of it has been recycled . 
 The cholera outbreak which began in October 2010 has continued . According to U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention it is considered the worst epidemic of cholera since the 1994 outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( called <unk> at that time ) . By August 2013 , it had killed over 8 @,@ 231 Haitians and hospitalized hundreds of thousands more . More than 6 % of Haitians have had the disease . Care of cholera patients remains inadequate with much now done in tent facilities with rows of <unk> for patient treatment . The United Nations peace keeping force , widely believed responsible for the cholera outbreak , continues to refuse to accept responsibility , however , they have launched a $ 2 @.@ 2 billion initiative to combat cholera and the construction of a $ 17 million teaching hospital in <unk> which will employ 800 Haitians and treat 185 @,@ 000 people . 
 By the beginning of the year only a small <unk> $ 215 million — of the total funds collected for aid had been spent on permanent housing , with most of <unk> $ 1 @.@ 2 billion — going for short @-@ term solutions including tent camps , temporary shelters , and cash grants that paid a year 's rent . A 2013 survey disclosed that of the 1 @.@ 5 million Haitians living in camps following the quake , about 279 @,@ 000 remained in a total of 352 camps . Fifteen percent of the camps had no basic protection services , and 48 % no health services . While 20 % lacked functioning toilets , this is higher than the population outside tent cities , where 50 % lack toilets . Many camps remained at a risk for flooding and more than a third of the camps ( 108 ) were at risk for <unk> . In a 2013 statement , the American Red Cross reported that almost all of the money collected for quake relief has been spent or is scheduled for making progress permanent by ensuring people can leave camps and return to stable communities , which includes building new homes , repairing homes , completing a new hospital and clinic , and signing an agreement for a second hospital . 
 
 = = = = 2015 = = = = 
 
 In 2015 , NPR and <unk> investigated the disappearance of US $ 500 million donated to the American Red Cross , described as " one of the most successful fundraisers ever " . Despite the claims of the American Red Cross that 130 @,@ 000 homes had been built , the investigation discovered that only six had been built . The investigation reviewed " hundreds " of pages of internal documents and interviewed " more than a dozen " former and current staff members , and investigated the organization 's claim that 4 @.@ 5 million Haitians had been helped " back on their feet " despite Joel <unk> , a Haitian government advisor , stating that this number would cover " 100 percent of the urban area " , and observing that this would mean they had served every city in Haiti . Numerous other claims did not hold up under investigation , and it was found that the project was riddled with " multiple staffing changes " , bureaucratic delays and a language barrier as many of the Red Cross officials did not speak French or Creole . General counsel for the American Red Cross , David <unk> , directed the investigators to their official statistics , but would not elaborate on them . The public affairs office of the Red Cross disputed NPR and <unk> 's claims in an email , and claimed that the investigative report could cause an international incident . The American Red Cross has handed over the rebuilding efforts to the Haitian Red Cross . 
 
 = = In literature = = 
 
 The Haiti 2010 earthquake has been depicted in the novel God Loves Haiti , by <unk> Elias <unk> . 
 
 = De <unk> a <unk> : interviews with persons affected by the 2010 Haiti earthquake = 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> a <unk> . United States : <unk> . ISBN <unk> . 
 
 
 = Thom Darden = 
 
 Thomas Vincent Darden ( born August 28 , 1950 ) is a former American football cornerback , safety , and punt <unk> who played for the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League ( NFL ) . In the NFL , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ Pro free safety . He earned a Pro Bowl selection in 1978 . He holds most Cleveland Browns franchise interception records . He was an All @-@ American defensive back for the Michigan Wolverines football team and made one of the more memorable interceptions in college football history . After retiring from football , Darden pursued careers as a sports agent , security provider and business consultant . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Darden was born in <unk> , Ohio . He graduated from <unk> High School . 
 
 = = College football = = 
 
 After graduating , he was recruited by six Big Ten Conference football programs in 1968 . He played at the University of Michigan from 1969 to 1971 and had 218 tackles and 11 interceptions . He was an All American in 1971 , and he was also named All @-@ Big Ten in 1970 . He played on Big Ten champions in both 1969 and 1971 . Thom fit in well at Michigan becoming one of Coach Bo <unk> 's prized pupils and earning a reference in his 2006 book Bo <unk> . Darden still ranks among leaders at Michigan for Punt <unk> and Punt Return <unk> . Darden played all defensive back positions at Michigan . In college , Darden was a <unk> of <unk> <unk> , Glenn <unk> , Billy Taylor and Mike Taylor in a notable house known as the Den of the <unk> Men . 
 ESPN chose Darden 's November 21 , 1971 interception against Ohio State as one of the 100 <unk> , performances and moments that define college football . The play was a very controversial call late in the 10 – 7 game and Ohio State coach Woody Hayes stormed the field to <unk> at the referee Jerry <unk> about the referee 's call that Hayes thought should have been ruled pass interference . By the end of Hayes ' <unk> , he had broken a yard marker , <unk> a first @-@ down indicator and earned two 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike penalties . The scene was replayed over and over on national television broadcasts . That was Darden 's second interception in that game . ESPN also chose Darden as a member of the All @-@ Time University of Michigan Football team . 
 
 = = Pro football = = 
 
 Darden was drafted in the first round ( 18th overall ) in the 1972 NFL Draft by the Cleveland Browns . Darden started at free safety from his rookie season of 1972 until he lost the job in his tenth and final season to Clinton Burrell . He was selected an All @-@ Pro safety in 1976 , 1978 , and 1979 , and went to the Pro Bowl in 1978 . Over the course of his career he handled 45 punt returns for 285 return yards . Darden holds Cleveland Browns franchise records with 45 career interceptions , 10 single @-@ season interceptions and 820 interception return yards . Two of Darden 's Browns teams went to the playoffs . His rookie year , the 10 – 4 1972 Browns went to the 1972 @-@ 73 NFL playoffs under head coach Nick <unk> , but lost in the first round to the Miami Dolphins 20 – 14 . The 11 – 5 1980 Browns went to the 1980 @-@ 81 NFL playoffs under head coach Sam <unk> , but lost in the first round to the Oakland Raiders 14 – 12 . 
 Darden was ranked 47th on the Cleveland Browns top 100 players list . 
 
 = = Post football = = 
 
 Darden has served as a professional sports agent and represented Tony <unk> . In 1990 , he invested $ 25 @,@ 000 in <unk> by hosting him in Cleveland , Ohio and working him out with athletic trainers . At the time he was Cleveland @-@ based sports agent . During Darden 's career as an agent he represented an assortment of NFL and National Basketball Association players and prospects including Felix Wright and Chris Calloway . He was a supporter of Maurice <unk> 's attempt to challenge the NFL Draft 's eligibility rules . In 1998 , when the NFL reissued a franchise in Cleveland , Darden was part of one of the six bidding groups . In 1999 , he owned a security company in Cedar Rapids , Iowa . As of 2006 , Darden was a business consultant living in Cedar Rapids . 
 In 1993 , he went to jail for failure to pay child support . At the time he was a registered NFL agent in Connecticut and owed $ 14 @,@ 000 in child support , $ 30 @,@ 000 to a trust for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old son , Todd , and $ 12 @,@ 000 in his former wife 's legal fees . Darden had been married to <unk> from 1972 – 1977 when they divorced . He had previously been $ 5000 in <unk> until being briefly jailed for failure to pay and cursing the judge . He had been in contempt of court twenty times previously . 
 
 
 = Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne = 
 
 Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne ( known as Journey to the Moon in the United Kingdom and Australia ) is a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game with pre @-@ rendered graphics , developed by Kheops Studio and published by The Adventure Company for the PC in 2005 . The game 's story focuses on a French adventurer 's journey to the moon in the 19th century , and the ancient lunar civilization he <unk> . 
 Voyage is loosely based on the novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon by science @-@ fiction author Jules Verne , and the novel The First Men in the Moon by science @-@ fiction author H.G. Wells . Reactions to the game were generally mixed . In particular , some reviewers praised it for <unk> the player in the look and feel of the 19th century ; others have criticized it for featuring dated graphics and dull textures . 
 While staying true to most adventure game conventions , Voyage has some unique features for its genre . These include two dexterity minigames which take advantage of the reduced gravity in the game 's lunar setting , and an " Intelligence Management System " , in which a score is assigned to the player for every puzzle he solves , and for certain actions . The Adventure Company introduced this feature to motivate players to replay the game to increase their cumulative score . 
 
 = = Gameplay = = 
 
 The main focus of Voyage is puzzle @-@ solving . The player can move by clicking , and can <unk> the camera 360 degrees . There are several types of puzzle in Voyage including those involving native plant life on the moon , mechanical puzzles , audio puzzles , and mathematical puzzles . Many of these puzzles require the player to <unk> and use the native language of the moon . 
 Voyage features two unique dexterity minigames . Using a low @-@ gravity setting , the first minigame requires the player to collect floating bubbles in a can , and the second requires the player to execute large jumps across the surface of the moon . These two minigames form only a minor part of the game . The game also has several timed sequences requiring the player to complete puzzles under a time limit . The consequence of failing a puzzle of this sort is death , after which the player is able to return and replay the puzzle . Players can also be killed as the result of taking incorrect actions related to the game 's story . 
 A critical aspect of gameplay in Voyage is the inventory system , which allows the player to pick up and keep dozens of different items . However , the maximum quantity of a given item that the player may keep in his inventory at any one time is three . One of the main uses of the inventory is to combine items together to make new items . This process of breaking and reforming items in the inventory comprises a large portion of the puzzle aspect of the game . The inventory can also be used to create meals which the player can consume ; this ability plays a major role in several puzzles . Another use of the inventory is to create hybrid lunar plants , which play a critical role in the earlier puzzles of the game . 
 
 = = = Intelligence Management System = = = 
 
 The " Intelligence Management System " featured in Voyage is a score assigned to the player by the Selenites , the natives of the moon . For each puzzle the player solves , and for certain actions , this score is increased , and the Selenites treat the player with more respect . During an interview with <unk> , Benoît Hozjan , Managing Director and co @-@ founder of Kheops Studio , described the system , saying : 
 In the same interview , Alexis Lang , the Lead Game Designer at Kheops , commented that : " [ A ] low score does not mean that you are stupid in any way , it just means that some <unk> and <unk> lunar people think that your character is dumb ! " This reflects the fact that the " Intelligence Management System " is designed primarily to earn the respect of the Selenites . However , Hozjan also said that he hopes " players will try to increase their score and certainly share their experience through forums . " The Adventure Company has marketed the system as bringing a degree of replay value to Voyage , as players can replay the game to achieve a higher score . 
 
 = = Synopsis = = 
 
 
 = = = Setting = = = 
 
 Voyage is set in 1865 . President Barbicane of the ' Gun Club ' decides to build an enormous cannon in Baltimore to shoot a shell , capable of supporting human life , towards the moon in the hopes of a successful landing . Voyage 's protagonist , Michel Ardan , volunteers to travel in the aluminium shell . After the game 's brief introduction in the shell , Ardan lands on the moon and discovers the Selenites , as well as a complex ecosystem of lunar plants . The main accessible areas in the game are the moon 's surface , and the underground Selenite civilization . 
 The ' Selenites ' are the subterranean inhabitants of the moon , and are a highly intelligent society maintained by hierarchy and secret . They possess blue skin , large black eyes and transparent <unk> lobes on the sides of their heads . This is in fact a reference to H.G. Wells ' book The first men in the moon , as the adventurers never actually land on the moon in Verne 's original story . 
 They are divided into castes . The Selenites live in a large complex under the surface of the moon from which they rarely venture , with the exception of the ' exiles ' . The Selenites " <unk> [ these ] <unk> of their society , the criminals and <unk> , " to the surface of the moon . There are three Selenite exiles with whom the player can interact ; they live on the surface and sleep in their isolated underground <unk> at night . Each exile has two different plants on either shoulder with which they share a special bond . 
 
 = = = Characters = = = 
 
 The player character is Michel Ardan , an eccentric and intrepid French scientist who is enthusiastic , daring and cheerful . President Barbicane , the President of the Gun Club , and Captain Nicholl , an engineer , are both found dead at the start of the game , not having survived the flight to the moon . A woman called Diana features in the game 's backstory , as a woman whose ancestors made contact with the Selenites . Apart from these human characters , there are also several Selenite characters such as the Supreme Moon Ruler , the High <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and the three exiles . 
 
 = = = Plot = = = 
 
 Voyage begins as Ardan <unk> in the shell and discovers his two dead companions : Barbicane and Nicholl . The first part of the game consists of Ardan investigating the shell , trying to regain his memory of what happened , and how Barbicane and Nicholl died , he will also encounter other problems , most notably when his oxygen supply is low and needs to be <unk> . Eventually Ardan 's journey will carry him into orbit around the moon in which he must prepare himself for a lunar landing . 
 Once Ardan successfully lands the shell on the moon , he must solve a series of puzzles on the surface in order to gain access to the hidden civilization below . There he encounters the Selenite race . Following this , Ardan <unk> on finding a way to leave the moon and report his findings to Earth . After acquiring what he needs , Ardan travels back to Earth in the shell . He lands in the ocean and manages to swim to a nearby island , where he meets another famous Jules Verne character , Captain <unk> . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 Journey to the Center of the Moon was announced for the PC at E3 2005 . The Adventure Company collaborated with developers Kheops Studios for the release . Benoît Hozjan , the co @-@ founder of Kheops Studio , became Managing Director of the game , while Alexis Lang became the Lead Game Designer . 
 Journey to the Center of the Moon was later renamed Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne . Benoît Hozjan explained the change , saying that Journey to the Center of the Moon " seems to be confusing and some people thought that it could be the sequel to Journey to the Center of the Earth , " another Verne @-@ inspired PC game , " so marketing decided to change it . " The name was changed on July 7 , 2005 , a few months after the game 's announcement . 
 Benoît Hozjan explained Kheops Studio 's choice of Jules Verne 's work as a basis for Voyage , saying that : " Jules Verne 's novels provide the two core elements of adventure games : dreams and challenges . Characters are ordinary men engaged in concrete challenges that are [ a ] great inspiration for puzzles . " He further went on to say that the game is influenced by Verne 's From the Earth to the Moon , which documents the lead up to the lunar trip , but draws more heavily from the sequel Around the Moon , which recounts the actual voyage . The main difference , Hozjan said , was that in the novel the protagonists fail to reach the moon , whereas in Voyage the trip is a success . Additionally , Alexis Lang attributed the inspiration for the Selenites to H.G. Wells ' The First Men in the Moon , explaining that : " [ Wells ] pictured a very ancient Selenite <unk> horrified at human <unk> . Wells was more <unk> than Verne . To balance this fact , we 've added a touch of irony in our story and chosen a very optimistic and joyful main character . " 
 The Adventure Company announced the release of the Voyage demo on August 3 , 2005 . The demo included the game 's introduction in the shell . Voyage , originally slated for a September 27 release , was shipped to stores ahead of schedule on August 16 , 2005 . The game <unk> for US $ 19 @.@ 99 . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 In general , Voyage received mixed reviews upon its release . According to Metacritic , reviewers have given Voyage scores between 60 % and 86 % . One of the more positively received aspects of the game was its ability to recreate the mood of 19th century science @-@ fiction , with GameSpot writing that the game " nicely re @-@ creates the whimsical mood of 19th @-@ century <unk> @-@ fi [ and ] a sense of wonder fills every pixel of the graphic design . " In contrast , Game Over Online Magazine said that once the player leaves the capsule and arrives on the moon , instead of viewing colorful and <unk> sights , the game turns into a drab and unlikely bore . The puzzle aspect of Voyage met with mixed responses . On the other hand , GameSpot accused the puzzle aspects of Voyage of " <unk> [ ing ] Jules Verne 's tale of a visit to the moon in 1865 to a series of <unk> arranged logic puzzles geared to try the patience of adventure @-@ game veterans . " The puzzles in the game are often extremely difficult , with Just Adventure attributing the unexpected difficulty in the game to the fact that there are often several different ways to achieve the same goals , thanks to the game 's " Intelligence Management System " . The game 's inventory system received praise from <unk> as being very well done . 
 In terms of graphics , Voyage was poorly received , with the graphics being described by <unk> as containing some vibrant colors , but lacking the lush , spectacular view that has been seen in countless other adventure games . Voyage has also been criticized for its lack of story and over @-@ reliance on back story . The game 's music was generally appreciated , with <unk> describing the music has having a nice retro @-@ futuristic feel which sets the mood perfectly . <unk> commented on the game 's voice acting as overly dramatic but appropriate , but criticized many of the sound effects as being cheesy . GameSpot described Ardan 's dialogue as somewhat lame , and also criticized the game 's sound effects . Metacritic averaged out the scores of several internet reviews of Voyage to reach a rating of 71 % , the closest to an ' overall ' rating of the game . 
 
 
 = Old Baltimore Pike = 
 
 Old Baltimore Pike is a road in the U.S. state of Delaware . The road , known as New Castle County Road 26 , runs from Maryland Route 281 ( MD 281 ) at the Maryland state line south of Newark , Delaware and continues east to Christiana , ending near Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) . The road is paralleled by Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 , Delaware Turnpike ) to the north and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 , Pulaski Highway ) to the south . The Old Baltimore Pike was built before 1720 and connected Elkton , Maryland to Christiana . It was a turnpike called the Elk and Christiana Turnpike between 1817 and 1838 . In the past it served as a major connection between Philadelphia and Baltimore . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 Old Baltimore Pike begins at the Delaware – Maryland state line near Newark , Delaware , where the highway continues west into that state as MD 281 . The road heads northeast from the state line through wooded residential areas as a two @-@ lane undivided road , intersecting <unk> Chapel Road before passing south of Iron Hill Park . Old Baltimore Pike crosses DE <unk> and enters rural areas . Here , the roadway passes <unk> 's Bridge , a historic battle site of the American Revolutionary War . It then crosses Norfolk Southern 's <unk> Secondary railroad line and encounters DE 72 . 
 After this intersection , Old Baltimore Pike continues past suburban neighborhoods , gaining a center left @-@ turn lane and intersecting Salem Church Road . Farther east , the highway reaches a junction with DE 273 in a wooded area . At this point , the road <unk> to two lanes again and heads into the community of Christiana . Here , the highway intersects DE 7 , where it turns north and follows that route through residential areas . The road comes to an interchange with DE 1 to the west of the Christiana Mall , where DE 7 continues north along with DE 1 and Old Baltimore Pike reaches a dead end . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The Old Baltimore Pike was built before 1720 . The road was known as the Great Road and ran between Head of Elk ( now Elkton , Maryland ) and Christiana Bridge . It was later known as the Christiana @-@ Elkton Turnpike before becoming Old Baltimore Pike . This path served as a major connection between Philadelphia and Baltimore in addition to providing access between the shipping area of Christiana Bridge and agricultural areas in northern Delaware , northern Maryland , and southeastern Pennsylvania . In 1723 , Welsh <unk> settlers pushed for the road to be improved . This road was part of the Washington – <unk> Revolutionary Route that was used by the French army during their march from Newport , Rhode Island to Yorktown during the Revolutionary War , passing through the area in September <unk> . 
 The road , also known as Old Post Road , was incorporated in 1813 as the Elk and Christiana Turnpike in order to get more money for repairs . The turnpike was completed in April 1817 . As a turnpike , tolls were collected to pay for the maintenance of the road . The construction of the New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad lowered the revenues of the turnpike and it became a public road again in 1838 . The road historically went through agricultural areas ; however , the surroundings have become more developed over the years . Much of the Old Baltimore Pike remains two lanes . 
 
 = = Major intersections = = 
 
 The entire route is in New Castle County . 
 
 
 = Mega Man & Bass = 
 
 Mega Man & Bass , known in Japan as Rockman & Forte ( <unk> & <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Capcom . It is a spin @-@ off title in the original Mega Man series and was originally released exclusively in Japan on April 24 , 1998 for the Super Famicom . Mega Man & Bass was ported to the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) handheld in 2002 and was localized in North America and <unk> regions the following year . 
 After defeating the evil Dr. Wily many times , the robotic hero Mega Man is called into action once again when a powerful being known as King steals the blueprints to the creations of Dr. Wily and Dr. Light in order to create an army for robotic dominance over humans . Having learned of the threat , Mega Man 's rival Bass decides to take matters into his own hands . The game is an action @-@ platformer where the player advances by defeating bosses and acquiring their signature weapons . Mega Man & Bass lets the player choose between either of its title characters , each of which plays differently from the other . 
 Mega Man & Bass debuted on the aging 16 @-@ bit Super Famicom despite the series having already transitioned to the PlayStation and Sega Saturn with Mega Man 8 . Artist and designer <unk> Inafune claimed Mega Man & Bass was created with regard to younger players who did not yet own one of the more advanced gaming systems . The game received positive remarks from critics for its graphics and use of a tried @-@ and @-@ true gameplay formula , though many found the difficulty to be too steep . Although Mega Man & Bass shares many traits with previous console games in the series , the ninth numbered title would not be released until 2008 . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 The story of Mega Man & Bass varies slightly depending on which player character is chosen . It begins One year after <unk> 8 when a robot villain named King breaks into Dr. Wily 's laboratory and then the Robot Museum to collect the data blueprints for the creations of Dr. Light . Dr. Light alerts the hero Mega Man that he must go at once to the Robot Museum to confront this new enemy . Meanwhile , Bass ( Mega Man 's rival and Wily 's greatest creation ) hears of the new criminal 's appearance and decides to prove himself the stronger robot by defeating King . Proto Man is the first to arrive at the scene . King <unk> his plan to him ; he desires to create a <unk> in which robots rule the world over humans . To accomplish this , King seeks to create an <unk> army using the data and invites Proto Man to join him . Proto Man refuses and attempts to attack , but King <unk> and <unk> his body in half . Proto Man then <unk> back to the lab for repairs while King escapes with the data , instructing his <unk> to handle the heroes . With their own motivations , Mega Man and Bass set out to put a stop to King 's plans . 
 After vanquishing eight powerful robots under allegiance to King ( Cold Man , Astro Man , Ground Man , Magic Man , Tengu Man , Dynamo Man , Pirate Man , and Burner Man ) , the duo infiltrates his castle and engages him in combat . Proto Man interrupts the fight and again attempts to defeat their new nemesis . <unk> all of his remaining energy into a blast , Proto Man manages to destroy King 's shield and loses consciousness , allowing Mega Man and Bass to best King in battle afterwards . King questions why they fight so hard for humans when robots are the superior species . The pair explains that humans are the ones who created robots in the first place , which <unk> King . The villain reveals that his creator is Dr. Wily , who then appears on a video monitor . When King asks the evil inventor why robots fight each other for the sake of humans , Wily strengthens his " brainwashing level " and <unk> his power . Mega Man and Bass engage King in another battle and defeat him , but not before the latter <unk> Proto Man out of his castle . The castle begins a self @-@ destruct sequence and the protagonists escape without King . 
 Mega Man and Bass begin a final confrontation with Dr. Wily in his newly regained laboratory . When Wily is beaten , Bass demands to know why he deceived him . Wily explains that he created King simply to test Bass ' abilities . Wily shows him written plans for making a newer version of King to join with Bass in this venture , promising that the two would be <unk> together . Proto Man appears and immediately destroys these plans . Wily then demands Bass to destroy Proto Man , but Bass is unsure . It was then Proto Man tells Bass that although he is a strong robot of free will , he can never defeat his rival because he has nothing for which to fight . Bass doesn 't care and forces Proto Man to leave , saying that he will still destroy Mega Man to prove his cause . Mega Man returns home where his sister Roll presents him a letter from King , who has somehow escaped the destruction of his castle . King wishes to atone for his own crimes against humans and hopes for them to be friends if they were to meet in the future . 
 
 = = Gameplay = = 
 
 The gameplay in Mega Man & Bass is similar to earlier games in the series . The player is tasked with completing a series of action @-@ platform stages while overcoming obstacles , solving minor puzzles , and battling enemies . Destroying the " Robot Master " boss at the end of a stage lets the player acquire its special weapon . In previous games , the player generally took on the role of the hero Mega Man . In this game , the player can choose to start the game as either Mega Man or Bass . However , whichever character is picked must be used for the rest of the game and cannot be changed . Mega Man is able to charge his shots to make them more powerful and has the ability to slide along the ground . Bass is able to rapidly fire his arm cannon in eight directions , though shots cannot be fired while moving or pass through walls unless a certain upgrade is obtained . Bass is also able to double @-@ jump ( jump a second time in mid @-@ air ) and dash along the ground . Performing both simultaneously lets him cross great distances by doing a dash @-@ jump . 
 The stage structure is different from other games in the series . After the introduction level , the player can only choose between three Robot Masters . <unk> Cold Man unlocks Burner Man and Pirate Man ; defeating Astro Man unlocks Dynamo Man , Tengu Man , and Pirate Man ; and defeating Ground Man unlocks Magic Man and Tengu Man . Clearing one of these unlocked stages opens the way to a security room where the player must destroy a series of crystals with obtained Robot Master weapons . <unk> all eight crystals opens the way to the fortress stages . In a similar fashion to previous installments in the series , enemies often drop bolts after they are destroyed , and these can be exchanged for various restorative items and upgrades . However , unlike in Mega Man 7 the security cavern offers a way to obtain large amounts of bolts without having to repeatedly visit stages . Some upgrades are unique to either character , such as Mega Man 's ability to call on his dog Rush to search for items , or an <unk> for Bass to combine with his wolf Treble to temporarily fly . Also distributed throughout the introduction and Robot Master levels are a collection of 100 data CDs that contain information on many prominent characters in the series . Most of the CDs are hidden either behind obstacles that need to be destroyed with a special weapon or accessed with a character @-@ specific ability , making it impossible to collect them all on a single playthrough . CDs collected in each playthrough are permanently placed in a database and remain unlocked after beating the game . Saved games are used in place of the series ' traditional <unk> system . 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 Mega Man & Bass was developed for the Super Famicom after the release of Mega Man 8 , which preceded Mega Man & Bass on the two 32 @-@ bit consoles , the PlayStation and Sega Saturn . According to series producer <unk> Inafune , Mega Man & Bass was intended for younger players who still owned a Super Famicom and did not have the means to experience Mega Man 8 on one of the newer systems . " Even though trying to bridge out a new title on the [ Super Famicom ] was a little backwards at the time , we didn 't want to make a half @-@ hearted attempt at it , " Inafune explained . The design team included several new employees , as well as members of previous Mega Man games . Inafune required them to make the game " as hardcore as possible " . Designer <unk> <unk> recalled the development of Mega Man & Bass as " one big party " . The staff attempted to create an original game while avoiding the " same old , same old [ ... ] <unk> " that so many long video game series suffer and " had a lot of fun doing it " . 
 <unk> , Mega Man & Bass uses many of the same two @-@ dimensional sprites and animations as Mega Man 8 . Two of the eight Robot Master bosses in Mega Man & Bass ( Tengu Man and Astro Man ) are borrowed from Mega Man 8 . The other six were newly created for the game by three character designers : Hitoshi <unk> ( credited as " H. <unk> " ) , <unk> Iwamoto ( credited as " <unk> Iwamoto " ) and <unk> <unk> ( credited as " K. <unk> " ) designed two characters each . The bosses were officially unveiled on a teaser page in the Kodansha magazine Comic <unk> . Each boss was given distinct characteristics so that they could be easily identified by players in both their aesthetics and personalities . Some of these characters had different names during their conceptual phase prior to the <unk> of the game . " <unk> Man " became Burner Man , " <unk> Man " became Cold Man , and " <unk> Man " became Dynamo Man . Iwamoto originally denoted Ground Man as " <unk> Man " despite there already being a Robot Master by that name in Mega Man 4 . The musical score for Mega Man & Bass was composed by <unk> Kaida ( credited as " A. Kaida " ) , <unk> <unk> ( credited as " N. <unk> " ) , and " <unk> @-@ <unk> " ( real name unknown ) . Rather than create tracks together , each composer was responsible for their own songs . Kaida would later work with other composers in the Mega Man series on the soundtrack for Mega Man 10 , released in 2010 . 
 Mega Man & Bass was originally available in Japan through the Nintendo Power game service in Lawson convenience stores . Its popularity prompted Capcom to later release the game in Super Famicom cartridge form . Until its GBA re @-@ release , it was one of the few Mega Man titles not localized for English @-@ speaking countries . The company commemorated the 15th anniversary of the Mega Man franchise with the GBA version of the game . 
 
 = = Reception and legacy = = 
 
 The GBA port has received generally positive critical reviews , currently holding an aggregate score of 79 % on both GameRankings and Metacritic . Most critics found the game to be a solid yet conventional action @-@ platformer that successfully <unk> to the classic Mega Man formula . Electronic Gaming Monthly summarized that Mega Man & Bass is " one of the best action games on GBA " and " a great , if slightly derivative , platformer " with plenty of replay value due to the <unk> CDs . GamePro was pleased with the game 's fidelity to its predecessors when compared to the deviations made by the Mega Man Battle Network and Mega Man Zero series on the same system . GameSpy <unk> criticized its lack of innovation , declaring , " Anyone that hasn 't tried a Mega Man game yet would be better advised to spend $ 15 on a new copy of Mega Man 8 on the <unk> rather than paying $ 30 for an inferior <unk> of the same game " . 
 Many reviews also noted the game 's high difficulty . Both Giancarlo <unk> of GameSpot and Craig Harris of IGN found that the game 's bosses have very unpredictable attack patterns , thus making the battles extremely challenging . Harris additionally observed a heavy amount of trial @-@ and @-@ error for the levels themselves where the player must die several times before completing each one . He concluded , " [ ... ] It 's really the way Mega Man games have always been ... and to be honest , with all of the annoying little deaths in the game , there 's always that sensation after every failure that you 've learned the challenge , and <unk> definitely prevails in this game " . 
 According to Famitsu , Mega Man & Bass for the GBA sold 91 @,@ <unk> copies in Japan between its release date and the week of December 23 , 2002 . Nintendo Power listed Mega Man & Bass as the 14th best GBA game of all time in its 20th anniversary issue in 2008 . A related game exclusive to Japan titled Rockman & Forte <unk> <unk> no <unk> ( <unk> & <unk> <unk> , lit . Rockman & Forte : <unk> from the Future ) was released for the <unk> handheld in 1999 . The plot consists of the titular duo 's struggle against an <unk> named " Rockman Shadow " . As Mega Man & Bass was released directly after Mega Man 8 and it shares plot and gameplay characteristics with the rest of the numbered titles in the series , many believed it to be the ninth main game in the series ; however , the actual Mega Man 9 would not be released until 2008 . Inafune explained in an interview with the Brazilian magazine Nintendo World that the ninth installment follows the storyline of Mega Man 8 and that the worlds for Mega Man & Bass and Mega Man 9 are meant to coincide with one another , as evidenced by a <unk> of Bass in the ending of the game . In 2010 , Bass was made playable via downloadable content in Mega Man 10 . As in Mega Man & Bass , he is able to dash , fire in seven directions with his <unk> , and fly by combining with Treble . 
 Elements of the game appeared in the Mega Man comic series from Archie Comics before it went on hiatus . Most notably , King appeared during a time travel story in issue 20 , while issue 55 saw Dr. Light experiencing a vision of the events of the game among other yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ adapted games . 
 
 
 = Ohio State Route 319 = 
 
 State Route 319 ( SR 319 ) is a very short , two @-@ lane state highway in the western portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . A spur route , SR 319 has its western terminus at an abandoned railroad grade just west of Washington Street in the village of Burkettsville . Its eastern terminus is 0 @.@ 56 miles ( 0 @.@ 90 km ) to the east of its western terminus at its junction with SR 118 . SR 319 was established in the early 1930s . It started out as a much longer highway , but earlier segments would become a part of SR 118 in the late 1930s . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 For its entire length , SR 319 runs along the boundary between Darke County on the south side and Mercer County on the north side . SR 319 begins in downtown Burkettsville at a former railroad grade just west of Washington Street . Known as Main Street within Burkettsville , the route runs due east through the village 's central business district prior to entering a residential area where it intersects a few side streets . After leaving the village of Burkettsville , SR 319 becomes the boundary between Darke County 's Allen Township and Mercer County 's Granville Township . After a short distance through farmland , the highway comes to an end as it arrives at its junction with SR 118 . Continuing east after the route terminates is Darke – Mercer County Line Road . 
 The Ohio Department of Transportation ( <unk> ) conducts surveys throughout its highway system to determine traffic volume . This is most commonly expressed as the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , or the measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2010 , <unk> determined that an average of 710 vehicles per day traveled along the length of SR 319 . This state highway is not included as a part of the National Highway System , a system of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 SR 319 was assigned in 1932 . Originally , SR 319 included the entirety of the current route , along with the stretch of SR 118 from SR 319 north to SR 219 in <unk> . In 1935 , SR 319 was extended further north along the present alignment of SR 118 to what was then designated as SR 32 , now a part of SR 29 , west of <unk> . Two years later , SR 118 was extended south from its former southern terminus in <unk> to its present southern terminus in <unk> . Consequently , the entirety of what was the north – south stretch of SR 319 prior to that time became a part of the new extension of SR 118 . In turn , SR 319 became the short spur route that it is today . 
 
 = = Major intersections = = 
 
 
 
 = Parliament Act 1911 = 
 
 The Parliament Act 1911 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It is <unk> important and partly governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Lords which make up the Houses of Parliament . This Act must be construed as one with the Parliament Act 1949 . The two Acts may be cited together as the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 . 
 Following the rejection of the 1909 " People 's <unk> " , the House of Commons sought to establish its formal dominance over the House of Lords , who had broken convention in opposing the Bill . The budget was eventually passed by the Lords after the Commons ' democratic mandate was confirmed by holding elections in January 1910 . The following Parliament Act , which looked to prevent a recurrence of the budget problems , was also widely opposed in the Lords and cross @-@ party discussion failed , particularly because of the proposed Act 's <unk> to passing an Irish home rule bill . After a second general election in December , the Act was passed with the support of the monarch , George V , who threatened to create sufficient Liberal peers to overcome the then Conservative majority . 
 The Act effectively removed the right of the Lords to veto money bills completely , and replaced a right of veto over other public bills with a maximum delay of two years . It also reduced the maximum term of a parliament from seven years to five . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Until the Parliament Act 1911 , there was no way to resolve contradictions between the two Houses of Parliament except through the creation of additional peers by the Monarch . Queen Anne had created 12 Tory peers to vote through the Treaty of <unk> in <unk> . The Reform Act 1832 was passed when the House of Lords dropped opposition — William IV had threatened to create 80 new peers by request of the Prime Minister , Earl Grey — creating an informal convention that the Lords would give way when the public was behind the House of Commons . For example , Irish <unk> , which had been a major bone of contention between the two main parties since the 1830s , was — following intervention by the Queen — passed by the Lords in 1869 after <unk> Gladstone won the 1868 Election on the issue . However , in practice , this gave the Lords a right to demand that such public support was present and to decide the timing of a General Election . 
 It was the prevailing wisdom that the House of Lords could not amend money bills , since only the House of Commons had the right to decide upon the resources the Monarch could call upon . This did not , however , despite the apparent contradiction , prevent it from rejecting such bills outright . In 1860 , with the repeal of the paper duties , all money bills were consolidated into a single budget . This denied the Lords the ability to reject individual components and the prospect of voting down the entire budget was seemingly <unk> . It was only in 1909 that this became a possibility . Until the Act , the Lords had equal rights over legislation compared to the Commons , but did not <unk> its right of veto over financial measures by convention . 
 There had been an overwhelming Conservative @-@ Unionist majority in the Lords since the Liberal split in 1886 . With the Liberal Party attempting to push through significant welfare reforms with considerable popular support , this seemed certain to cause problems in the relationship between the Houses . Between 1906 and 1909 , several important measures were being considerably watered down or rejected outright : for example , <unk> introduced the Education Bill 1906 , which was intended to address <unk> grievances arising from the Education Act 1902 , but which was amended by the Lords to such an extent that it was effectively a different bill , upon which the Commons dropped the bill . This led to the 26 June 1907 resolution in the House of Commons declaring that the Lords ' power should be curtailed , put forward by Liberal Prime Minister Henry Campbell @-@ <unk> . In 1909 , hoping to force an election , the Lords rejected the financial bill based on the government budget ( the " People 's <unk> " ) put forward by David Lloyd George , by 350 votes to 75 . This , according to the Commons , was " a breach of the Constitution , and a <unk> of the rights of the Commons " . The Lords suggested that the Commons justify its position as representing the will of the people : it did this through the January 1910 general election . The Liberal government lost heavily , but remained in majority with the help of a significant number of Irish Nationalist and Labour MPs . The Irish Nationalists saw the continued power of the Lords as detrimental to securing Irish Home Rule . Following the election , the Lords relented on the budget ( since reintroduced by the government ) , it passing the Lords on 28 April , a day after the Commons . 
 
 = = Passage = = 
 
 The Lords was now faced with the prospect of a Parliament Act , which had considerable support from the Irish Nationalists . A series of meetings between the Liberal government and Conservative opposition members was agreed . Twenty @-@ one such meetings were held between 16 June and 10 November . The discussions considered a wide range of proposals , with initial agreement on finance bills and a joint sitting of the House of Commons and Lords as a means by which to enforce Commons superiority in controversial areas ; the number of Lords present would be limited such that a Liberal majority of 50 or more in the House of Commons could <unk> the Lords . However , the issue of home rule for Ireland was the main contention , with <unk> looking to exempt such a law from the Parliament Act procedure by means of a general exception for " constitutional " or " structural " bills . The Liberals supported an exception for bills relating to the monarchy and Protestant succession , but not home rule . <unk> were declared failed on 10 November . 
 The government threatened another dissolution if the Parliament Act were not passed , and followed through on their threat when opposition in the Lords did not <unk> . The elections of December produced little change from January . The calling of a second dissolution of parliament now seems to have been contrary to the wishes of Edward VII . Edward had died in May 1910 while the crisis was still in progress . His successor , George V , was asked if he would be prepared to create sufficient peers , which he would only if the matter arose . This would have meant creating over 400 new Liberal peers . The King did , however , demand that it would have to be rejected at least once by the Lords before his intervention . Two amendments made by the Lords were rejected and opposition showed little sign of slipping . This led Asquith to declare the King 's intention to overcome the majority in the House of Lords by creating sufficient new peers . It was passed in the Lords by 131 votes to 114 votes , a majority of 17 . This reflected a large number of <unk> . 
 
 = = Provisions = = 
 
 The <unk> included the words " it is intended to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of hereditary basis , but such substitution cannot be immediately brought into operation " at the request of prominent Cabinet member Sir Edward Grey . The long title of the Act was " An Act to make provision with respect to the powers of the House of Lords in relation to those of the House of Commons , and to limit the duration of Parliament . " Section 8 defined the short title as the " Parliament Act 1911 " . 
 The bill was also an attempt to place the relationship between the House of Commons and House of Lords on a new footing . As well as the direct issue of money Bills , it set new conventions about how the power the Lords continued to hold would be used . It did not change the composition of the Lords , however . 
 The Lords would only be able to delay money bills for one month , effectively ending their ability to do so . These were defined as any public bill which contained only provisions dealing with the imposition , repeal , remission , alteration , or regulation of taxation ; the imposition for the payment of debt or other financial purposes of charges on the Consolidated Fund , or on money provided by Parliament , or the variation or repeal of any such charges ; supply ; the appropriation , <unk> , custody , issue or audit of accounts of public money ; and the raising or guarantee of any loan or the repayment <unk> . It did not however , cover any sort of local taxes or similar measures . Some Finance Bills have not fallen within this criterion ; Consolidated Fund and <unk> Bills have . The Speaker of the House of Commons would have to <unk> that a bill was a money bill , <unk> it with a Speaker 's certificate . The Local Government Finance Bill 1988 , which introduced the Community Charge ( " Poll Tax " ) , was not certified as a Money Bill and was therefore considered by the Lords . Whilst Finance Bills are not considered Money Bills , convention dictates that those parts of a Finance Bill dealing with taxation or expenditure ( which , if in an Act alone , would constitute a Money Bill ) are not questioned . 
 Other public bills could no longer be vetoed ; instead , they could be delayed for up to two years . This two @-@ year period meant that legislation introduced in the fourth or fifth years of a parliament could be delayed until after the next election , which could prove an effective measure to prevent it being passed . Specifically , two years had to <unk> between the second reading in the House of Commons in the first session and the passing of the bill in the House of Commons in the third session . The Speaker has to also <unk> that the conditions of the bill had been complied with . Significant restrictions on amendments are made to ensure that it is the same bill that has been rejected twice . The 1911 Act made clear that the life of a parliament could not be extended without the consent of the Lords . 
 Parliament had been limited to a maximum of seven years under the <unk> Act <unk> , but this was reduced by the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 . Parliament would now be limited to five years , beginning the first meeting of parliament after the election . In practice , no election has been forced by such a limitation as all parliaments have been dissolved by the Monarch on request of the Prime Minister . It should be noted , however , that the five @-@ year maximum duration referred to the lifetime of the Parliament , and not to the interval between General <unk> . For example , the 2010 General Election was held five years and one day after the 2005 General Election , whilst the 1992 General Election was held on 9 April 1992 and the next General Election was not held until 1 May 1997 . The reduction in parliament length was seen as a counterbalance to the new powers granted to the Commons . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The Lords continued to suggest amendments to money bills over which it had no right of veto and in several instances these were accepted by the Commons . These included the China <unk> Bill 1925 and the Inshore <unk> Industry Bill 1947 . The use of the Lords ' now temporary veto remains a powerful check on legislation . 
 It was used in relation to the Government of Ireland Act 1914 , which had been under the threat of a Lords veto , now removed . Ulster Protestants had been firmly against the passing of the bill . However , it never came into force because of the outbreak of the First World War . Amendments to the Parliament Act 1911 were made to prolong the life of the 1910 parliament following the outbreak of the First World War and 1935 parliament because of the Second World War . These made special exemptions to the requirement to hold an election every five years . 
 Legislation passed through the Parliament Act , without the consent of the Lords , is still considered primary legislation . The importance of this was highlighted Jackson v Attorney General , where the legality of the Parliament Act 1949 was questioned . The challenge asserted foremost that the 1949 Act was delegated rather than primary legislation , and that the 1911 Act had delegated power to the Commons . If this were the case , then the Commons could not <unk> itself through the 1949 Act without direct permission from the Lords . Since it was passed under the 1911 Act , it had never received the required consent of the Lords . However , the 1949 Act was found to be legal . The 1911 Act , it was concluded , was not primarily about <unk> the Commons , but rather to restrict the ability of the Lords to affect legislation . This ruling also means that efforts to abolish the House of Lords ( a major constitutional change ) using the Act could be successful , although the issue was not directly addressed in the ruling . 
 
 = = Analysis = = 
 
 The Parliament Act 1911 can be seen in the context of the British constitution : rather than creating a written constitution , parliament chose instead to <unk> through the usual channels in response to the crisis . This was a <unk> response , which avoided the further problems of <unk> unwritten rules and <unk> the entire government . It is commonly considered a statute of " constitutional importance " , which gives it informal priority in parliament and in the courts with regards to whether later legislation can change it and the process by which this may happen . 
 It is also mentioned in discussion of constitutional convention . Whilst it replaced conventions regarding the role of the House of Lords , it also relies on several others . Section 1 ( 1 ) only makes sense if money bills do not arise in the House of Lords and the provisions in section 2 ( 1 ) only if proceedings on a public bill are completed in a single session , otherwise they must fail and be put through procedure again . 
 
 = = = Case law = = = 
 
 
 
 = Hibiscus ( restaurant ) = 
 
 Hibiscus is a London restaurant owned and run by French chef Claude Bosi . It was opened in 2000 in Ludlow , Shropshire , and won its first Michelin star within a year , and a second in the 2004 Guide . In July 2006 , Bosi and his wife Claire announced that they were to sell the location in Ludlow and move closer to London . The property was sold to Alan Murchison , and Bosi purchased a new site on <unk> Street in London . 
 Bosi uses molecular <unk> to create some items on the menu in an effort to enhance their flavours , such as freeze @-@ drying cabbage to create a <unk> . The restaurant has received mixed reviews from critics , but has been listed in The World 's 50 Best Restaurants since 2010 , and was named by Egon Ronay as the best restaurant in the UK in 2005 . The Good Food Guide ranked Hibiscus as the eighth @-@ best restaurant in the UK in the 2013 edition . It has also been awarded five AA <unk> . 
 In 2011 , Bosi started a new venture , the Fox & <unk> in Wimbledon . This new <unk> operates under the same philosophy as Hibiscus , and is a collaboration with brother Cedric and former sous chef at Hibiscus , Patrick <unk> . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Claude Bosi and his wife Claire opened Hibiscus in Ludlow , Shropshire , in 2000 . The location had a 36 @-@ seat capacity , and was previously occupied by a three AA <unk> restaurant called the Oaks . 
 Bosi had previously been head chef and won a Michelin star at the <unk> <unk> restaurant , just outside the town . He had intended to open a restaurant in Warwickshire , but found the premises too expensive and purchased a 25 @-@ year lease on the former Oaks property in Ludlow for £ 40 @,@ 000 . Within a year Hibiscus won its first Michelin star , and at the same time <unk> <unk> was downgraded before going in to receivership . 
 Working under Bosi at Hibiscus was sous chef <unk> <unk> , who left Hibiscus in 2003 to become head chef at Jessica 's restaurant in <unk> . Hibiscus gained a second star in the 2004 Michelin Guide . 
 In July 2006 , Bosi and his wife Claire announced that they were intending to sell Hibiscus and open a new restaurant closer to London , or in the capital itself . Hibiscus closed in Ludlow in April 2007 , with Bosi selling the site to fellow chef Alan Murchison for £ 247 @,@ 500 , but retaining the Hibiscus name for himself . The restaurant was renamed " Le <unk> " ( sic ) , and underwent a £ 100 @,@ 000 makeover before being re @-@ opened under head chef Will Holland . In 2014 , Murchison 's company went into voluntary <unk> after running up debts of almost half a million pounds . 
 Bosi completed the deal in June 2007 for a new site at 29 <unk> Street in London . He intended for the new Hibiscus to be open by September , and to transfer over the style of cooking he had used in Ludlow , saying , " I 'm transferring Hibiscus , not starting a new restaurant . The idea is to continue and build on what I have been doing . " <unk> and fitting out the London premises cost around £ 1 million . 
 Many of the staff from the Ludlow incarnation of Hibiscus agreed to move to London to continue working at the restaurant , including head chef Marcus McGuinness and <unk> Simon Freeman . Hibiscus re @-@ opened in October 2007 in its new location after following building works and planning delays . The interior of the London @-@ based restaurant was decorated in orange and shades of brown . The walls were covered in pale @-@ coloured wooden panels , and a <unk> designed as a series of <unk> <unk> from the middle of the main dining room 's ceiling . 
 The handover on the first day was so tight that builders moved out at midday , and the first service was run at 7 pm that evening . The late opening resulted in the reviewers for the Michelin Guide having only a two @-@ week window in which to re @-@ assess the restaurant for the 2008 guide . Bosi admitted later that the restaurant was not yet up to scratch in those two weeks and agreed with the decision of Michelin to <unk> Hibiscus to a single star in the 2008 Guide . The restaurant was also given a " rising star " as one with potential to go up to two stars in the future . During the run up to Christmas , the stress of serving 550 covers a week in a new location with a modified menu resulted in three sous chefs resigning . 
 The two @-@ star award was restored a year later in the 2009 Michelin Guide , as had been predicted by a number of Bosi 's fellow chefs including Tom Aikens , Antonin <unk> and Richard <unk> . <unk> <unk> went a step further and said " I would love to see Claude Bosi regain his second star at Hibiscus and win his third in time . He ’ s probably the best chef I know . " 
 
 = = Menu = = 
 
 The menu is created by Bosi . He has been described as an innovator and his work has been compared to that of Heston <unk> at The Fat Duck . One of the new dishes Bosi introduced following his move to London was a two @-@ part pork dish . The first part was roasted <unk> pig served with sea <unk> , <unk> and a <unk> of sweet potato . The second , inspired by his daughter , featured a sausage roll with a <unk> and a <unk> dressing . Other dishes have included <unk> chicken with an onion <unk> and <unk> , and desserts include a chocolate tart served with <unk> ice cream . 
 Bosi uses molecular <unk> techniques , such as in the process for making a Savoy cabbage <unk> , in which the cabbage is freeze dried into a powder and then reconstituted , but he prefers only to enhance the flavours of individual ingredients rather than changing those flavours by using unusual techniques . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 Jay <unk> reviewed the restaurant for The Observer after Hibiscus moved from Ludlow to London , his first time at the restaurant . While stating that elements of the meal were " very clever indeed " , such as <unk> <unk> ice cream and a sausage roll he described as a " <unk> " , he described the desserts as a " disappointment " , calling an olive oil <unk> a " <unk> mess " . Overall , he planned on returning to give Bosi another chance . 
 Zoe Williams also reviewed the restaurant shortly after it arrived in London , for The Daily Telegraph . She enjoyed her visit , and was impressed with the unusual combinations of foods that worked together saying " the sheer expertise of taking a food with a range of flavours , and knowing it 's in peak condition to meet four others ... it really is something " . 
 John Walsh also visited it , for The Independent , after the restaurant arrived in London , and gave the food four stars , and the <unk> and service three stars ; Terry <unk> reviewed it for the same paper , giving the restaurant 17 out of 20 . 
 Food critics from Time Out visited the restaurant in 2009 , and were " disappointed " compared to their previous visit . They thought that Bosi 's food combinations just did not work , but still said that some of his desserts were " <unk> " . 
 Andy <unk> gave the restaurant a score of six out of ten on his scale during his November 2011 visit . The redeeming feature of his trip was a dish of <unk> , he thought , served with a <unk> of pear in <unk> wine and Savoy cabbage with a red wine and smoked chocolate sauce , but he otherwise felt that the food was " over @-@ worked " and the service " <unk> amateurish " . 
 
 = = = Ratings and awards = = = 
 
 In 2005 Hibiscus was one of three restaurants to be awarded three @-@ stars by the Egon Ronay Restaurant Guide , along with The <unk> Inn and Restaurant Tom Aikens , and was named Ronay 's Restaurant of the Year . 
 The restaurant made its first entry in the World 's 50 Best Restaurants in 2010 , ranked in 49th place and one of three British restaurants in the list ; the following year it moved up to 43rd . 
 The Good Food Guide ranked Hibiscus as the eighth @-@ best restaurant in the UK in its 2013 guide . 
 The restaurant has been given five AA <unk> by The Automobile Association . 
 
 
 = Chris Turner ( American football ) = 
 
 Chris Turner ( born September 8 , 1987 ) is an American football quarterback . He played quarterback for the Maryland Terrapins at the University of Maryland from 2007 to 2009 . Turner began his career at Maryland as a redshirt in 2005 and then served as a reserve quarterback before he earned the starting position . 
 After a redshirt season in 2005 , Turner saw no playing time as the third @-@ string quarterback the following year . In 2007 , he replaced the injured starter during the game against 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers and led the Terrapins to an upset victory . After that , he remained as the team 's leader for the remainder of the season , and against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , engineered another upset victory . Turner also helped Maryland secure an appearance in the Emerald Bowl . At the start of the 2008 season , he was relegated to backup status , but soon regained the starting position . That year , he led Maryland in wins over four of their five ranked opponents and to an appearance in the Humanitarian Bowl . He returned as the starter for the 2009 season , but suffered a knee injury and was replaced by <unk> Robinson . 
 
 = = Early years = = 
 
 Turner was born in <unk> Valley , California to parents John and Grace Turner . His father was the original drummer of the <unk> metal band <unk> . Chris Turner attended high school at the <unk> College Preparatory School , where he was a three @-@ year <unk> and starting quarterback in football and pitcher in baseball . As a sophomore , he was on the junior varsity football team until <unk> when the varsity quarterback suffered an injury against Valencia High School , a regional powerhouse . Turner described the incident as the last time that he was nervous during a game and said , " It got pretty ugly to be honest . Ever since then , I 've always thought to myself , ' It can 't get worse than that . ' " 
 At <unk> , he led a pass @-@ oriented offense and , during his senior year , accumulated 139 completions on 265 attempts , 2 @,@ <unk> yards , 16 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions . He was named to the All @-@ California <unk> Federation ( <unk> ) second team as a senior and the All @-@ Mission League team as both a junior and senior . <unk> picked him as a Far West all @-@ region selection and <unk> as an all @-@ region selection . Turner was assessed as a <unk> three @-@ star and <unk> two @-@ star recruit . He received scholarship offers from Boise State , Illinois , Louisville , Maryland , Oregon , Utah , and <unk> . Maryland offered him after another Californian recruit , Josh Portis , chose Florida instead — although Portis later transferred to Maryland and served as a backup alongside Turner . Turner ultimately chose Maryland , which is located just outside Washington , D.C. , partly due to his interest in politics . 
 
 = = College career = = 
 
 
 = = = Experience = = = 
 
 Turner sat out his true freshman year during the 2005 season on redshirt status . In 2006 , he served as the third @-@ team quarterback behind starter Sam <unk> and reserve Jordan Steffy , but Turner saw no playing time during that season . 
 
 = = = = 2007 season = = = = 
 
 In 2007 , as the second @-@ string quarterback , he saw his first action against <unk> when he was substituted for injured starter Jordan Steffy . Turner executed a scoring drive and completed four of six passes , but also threw two interceptions . He sat out the next two games and then took one snap against Wake Forest . When the unranked <unk> faced 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers , Steffy suffered a concussion and Turner again filled in . He led drives for two touchdowns and two field goals in an upset of the Scarlet Knights , 34 – 24 . About the then relatively unknown Turner , Rutgers head coach Greg <unk> said , " I wish I would have seen this guy before . " Turner started for the remaining eight games of the season . In his career @-@ first start , he passed for 255 yards in a win against Georgia Tech , 28 – 26 . In the game , he threw a 78 @-@ yard touchdown pass , which was caught by tight end Jason Goode rather than his intended receiver , <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> . After a three @-@ game losing streak , Turner led another upset win over a top @-@ ten team , this time against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , 42 – 35 . In the 24 – 16 loss to Florida State , Turner had his worst performance of the season . Late in the second quarter , he was <unk> and replaced by Steffy for two possessions . Turner said , " I didn 't know that my <unk> was that short in the first place , to be honest . I didn 't think it would come to this . I guess I should have . " After an uneven performance by Steffy , Turner played the entire second half and showed improvement . The following week Maryland played their regular season finale against NC State and both teams needed an additional win to attain bowl eligibility . Maryland led in the second quarter , 3 – 0 , but was struggling <unk> . Turner , a generally immobile pocket quarterback , invigorated the offense when he executed a 41 @-@ yard option run for a first down . He completed 19 of 24 passes for 206 yards and led a shutout of NC State , 37 – 0 . With the sixth win , Maryland was invited to the Emerald Bowl , where they were beaten by Oregon State , 21 – 14 . Turner finished the season as the third @-@ most efficient passer in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) . 
 
 = = = = 2008 season = = = = 
 
 In 2008 , Maryland hired a new offensive coordinator , James Franklin , who installed a West Coast offense . That season started with some controversy when head coach Ralph Friedgen initially selected senior Jordan Steffy as the starting quarterback . Turner considered returning home with a transfer to a Californian school , but ultimately decided against it . When Steffy was injured again in the season @-@ opener against Delaware , Turner was awarded the starting job for the rest of the season . After Maryland defeated 21st @-@ ranked Wake Forest , 26 – 0 , Turner was voted the ACC Player of the Week and ESPN named him an " On the Mark " quarterback . Against 16th @-@ ranked North Carolina , Turner 's split @-@ second decision to hold onto the ball for a nine @-@ yard run on fourth down and five put the team within range for the game @-@ winning field goal , 17 – 15 . For that , he was nominated for the week 's Pontiac Game Changing Performance . The win improved Maryland 's record to 7 – 3 and <unk> control over their ACC championship destiny , although they lost the next game against Florida State , 37 – 3 , which ended the Terrapins ' title hopes . The following week against Boston College , Turner set career highs with 33 completions , 57 attempts , and 360 passing yards , but the effort fell short and Maryland lost , 28 – 21 . In the postseason , the Terrapins played Nevada in the Humanitarian Bowl where Turner threw for 198 yards , one interception , two touchdowns including a 59 @-@ yard long , and a two @-@ point conversion . At the end of the season , Maryland had beaten four out of their five Top 25 @-@ ranked opponents , a feat that was surpassed only by the teams in the BCS Championship Game : Florida and Oklahoma . 
 
 = = = = 2009 season = = = = 
 
 Fifth @-@ year senior Turner entered the 2009 season as the uncontested starter at quarterback for the first time in his career . He was backed @-@ up by sophomore <unk> Robinson and true freshmen C. J. Brown and Danny O 'Brien . Turner 's <unk> was called critical for the performance of the team 's relatively youthful offensive line . Head coach Friedgen said , " If I had to choose between a veteran offensive line and an inexperienced quarterback , or an inexperienced line with a veteran quarterback , I think I 'd go with the veteran quarterback . " Upon the conclusion of preseason camp , the coaching staff praised his progress , particularly his game @-@ planning , for which he had been criticized in the past . Turner said , " <unk> , I am way further ahead than where I was last year . " <unk> , he dropped 16 pounds by adding muscle and losing body fat , and weighed 220 pounds before the start of the season . Offensive coordinator Franklin said , " You look at him , he was kind of <unk> last year . You look at him now and he 's muscular and shaped . He looks more athletic . " 
 Before the season , Turner was added to the watch list for the Johnny <unk> Golden Arm Award , an annual honor bestowed upon the nation 's top senior quarterback . At that time , he ranked as the school 's fourth all @-@ time quarterback in terms of completion percentage , fifth in completions , seventh in total offensive yards , and he is tied for 11th in number of touchdown passes . In June 2009 , Turner stated that he wanted to leave a " legacy " at Maryland in his final season . He also expressed a desire to pursue a professional playing career in the National Football League ( NFL ) if possible . The NFL Draft Scout assessed Turner as the 16th @-@ ranked quarterback out of the 135 available for the 2010 NFL Draft and projected him as a potential seventh @-@ round selection . 
 
 = = = Playing style and personality = = = 
 
 Prior to his senior year , Jeff Barker of The Baltimore Sun noted that Turner 's strengths were " poise , <unk> , [ and ] <unk> , " while he had room for improvement in arm strength and mobility . Barker said , " He 's a bit <unk> — he calls himself a ' rhythm ' passer … But he doesn 't quit when things go poorly . His coolness can be mistaken for apathy . " Turner typically <unk> himself to the pocket , as his ability to run the ball himself is limited by his speed . He has made light of his own lack of <unk> by saying that he runs a " flat 5 @.@ 0 " <unk> 40 @-@ yard dash . The CBS Sports @-@ affiliated NFL Draft Scout records his actual time as ranging from a low of 4 @.@ 89 to a high of 5 @.@ 16 seconds , while <unk> reports his 40 @-@ yard time as 4 @.@ 8 seconds . Turner 's supposedly one @-@ dimensional nature , however , has occasionally allowed him to make unexpected plays with his feet . The most noteworthy of these were the momentum @-@ changing 41 @-@ yard option run against NC State in 2007 , and the fourth @-@ down nine @-@ yard scramble into field goal range against North Carolina in 2008 . 
 <unk> and coaches sometimes characterized Turner as a quarterback who did not <unk> during practices , but executed well on game @-@ day . Maryland head coach Ralph Friedgen said " He 's pretty go @-@ with @-@ the @-@ flow . And that 's his greatest strength and maybe his greatest weakness . The bottom line is , he plays well in games . " The Baltimore Sun wrote that he " seems to play his best when it counts — and his worst when it doesn 't . " Regarding the 2008 summer practices , offensive coordinator James Franklin said Turner ranked in the middle compared with Jordan Steffy and Josh Portis in terms of completion percentage , fewest interceptions , and " explosive " plays that gained 16 yards or more . Turner conceded that Steffy was a better game @-@ <unk> during practices . Head coach Ralph Friedgen who had offered critical or subdued assessments of <unk> ' practice , said his intensity grew after losing the starting position to Steffy prior to the 2008 season . Turner said , " It lit a fire in me in the sense that I had to be ready . " 
 Among his Maryland teammates and coaches , Turner earned a reputation as an <unk> " laid @-@ back " Californian and for remaining calm under pressure . After the 2007 win over Rutgers , offensive tackle Scott <unk> described his roommate Turner as " real calm [ in the <unk> ] . . . He would say , ' <unk> , are you ready to score again ? Are you ready to run the ball on these guys ? ' And we 're like , ' Yeah , let 's do that . ' " Turner received the nicknames " Sunshine " and " Napoleon <unk> " , in reference to his similar appearance to the fictional characters in the films Remember the Titans and Napoleon <unk> , respectively . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Turner graduated from the University of Maryland in May 2009 with a bachelor 's degree in government and politics . His strong interest in politics <unk> into his decision on where to attend college . He chose the University of Maryland partly based on its close proximity to Washington , D.C. Turner 's political views are liberal ; he is registered as a Democrat , and has described himself as an idealist . 
 During the 2008 season , political discussions were common in the Maryland locker room because of the presidential election . Turner and fellow quarterback Jordan Steffy , a conservative and supporter of presidential candidate Senator John McCain , were the most frequent <unk> , while defensive tackle Dean <unk> was described as the primary instigator . During the summer of 2009 , Turner held an internship on Capitol Hill working for Democratic Representative <unk> <unk> , the House Majority Leader and Maryland 's fifth district congressman . Turner had previously considered <unk> for the presidential campaign of Barack Obama , which he said probably annoyed his conservative father , John Turner . Describing his experience during the internship , Turner said , " It 's funny to compare how serious politics is and how serious football is . Depending on who you talk to , they 're both pretty big deals . . . There 's more to life than football . " 
 <unk> , Turner 's favorite sport is soccer , not football . He is also interested in foreign cultures and expressed regret at being unable to spend a semester abroad because of college football . Turner said that , dependent upon the outcome of his football career , he would like to attend the 2010 World Cup in South Africa . He also got to meet his childhood idol David <unk> while at the 2010 South Africa world cup . 
 
 = = Statistics = = 
 
 
 
 = Jack and Jill ( nursery rhyme ) = 
 
 " Jack and Jill " ( sometimes " Jack and Gill " , particularly in earlier versions ) is a traditional English nursery rhyme . The Roud Folk Song Index classifies this tune and its variations as number <unk> . The rhyme dates back at least to the 18th century and exists with different numbers of verses each with a number of variations . Several theories have been advanced to explain its origins and to suggest meanings for the lyrics . 
 
 = = Lyrics and structure = = 
 
 The first and most commonly repeated verse is : 
 Jack and Jill went up the hill 
 To fetch a <unk> of water . 
 Jack fell down and broke his crown , 
 And Jill came tumbling after . 
 Many verses have been added to the rhyme , including a version with a total of 15 stanzas in a <unk> of the 19th century . The second verse , probably added as part of these extensions has become a standard part of the nursery rhyme . Early versions took the form : 
 Up Jack got , and home did trot , 
 As fast as he could <unk> ; 
 To old Dame <unk> , who patched his <unk> 
 With vinegar and brown paper . 
 By the early 20th century this had been modified in some collections , such as L. E. Walter 's , Mother Goose 's Nursery Rhymes ( London , 1919 ) to : 
 Up Jack got and home did trot , 
 As fast as he could <unk> ; 
 And went to bed and bound his head 
 With vinegar and brown paper . 
 A third verse , sometimes added to the rhyme , was first recorded in a 19th @-@ century <unk> and took the form : 
 Then Jill came in , and she did <unk> , 
 To see Jack 's paper plaster ; 
 Her mother <unk> her , across her knee , 
 For laughing at Jack 's disaster . 
 Twentieth @-@ century versions of this verse include : 
 When Jill came in how she did <unk> 
 To see Jack 's paper plaster ; 
 Mother <unk> did whip her next 
 For causing Jack 's disaster . 
 The rhyme is made up of <unk> , with a rhyming scheme of <unk> ( with occasional internal rhymes ) , using falling rhymes ( where the rhyming sound is on a relatively <unk> syllable : de @-@ emphasising the rhyme ) and a <unk> rhythm ( with the stress falling on the first of a pair of syllables ) , known as a ballad form , which is common in nursery rhymes . The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by the composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs ( 1870 ) . The Roud Folk Song Index , which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , classifies the song as <unk> . 
 
 = = Meaning and origins = = 
 
 The rhyme has traditionally been seen as a nonsense verse , particularly as the couple go up a hill to find water , which is often thought to be found at the bottom of hills . <unk> and brown paper were a home cure used as a method to draw out <unk> on the body . The phrase " Jack and Jill " , indicating a boy and a girl , was in use in England as early as the 16th century . A comedy was performed at the <unk> court in 1567 @-@ 8 with the title Jack and Jill and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare : in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , which contains the line : " Jack shall have Jill ; <unk> shall go ill " ( III : ii : 460 @-@ 2 ) and in Love 's Labour 's Lost , which has the lines : " Our wooing <unk> not end like an old play ; Jack hath not Jill " ( V : ii : 874 – 5 ) , suggesting that it was a phrase that indicated a romantically attached couple , as in the <unk> " A good Jack makes a good Jill " . 
 Jack is the most common name used in English language nursery rhymes and by the 18th century represented an <unk> <unk> hero , while by the end of the Middle Ages Jill or Gill had come to mean a young girl or a <unk> . However , the woodcut that accompanied the first recorded version of the rhyme showed two boys ( not a boy and a girl ) , and used the spelling Gill not Jill . This earliest printed version comes from a reprint of John <unk> 's Mother Goose 's Melody , thought to have been first published in London around 1765 . The rhyming of " water " with " after " , was taken by Iona and Peter <unk> to suggest that the first verse may date from the first half of the 17th century . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 While the true origins of the rhyme are unknown there are several theories . As is common with nursery rhyme <unk> , complicated metaphors are often said to exist within the lyrics of Jack and Jill . Most explanations post @-@ date the first publication of the rhyme and have no <unk> evidence . These include the suggestion by S. <unk> @-@ Gould in the 19th century that the events were a version of the story told in the 13th @-@ century <unk> <unk> <unk> written by Icelandic historian <unk> <unk> , who stated that in Norse mythology , <unk> and <unk> , brother and sister ( respectively ) , were taken up from the earth by the moon ( personified as the god <unk> ) as they were <unk> water from the well called <unk> , bearing on their shoulders the <unk> called <unk> and the pole called <unk> . Around 1835 John <unk> <unk> suggested that Jack and Jill were two priests , and this was enlarged by Katherine <unk> in 1930 to indicate that Jack represented Cardinal <unk> ( <unk> – 1530 ) ; and Jill was Bishop <unk> , who negotiated the marriage of Mary Tudor to the French king in 1514 . 
 It has also been suggested that the rhyme records the attempt by King Charles I to reform the taxes on liquid measures . He was blocked by Parliament , so subsequently ordered that the volume of a Jack ( 1 / 2 pint ) be reduced , but the tax remained the same . This meant that he still received more tax , despite Parliament 's veto . Hence " Jack fell down and broke his crown " ( many pint glasses in the UK still have a line marking the 1 / 2 pint level with a crown above it ) " and Jill came tumbling after " . The reference to " Jill " ( actually a " gill " , or 1 / 4 pint ) is said to reflect that the gill dropped in volume as a consequence . 
 The suggestion has also been made that Jack and Jill represent Louis XVI of France , who was deposed and beheaded in 1793 ( lost his crown ) , and his Queen , Marie <unk> ( who came tumbling after ) , a theory made difficult by the fact that the earliest printing of the rhyme pre @-@ dates those events . There is also a local belief that the rhyme records events in the village of <unk> in Somerset in 1697 . When a local spinster became pregnant , the <unk> father is said to have died from a rock fall and the woman died in childbirth soon after . 
 
 
 = Florida State Road 878 = 
 
 State Road 878 ( SR 878 ) , named the Snapper Creek Expressway or the Snapper Creek <unk> for its entire length , is a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) east – west electronic toll road south of Miami , Florida . The expressway is named for the nearby Snapper Creek which runs parallel to SR 878 . It acts as a spur route of the Don Shula Expressway ( SR 874 ) , providing access to U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) near South Miami and local access to the eastern Kendall area while bypassing the <unk> district . The road is maintained and <unk> by the Miami @-@ Dade Expressway Authority ( MDX ) . 
 
 = = Route description = = 
 
 SR 878 's western terminus is integrated into the Don Shula Expressway 's interchange with Kendall Drive ( SR 94 ) across the boundary of the Kendall and Sunset districts . <unk> entering the Don Shula Expressway northbound from Kendall Drive are given the option of continuing onto SR 874 via a flyover , or else merging into the traffic leaving SR 874 for the Snapper Creek Expressway , which then heads under the Kendall Drive – Don Shula Expressway flyover . The westbound lanes of SR 878 , however , pass over SR 874 's mainline , and are then given an exclusive carriageway beside the southbound lanes for 0 @.@ 46 miles ( 0 @.@ 74 km ) , before merging into SR 874 just north of the Kendall Drive overpass . <unk> motorists from the Don Shula Expressway wishing to exit to Kendall Drive merge into this carriageway before leaving for SR 94 with those vehicles originating from the Snapper Creek Expressway . There is no direct connection for southbound motorists on SR 874 to head east on SR 878 ; likewise , westbound motorists on SR 878 cannot head north along SR 874 directly . 
 From here , SR 878 heads predominantly eastwards as a four @-@ lane @-@ wide expressway through residential neighborhoods for the remainder of its length , generally lying 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) north of Kendall Drive . After approximately 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) , the Snapper Creek Expressway passes through the 87th Avenue toll gantry . It then meets Galloway Road ( SR 973 ) shortly afterwards with a diamond interchange . The expressway then enters <unk> Heights once it crosses SR 973 and remains in that district for the rest of its duration . Just before passing over the <unk> Expressway ( SR 826 ) without an interchange ( approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Galloway Road ) , SR 878 meets its second and final toll gantry . 
 About 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) east of the <unk> Expressway , SR 878 has a partial diamond interchange with Southwest 72nd Avenue , which only allows westbound entry to and eastbound exit from the Snapper Creek Expressway . Immediately afterwards , SR 878 turns to the southeast and prepares to meet its eastern terminus at the South Dixie Highway ( US 1 ) at a surface intersection 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) later , passing under the <unk> line and associated <unk> just before doing so . Traffic heading south along US 1 from eastbound SR 878 moves into a slip lane , while that wishing to head north along US 1 enters it at an oblique angle , aided by traffic signals . The only access onto SR 878 westbound from US 1 is for southbound traffic ; motorists heading north along US 1 are guided to SR 878 by signage along Southwest 67th Avenue and Southwest 80th Street . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 SR 878 's tolls are entirely electronic : cash cannot be accepted along its length . <unk> is done either via SunPass <unk> or via toll @-@ by @-@ plate billing , the latter of which attracts a higher cost . Two toll <unk> are located along the Snapper Creek Expressway , the first between the Don Shula Expressway and Galloway Road , and the second between Galloway Road and Southwest 72nd Avenue . The relationship between the <unk> points and interchanges along SR 878 and SR 874 is that all motorists are charged at least one toll for using the road ; there are no " free sections " . As of July 1 , 2013 , the cost for a two @-@ axle vehicle to travel the entire length of the Snapper Creek Expressway is $ 0 @.@ 50 with a SunPass <unk> , or $ 1 @.@ 00 via the toll @-@ by @-@ plate program . Each additional axle on a vehicle attracts an extra $ 0 @.@ 25 via SunPass or $ 0 @.@ 50 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate for each toll gantry passed . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Planning by Dade County for a road named the " Snapper Creek Expressway " was underway as early as 1958 , with a final completion date set as late as 1975 . Funding for SR 878 's construction was made available in 1971 by the Florida Department of Transportation as part of plans to construct the Snapper Creek Expressway along with the South Dade Expressway ( now known as the Don Shula Expressway ) and the West Dade Expressway ( now known as the <unk> <unk> of Florida 's Turnpike ) , with an expected completion date of early 1973 . Construction was halted in 1974 due to money issued from county bonds for expressway building running out , and the road was left partially completed ; however , $ 8 million in federal emergency funds was directed to completing the expressway in late 1977 . The Snapper Creek Expressway , designated SR 878 , finally opened in early 1980 , with the Southwest 72nd Avenue interchange opening a few weeks later . 
 No tolls were collected along SR 878 , in line with the road 's original plans , until MDX 's initial roll @-@ out of open road <unk> from late 2009 to mid @-@ 2010 on its road network . <unk> along the Snapper Creek Expressway began on July 17 , 2010 . The move to toll the Snapper Creek Expressway angered local residents , but was tempered by MDX 's move to investigate toll <unk> . Initially , tolls were $ 0 @.@ 25 for SunPass users , with a $ 0 @.@ 15 <unk> for motorists using the toll @-@ by @-@ plate system . The toll @-@ by @-@ plate rate increased by ten cents on July 1 , 2013 , to $ 0 @.@ 50 per toll gantry passed , while the SunPass rate was unaffected . 
 
 = = Exit list = = 
 
 The entire route is in Miami @-@ Dade County . All exits are unnumbered . 
 
 
 = James Nesbitt = 
 
 William James Nesbitt , OBE ( born 15 January 1965 ) is an actor and presenter from Northern Ireland . Born in Ballymena , County Antrim , Nesbitt grew up in the nearby village of <unk> , before moving to Coleraine , County <unk> . He wanted to become a teacher like his father , so he began a degree in French at the University of Ulster . He dropped out after a year when he decided to become an actor , and transferred to the Central School of Speech and Drama in London . After graduating in 1987 , he spent seven years performing in plays that varied from the musical Up on the Roof ( 1987 , 1989 ) to the political drama Paddywack ( 1994 ) . He made his feature film debut playing talent agent <unk> O 'Donnell in Hear My Song ( 1991 ) . 
 Nesbitt got his breakthrough television role playing Adam Williams in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Cold Feet ( 1998 – 2003 ) , which won him a British Comedy Award , a Television and Radio Industries Club Award , and a National Television Award . His first significant film role came when he appeared as pig farmer " Pig " Finn in Waking Ned ( 1998 ) . With the rest of the starring cast , Nesbitt was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award . In Lucky Break ( 2001 ) , he made his debut as a film lead , playing prisoner Jimmy Hands . The next year , he played Ivan Cooper in the television film Bloody Sunday , about the 1972 shootings in Derry . A departure from his previous " <unk> <unk> " roles , the film was a turning point in his career . He won a British Independent Film Award and was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor . 
 Nesbitt has also starred in Murphy 's Law ( 2001 – 2007 ) as undercover detective Tommy Murphy , in a role that was created for him by writer Colin Bateman . The role twice gained Nesbitt Best Actor nominations at the Irish Film & Television Awards ( IFTA ) . In 2007 , he starred in the dual role of Tom Jackman and Mr Hyde in Steven Moffat 's Jekyll , which earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination in 2008 . Nesbitt has since appeared in several more dramatic roles ; he starred alongside Liam Neeson in Five Minutes of Heaven ( 2009 ) , and was one of three lead actors in the television miniseries Occupation ( 2009 ) . He also starred in the movies <unk> ( 2010 ) and The Way ( 2010 ) . He portrayed <unk> in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ part film adaptation of The Hobbit ( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) . 
 Nesbitt is married to former actress Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam , with whom he has two daughters . He is an advocate of numerous charities , and in 2010 he accepted the ceremonial position of Chancellor of the University of Ulster . 
 
 = = Early life and education = = 
 
 James Nesbitt was born on 15 January 1965 in Ballymena , County Antrim , Northern Ireland . His father , James " Jim " Nesbitt , was the headmaster of the primary school in <unk> , a hamlet near <unk> , while his mother , May Nesbitt , was a civil servant . Jim and May already had three daughters — Margaret , <unk> and Andrea . The family lived in the house adjoining the one @-@ room school where Nesbitt was one of 32 pupils taught by Jim ; the other pupils were all farmers ' children . Nesbitt grew up " completely " around women , and spent a lot of time alone , " kicking a ball against a wall " . He had ambitions to play football for Manchester United , or to become a teacher like his father . The family was Protestant , and <unk> was in " Paisley country " . The <unk> spent Sunday evenings singing hymns around the piano . Jim marched in the Ballymena Young <unk> flute band and Nesbitt joined him playing the flute . After the <unk> conflicts , they stopped marching with the band . The family 's residence in the countryside left them largely unaffected by The Troubles , although Nesbitt , his father , and one of his sisters narrowly escaped a car bomb explosion outside Ballymena County Hall in the early 1970s . 
 When Nesbitt was 11 years old , the family moved to Coleraine , County <unk> , where May worked for the Housing Executive . He completed his primary education at <unk> primary school , then moved on to Coleraine <unk> Institution ( <unk> ) . In 1978 , when he was 13 , his parents took him to audition for the Riverside Theatre 's Christmas production of Oliver ! . Nesbitt sang " Bohemian <unk> " at the audition and won the part of the <unk> <unk> , who he played in his acting debut . He continued to act and sing with the Riverside until he was 16 , and appeared at festivals and as an extra in Play For Today : The <unk> ( Christopher <unk> , 1984 ) . He got his <unk> card when the professional actor playing <unk> Cricket in <unk> broke his ankle two days before the performance , and Nesbitt stepped in to take his place . Acting had not initially appealed to him , but he " felt a light go on " after he saw The Winslow Boy ( Anthony Asquith , 1948 ) . When he was 15 , he got his first paid job as a <unk> <unk> at Barry 's Amusements in <unk> . He was paid £ 1 per hour for the summer job and would also , on occasions , work as the brake man on the big <unk> . 
 He left <unk> at the age of 18 and began a degree in French at the University of Ulster , ( formally Ulster Polytechnic ) in <unk> . He stayed at university for a year before dropping out . In a 1999 interview , Nesbitt said , " I had the necessary in my head , but I just couldn 't be bothered . Being 18 is the worst age to expect people to learn things . There are other things to be bothered with , like girls and football . " He made the decision to quit when he was trying to write an <unk> essay on <unk> in Les <unk> Sales at 4 am one day . His father suggested that he should move to England if he wanted to continue acting , so Nesbitt enrolled at the Central School of Speech and Drama ( <unk> ) , part of University of London . Nesbitt felt lost and misrepresented when he first arrived in London , on account of his Northern Irish background ; " When I first came to drama school I was a Paddy the minute I walked in . And I remember going to drama school and them all saying to me , ' <unk> , yeah , <unk> out ' , and I was like ' It 's a wee bit more complicated than that , you know . ' " He graduated in 1987 , at the age of 22 . 
 
 = = Acting career = = 
 
 
 = = = Theatre and Hear My Song = = = 
 
 The day after leaving <unk> in 1987 , Nesbitt got a bit part in <unk> , a BBC Two Screen Two television play about the life of John Ogdon . He worked for two days on the play , earning £ 250 per day . His first professional stage appearance came in the same year , when he played Keith in Up on the Roof . The musical ran at the Theatre Royal , Plymouth , before transferring to the London West End . Nesbitt reprised the role when the production returned to Plymouth in early 1989 . Roger Malone in The Stage and Television Today wrote that Nesbitt " steals the show with the best lines and best delivery as he <unk> squares up to life with an easy contentment " . Nesbitt appeared in two other plays in 1989 ; in June , he played Dukes Frederick and Senior in Paul <unk> 's As You Like It at the Rose Theatre Club , and then appeared in <unk> <unk> 's version of Hamlet . Hamlet had been translated back to English from Boris <unk> 's Russian translation . It ran at the Haymarket Theatre , Leicester for a month before a transfer to the Old Vic and then a nine @-@ month world tour . Nesbitt played Guildenstern , <unk> and the second <unk> . He recalled that the play received " shocking " reviews , but was exciting . 
 In the early 1990s , he lived with fellow actor Jerome Flynn and earned money by signing fan mail for the successful star of Soldier Soldier . In his debut feature film , Hear My Song ( Peter <unk> , 1991 ) , Nesbitt played <unk> O 'Donnell , a struggling theatrical agent and friend of Mickey O 'Neill ( Adrian Dunbar ) . A New York Times critic wrote , " the <unk> , <unk> Mr. Nesbitt , manages to combine <unk> with <unk> humor " . The praise he received made him self @-@ assured and complacent ; in 2001 , he recalled , " When I did Hear My Song , I disappeared so far up my own <unk> afterwards . I thought , ' Oh , that 's it , I 've cracked it . ' And I 'm glad that happened , because you then find out how expendable actors are . " His attitude left him out of work for six months after the film was released . Until 1994 , he mixed his stage roles with supporting roles on television in episodes of Boon , The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles , Covington Cross , <unk> , and Between the Lines . In 1993 , he appeared in Love Lies Bleeding , an instalment of the BBC anthology series Screenplay and his first appearance in a production directed by Michael Winterbottom ; he later appeared in Go Now ( 1995 ) , Jude ( 1996 ) and Welcome to Sarajevo ( 1997 ) . A Guardian journalist wrote that " he showed himself to be a generous supporting actor " in Jude and Sarajevo . 
 Back on stage , he appeared as <unk> in <unk> ( <unk> Hughes , Birmingham Repertory Theatre , 1991 ) , Aidan in <unk> <unk> ( Mark Lambert and Nicholas Kent , <unk> Theatre , 1992 ) , <unk> in Paddywack ( Michael <unk> ) , <unk> Theatre , 1994 ) , and Jesus in Darwin 's Flood ( Simon Stokes , Bush Theatre , 1994 ) . Paddywack , in which Nesbitt 's character is suspected by others of being an IRA member , transferred to the United States for a run at the Long <unk> Theatre in New Haven , Connecticut in October 1994 . A Variety critic called <unk> " the play 's only fully developed character " and commended Nesbitt for giving " the one strong , telling performance [ of the cast ] " . In 1996 , Nesbitt appeared in an episode of the BBC Northern Ireland television drama <unk> , playing Leo <unk> , the ex @-@ boyfriend of <unk> Fitzgerald ( <unk> <unk> ) and love rival of Peter Clifford ( Stephen <unk> ) . He reprised the role for four episodes in 1998 . 
 
 = = = Cold Feet and early films = = = 
 
 In 1996 , Nesbitt auditioned to play Adam Williams , the male lead in Cold Feet , an ITV Comedy <unk> about three couples in different stages of their romantic relationships . The audition came about through a mutual friend of Nesbitt 's and the director , Declan Lowney . The producer , Christine <unk> , had also recalled his performances in Hear My Song and Go Now . Adam had not been written with an <unk> in mind to play him — English writer Mike <unk> had written the character as a thinly veiled portrayal of himself in his youth — but Nesbitt wanted to take the opportunity to appear in a contemporary drama as an ordinary man from Northern Ireland with no connection to the Troubles , especially after the Troubles @-@ based plot of Love Lies Bleeding . Cold Feet was a critical success ; it won the 1997 Golden Rose of Montreux and the 1997 British Comedy Award for Best ITV Comedy and was thus commissioned for a full series . Cold Feet 's first series aired at the end of 1998 and was followed by the second series in 1999 . A storyline in that series featured Adam being diagnosed with <unk> cancer , which inspired Nesbitt to become a patron of the charity Action Cancer . By the time of the third series , Nesbitt and the other cast members were able to influence the show 's production ; an episode featuring Adam 's <unk> weekend was due to be filmed on location in Dublin but Nesbitt suggested it be filmed in Belfast and <unk> instead . Several scenes were filmed at his old workplace Barry 's Amusements , although they were cut from the broadcast episode . At the end of the fourth series in 2001 , Nesbitt decided to quit to move on to other projects . Executive producer Andy <unk> persuaded him to stay for one more series by suggesting that Adam be killed off , so Nesbitt signed on for the fifth series . During pre @-@ production of the fifth series , Mike <unk> decided to kill off Adam 's wife Rachel ( played by Helen <unk> ) instead . 
 Cold Feet ran for five years from 1998 to 2003 , and Nesbitt won the British Comedy Award for Best TV Comedy Actor in 2000 , the Television and Radio Industries Club Award for Drama TV <unk> of the Year in 2002 , the National Television Award for Most Popular Comedy Performance in 2003 , and the TV Quick Award for Best Actor in 2003 . Nesbitt credits the role with raising his profile with the public . Further television roles during these five years included women 's football team coach John Dolan in the first two series of Kay <unk> 's Playing the Field ( appearing alongside his Cold Feet co @-@ star John Thomson ) , investigative journalists Ryan and David Laney in Resurrection Man ( Marc Evans , 1998 ) and Touching Evil II respectively , and <unk> Stanley in Women Talking Dirty ( <unk> <unk> , 1999 ) . 
 Nesbitt 's performance in Hear My Song had also impressed first @-@ time screenwriter and film director Kirk Jones , who cast him in his 1998 feature film Waking Ned . Playing <unk> pig farmer " Pig " Finn brought Nesbitt to international attention , particularly in the United States ( where the film was released as Waking Ned <unk> ) ; the cast was nominated for the 1999 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a <unk> Motion Picture . In 1999 , he appeared as the paramilitary " Mad Dog " Billy Wilson in The Most <unk> Man in Ireland ( <unk> <unk> ) . The following year , he appeared in Declan Lowney 's feature debut , Wild About Harry . Lowney had personally asked him to appear in the supporting role of cross @-@ dressing Unionist politician Walter Adair . In 2001 , he made his debut as a lead actor in a feature film in Peter <unk> 's Lucky Break . He played Jimmy Hands , an incompetent bank <unk> who <unk> an escape from a prison by staging a musical as a distraction . On preparing for the role , Nesbitt said , " Short of robbing a bank there wasn 't much research I could have done but we did spend a day in <unk> Prison and that showed the nightmare <unk> of prisoners ' lives . I didn 't interview any of the inmates because I thought it would be a little <unk> as it was research for a comedy and also because we were going home every night in our fancy cars to sleep in our fancy hotels . " The film was a commercial failure , despite receiving good feedback from test audiences in the United States . 
 
 = = = Bloody Sunday = = = 
 
 Nesbitt had been approached at a British Academy Television Awards ceremony by director Paul <unk> , who wanted him to star in a television drama he was making about the 1972 " Bloody Sunday " shootings in Derry . Nesbitt was only seven years old when the shootings happened and was ignorant of its cause ; he believed that there was " no smoke without fire " and that the Catholic <unk> must have done something to provoke the British Army . He was filming Cold Feet in Manchester when he received the script . He read it and found that had " an extraordinary effect " on him . Nesbitt played Ivan Cooper in Bloody Sunday , the man who pressed for the march to go ahead . To prepare for the role , Nesbitt met with Cooper and spent many hours talking to him about his motives on that day . He met with relatives of the victims and watched the televised Bloody Sunday Inquiry with them , and also read Don <unk> 's Eyewitness Bloody Sunday and Peter Pringle and Philip Jacobson 's Those Are Real <unk> , <unk> 't They ? . <unk> compared Nesbitt 's preparation to an athlete preparing for a race , and told The Observer , " For an Irish actor , doing the Troubles is like doing Lear . " Nesbitt had questioned whether he was a good enough actor to effectively portray Cooper and was worried what Derry Catholics would think of a Protestant playing the lead , although Ivan Cooper himself is a Protestant . 
 Shortly before Bloody Sunday was broadcast , Nesbitt described it as " difficult but extraordinary " and " emotionally draining " . The broadcast on ITV in January 2002 and its promotion did not pass without incident ; he was criticised by <unk> for saying that Protestants in Northern Ireland felt " a collective guilt " over the killings . His parents ' home was also vandalised and he received death threats . During the awards season , Nesbitt won the British Independent Film Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a British Independent Film and was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor . The film was also screened at film festivals such as the Stockholm International Film Festival , where Nesbitt was presented with the Best Actor award . 
 In an analysis of the film in the History & Memory journal , <unk> Blaney wrote that it is Nesbitt 's real @-@ life household name status that made his portrayal of Cooper such a success . She reasoned that Nesbitt 's celebrity status mirrors that of Cooper 's in the 1970s : " A household name across Great Britain , Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic [ sic ] , Nesbitt 's widespread popular appeal is emphatically not contingent upon his Protestant Ulster identity , and consequently the double @-@ voicing of the character he plays does not alienate viewers of an alternative , or no , sectarian persuasion . " Guardian journalist Susie Steiner suggested that his appearance in Bloody Sunday was an attempt to resolve the expression of his " <unk> " on screen : " Where he has taken part in a sectarian theme , his intelligence as an actor has often been masked by an excessive , cartoon @-@ style comedy . Yet in his more successful , high @-@ profile roles , ( notably in Cold Feet , and as Pig Finn in the gently pastoral film Waking Ned ) , Nesbitt 's <unk> has been exploited for its romantic charm . It has been <unk> and , in the process , de @-@ <unk> . " A critic identified Bloody Sunday as Nesbitt 's " coming of age " film , and Nesbitt called it a turning point in his career . He refers to his career since the film was released as " post @-@ Bloody Sunday " . 
 
 = = = Murphy 's Law = = = 
 
 In 2003 , Nesbitt played undercover police detective Tommy Murphy in the first series of Murphy 's Law , after starring in a successful pilot episode in 2001 . The series was conceived when Nesbitt was working on Playing the Field ; he and producer Greg <unk> approached author Colin Bateman about creating a television series for Nesbitt in a similar vein to Bateman 's Dan <unk> novels . Bateman and Nesbitt were already well acquainted ; Nesbitt had been considered for a main role in <unk> Jack ( David <unk> , 1998 ) , based on Bateman 's original novel . A 90 @-@ minute pilot of Murphy 's Law was commissioned by the BBC , initially as a " comedy action adventure " . Bateman created a complex backstory for Murphy , which was cut at the request of the producers . After the broadcast of the pilot , Guardian critic Gareth McLean wrote , " the likeable James Nesbitt turned in a strong , extremely <unk> central performance , though rarely did he look <unk> by his efforts , and his chemistry with [ <unk> ] Harrison was promising and occasionally electric . " In 2003 , Nesbitt won the Irish Film & Television Award ( IFTA ) for Best Actor in a TV Drama for the role . The second series was broadcast in 2004 . 
 By 2005 , Nesbitt had become tired of the formula and threatened to quit unless the structure of the series was changed . He was made a creative consultant and suggested that Murphy keep one undercover role for a full series , instead of changing into a new guise every episode . This new dramatic element to the series was intended to make it a closer representation of real @-@ life undercover work . Alongside his research with former undercover officer Peter <unk> , Nesbitt hired a personal trainer and grew a <unk> moustache to change Murphy 's physical characteristics and tone down the " <unk> <unk> " persona that the audience had become accustomed to from his roles . With his trainer , he worked out three times a week , boxing and doing circuits and weights . After the first new episode was broadcast , Sarah <unk> wrote in The Times , " In the past , when attempting a nasty stare or a hard face , Nesbitt has never managed much more than a <unk> <unk> look , <unk> forever threatening to break out behind those <unk> Irish eyes . But here , it 's different . He genuinely has the air of a man who means business . " The refreshed series marked another milestone in Nesbitt 's career ; he describes it as " a big moment " in his life . Murphy 's Law was not recommissioned for a sixth series , which Nesbitt attributed to the damage done to the fifth series ratings when it was scheduled opposite the popular ITV drama Doc Martin . 
 In 2004 , Nesbitt appeared in Wall of Silence , a fact @-@ based drama about the aftermath of the murder of schoolboy Jamie Robe . Nesbitt played Stuart Robe , the boy 's father , who tries to break down the wall of silence in the local community to discover exactly what happened to his son . He had only just completed Bloody Sunday when he was offered the part and was unsure whether he wanted to take on such a demanding role so soon after playing Ivan Cooper . He decided to accept the part because he found it interesting . To prepare for the role , Nesbitt met with Robe and spent weeks talking to him in his South London flat , learning about Jamie , and of Robe 's fight for his justice . Nesbitt spoke with his natural accent instead of affecting Robe 's South London speech , as he did not want the audience to be distracted from the drama . The single @-@ drama was filmed over four weeks and broadcast in January 2004 . The role gained Nesbitt an IFTA nomination for Best Actor in a TV Drama later that year . 
 In March 2004 , he appeared in Tony <unk> 's <unk> By , playing Joe Keyes , a man who witnesses a woman being <unk> by some men on a train and chooses not to help . Keyes later discovers that the woman was raped but cannot bring himself to admit in court that he did nothing to help her . Nesbitt described Keyes as " like a better man than me : a good father and husband . But , once he has made a wrong decision , he can 't control everything in his life , as he thinks he is weak . He loses the respect of his wife , his son and at work , and has to reach the lowest possible point before finding redemption . " As a result of these serious roles , he was named the sixth most powerful figure in TV drama in a listing compiled by industry experts for the Radio Times . In September 2004 , he starred as Jack Parlabane in the ITV adaptation of Christopher <unk> 's Quite <unk> One Morning . The producers originally wanted Scottish actor Douglas <unk> to play <unk> Parlabane but ITV executives overruled them and cast Nesbitt . He was given coaching to perfect the accent but it was soon discarded on the advice of both the director and his co @-@ star <unk> <unk> . Also in 2004 , he filmed the roles of Ronnie Cunningham in Millions ( Danny Boyle , 2004 ) , and Detective Banner in Match Point ( Woody Allen , 2005 ) . He was considering taking time off from acting and did not really want the role in Match Point . He sent in an audition tape and was accepted for the part . Nesbitt 's character appears at the end of the film and he read only that part of the script , so did not know the full circumstances of the crime Banner investigates . Despite his initial reluctance , Nesbitt enjoyed working with Allen , and complimented him on his directing style . 
 Nesbitt returned to theatre acting in June 2005 when he appeared in David Nicholls ' After Sun , a ten @-@ minute @-@ play performed as part of the Old Vic 's 24 @-@ Hour Play season . Nesbitt and Catherine Tate starred as a married couple who meet a pair of <unk> returning from their honeymoon . Later that year , he appeared in his first full @-@ length play in 11 years , in Owen <unk> 's Shoot the Crow . He enjoyed the stimulation of learning his lines and rehearsing with the cast and director . The play opened at the Trafalgar Studios in September 2005 and his role as <unk> gained mixed reviews . In The Independent , Michael <unk> suggested the role did not fit the actor : " Nesbitt is cool . But I never felt that he was inside his role of a chap called <unk> [ ... ] He <unk> and <unk> through the evening which steadily became less about <unk> on tiles and more about grating on nerves . " In The Daily Telegraph , Charles Spencer described Nesbitt 's acting as " outstanding " . 
 
 = = = Jekyll , Five Minutes , Occupation = = = 
 
 At the end of 2005 , Nesbitt and his agent met with BBC <unk> of Fiction Jane <unk> to discuss a new series of Murphy 's Law . At the meeting 's conclusion , <unk> offered Nesbitt the first episode script of Jekyll , a television series by Steven Moffat that updated Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde . Nesbitt spent three hours reading the script before accepting the role of Tom Jackman — and his alter @-@ ego Mr Hyde . After signing on for the role , he met with Moffat and <unk> Films executive producer <unk> <unk> to discuss the character , and had several make @-@ up tests . His anticipation for the part was heightened because filming was not scheduled to begin until September 2006 . Nesbitt spent an hour each day being made up as Hyde ; a wig altered his hairline and <unk> were added to his chin , nose and ear lobes . He also wore black contact lenses to make Hyde " <unk> " , though CGI was used to show the transformation from Jackman in close @-@ ups . The series was broadcast on BBC One in June and July 2007 . The role secured him a nomination from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini @-@ Series or Motion Picture Made for Television , and a nomination for the Rose d 'Or for Best Entertainer . 
 In 2008 , he portrayed <unk> <unk> in The Passion , a BBC / HBO adaptation of the last week in the life of Jesus . He had originally rejected the script due to other filming commitments , but accepted the role after his agent told him to re @-@ read it before making a final decision . He was pleased to learn that the serial was being produced by Nigel Stafford @-@ Clark , whose <unk> House adaptation he had enjoyed , and that he would be appearing with his Jekyll co @-@ star Denis Lawson . Contrary to previous portrayals of <unk> , Nesbitt played the biblical figure as " nice " , and — as when playing Jack Parlabane — used his own accent . The serial was broadcast in the UK during Easter week 2008 . Shortly after filming The Passion , he filmed the part of journalist Max <unk> in the Carnival Films thriller Midnight Man , which was shown on ITV in May 2008 . It won him a joint nomination ( along with the 2007 series of Murphy 's Law ) for the <unk> Crime Thriller Award for Best Actor . At the end of the year , he had a starring role in the low @-@ budget independent film Blessed . The writer and director Mark <unk> scripted the character of Peter with Nesbitt in mind to play him . The film had a limited release throughout 2008 and 2009 before the BBC screened it on television in 2010 . Nesbitt said , " The role of Peter is what I have dreamed about playing , you wait your whole life for an opportunity like this and when it comes you have to grab it . " 
 The following year , Nesbitt co @-@ starred with Liam Neeson in the fact @-@ based television film Five Minutes of Heaven ( Oliver <unk> , 2009 ) . The first part of the film <unk> the real @-@ life murder of Jim Griffin by <unk> Little in 1970s <unk> ; the second part features a fictional meeting between Little ( Neeson ) and Jim 's brother Joe ( Nesbitt ) 33 years later . Nesbitt met with Griffin before filming began to learn about how his brother 's murder affected him . The film was broadcast on BBC Two in April 2009 . He also starred as Colour Sgt. Mike Swift in Peter Bowker 's three @-@ part BBC / <unk> television serial Occupation . In Occupation , set over six years , Nesbitt 's character is one of three British soldiers who return to Basra , Iraq after their tours have concluded . He researched the role by speaking to Territorial Army soldiers in Belfast , and RAF officers in Morocco , where the serial was filmed . Both performances were commended by Independent journalist Hugh Montgomery ; in a review of 2009 's television , Montgomery named Nesbitt " Face of the Year " , writing , " Just as you had James Nesbitt written off as the <unk> embodiment of everything mediocre about British TV drama , he produced two <unk> performances , as the <unk> <unk> sergeant in Occupation , and a <unk> vengeful victim 's relative in Irish @-@ troubles piece Five Minutes of Heaven . Give the man a <unk> . " Nesbitt was not nominated for a BAFTA award , though did receive a nomination for Best Actor from the Broadcasting Press Guild for both performances . 
 
 = = = International work = = = 
 
 In March 2009 , Nesbitt signed a contract with the American talent agency United Talent Agency , as the global financial crisis was <unk> roles in British television . He continued to be represented in the United Kingdom by Artists Rights Group . The next year Nesbitt played the hunter <unk> in the low @-@ budget British horror film <unk> , which was a departure from his previous character types . After screening at major international film festivals in early 2010 , the film had a general release in the latter part of the year . Nesbitt had previously worked with the film 's director and co @-@ writer Colm McCarthy on Murphy 's Law , which was one reason he took the role . He researched the mythical aspects of the character by reading about Irish folklore and beliefs . He also starred alongside Minnie Driver and his Welcome to Sarajevo co @-@ star <unk> <unk> in the Tiger <unk> television serial The Deep . In the five @-@ part drama , Nesbitt played submarine engineer <unk> Donnelly . The serial was filmed over 12 weeks at BBC Scotland 's studios in <unk> . August 2010 saw the release of Nadia <unk> 's film <unk> Jack , in which Nesbitt plays the leading role of Connor . He became involved in the film after reading an early script draft in 2006 . In 2008 , the global financial crisis severely reduced the budget of the film , and Nesbitt volunteered a reduction in his salary so the film could still be made . The film was shot over eight weeks in Melbourne in 2009 and released in 2010 . 
 Next , Nesbitt reunited with Occupation screenwriter Peter Bowker to star in the ITV medical drama series Monroe , playing Gabriel Monroe . Nesbitt was Bowker 's first choice for the part . Nesbitt researched the role of the <unk> character by watching brain surgery being performed by Henry Marsh , and by consulting Philip Van <unk> at Leeds General <unk> . The series was filmed over 12 weeks in Leeds at the end of 2010 and broadcast on ITV during March and April 2011 . Nesbitt will reprise the role in a second series , which is due to begin production in 2012 . In film , Nesbitt co @-@ stars as Irish writer Jack in Emilio <unk> 's drama The Way , alongside Martin Sheen , Deborah Kara <unk> , and <unk> van <unk> , and has a role as <unk> in Ralph <unk> ' contemporary Shakespeare adaptation Coriolanus . 
 Alongside many other British and Irish actors , Nesbitt was cast in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ part film The Hobbit , as the dwarf <unk> . Nesbitt had not read <unk> <unk> 's novel but accepted the role immediately . As the film was scheduled to take over 12 months to make in New Zealand , Nesbitt 's wife and daughters moved with him , and his daughters were enrolled in a New Zealand school . Filming commenced in March 2011 . The first part , The Hobbit : An <unk> Journey , was released in December 2012 , the second part , The Hobbit : The <unk> of <unk> , in December 2013 , and the third and final part , The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies , in December 2014 . 
 
 = = Other projects = = 
 
 In 2002 , Nesbitt made his documentary debut as the presenter of James Nesbitt 's <unk> <unk> , a production for BBC Choice that saw him spend two weeks in Las Vegas at the National Finals <unk> and the Miss <unk> America pageant . In 2007 , he was the guest host of an episode of the late @-@ night Channel 4 comedy The Friday Night Project . As a film awards presenter , he hosted the IFTA Awards ceremony for three consecutive years between 2005 and 2007 , the British Independent Film Awards from 2005 to 2010 , and the National Movie Awards in 2008 and 2010 . In 2009 , he hosted the Laurence Olivier Awards . 
 An amateur golfer since his teenage years , Nesbitt joined the European team for Sky One 's All * Star Cup in 2005 and 2006 . He signed up to a series of high @-@ profile television advertisements for the <unk> Group in 2003 , playing a <unk> character called James for the company 's Yellow <unk> campaign until 2006 . Times writer Andrew <unk> noted that the adverts " cost him some credibility " but Nesbitt was pleased with the money he made from them . In 2004 , he joined the <unk> <unk> X to produce " Born in England " , an unofficial anthem for the England national football team 's entry in the UEFA Euro 2004 tournament . His vocals have also appeared in Lucky Break and an episode of Cold Feet . The song he performed in the latter — " ( Love Is ) The <unk> Trap " — was released on one of the series ' soundtrack albums . He also contributed vocals to the Waking Ned soundtrack . A fan of Northern Irish band Ash , he made a cameo in their unreleased film <unk> . In 2009 , he starred in the music video for " The Day I Died " , a single by English dance @-@ pop artist Just Jack . Nesbitt was recommended to Just Jack by Elton John . <unk> is scheduled to host the 2013 British Independent Film Awards in London on 8 December 2013 . 
 Since 2013 Nesbitt appears in adverts for Thomas Cook . 
 In 2014 , Nesbitt had the lead role as the father character Tony Hughes in <unk> BBC drama series The Missing , alongside Frances O 'Connor ( as his wife / ex @-@ wife , Emily Hughes / Walsh ) and <unk> <unk> ( as Julien Baptiste , leading French police investigator ) . The drama focused on a British married couple , whose son goes missing while they are on holiday in France , and the subsequent years of enquiry trying to find answers as to what happened to their son and why . <unk> , Nesbitt and <unk> had appeared previously together in the Martin Sheen film The Way ( 2010 ) . 
 
 = = Personal life = = 
 
 Nesbitt was married to Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam , the daughter of Reverend Sir Timothy Forbes Adam . The two met when Nesbitt went to the final call @-@ back for Hamlet at Loughborough Hall in 1989 , and they soon began dating . They split up for a year after the release of Hear My Song but reunited and married in 1994 . They have since had two daughters , Peggy and Mary ( both of whom appeared in the final two Hobbit movies as the daughters of Bard the Bowman ) . Nesbitt 's three sisters all became teachers . In 2002 , a Sunday tabloid published an interview with a legal secretary who claimed to have had a two @-@ month affair with Nesbitt . Shortly afterwards , another tabloid story revealed an affair with a prostitute , who claimed Nesbitt had boasted of <unk> with his Cold Feet co @-@ star <unk> Joseph , and Amanda <unk> , a former Miss Ireland . Commenting on the publication of details about his personal life , Nesbitt has said he feared that he would lose his marriage , though the exposing of his " dual life " allowed him to " take a long and considered look " at himself . In October 2013 , Nesbitt announced that he and his wife Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam would separate from each other after 19 years . The couple says that the filming of The Hobbit Trilogy has forced the couple to live separately for the past two years . The split came as a mutual decision and the couple says that <unk> was not one of the reasons for their decision . 
 Nesbitt is a patron of Wave , a charity set up to support those <unk> by the Troubles . The charity faced closure due to funding problems before Nesbitt encouraged celebrities and artists to become involved . Since 2005 , he has been a UNICEF UK ambassador , working with HIV and AIDS <unk> , and former child soldiers in Africa . He describes the role as " a privilege " . Writing in The Independent about his visit to Zambia in 2006 , Nesbitt concluded that the children he met were owed a social and moral responsibility . The article was described in the Evening Standard as " moving and notably well @-@ crafted " . Since 1999 , he has been a patron of Action Cancer , a result of both his father 's <unk> with prostate cancer and a storyline in the second series of Cold Feet , where his character suffered <unk> cancer . He has been an honorary patron of Youth Lyric , one of Ireland 's largest theatre schools , since 2007 . 
 He is a fan of football teams Coleraine and Manchester United . In 2003 , Nesbitt made a donation of " thousands of pounds " to Coleraine , after the team came close to bankruptcy . He has called the team " a <unk> " of Coleraine and encouraged more people to watch Irish League football . Nesbitt was a vocal opponent of Malcolm <unk> 's 2005 takeover of Manchester United , though after the completion of that deal he acted in television advertisements promoting executive boxes at Old Trafford , for which he was criticised by fans . To counter the criticism , he pledged one half of his £ 10 @,@ 000 fee to the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust and the other half to UNICEF . 
 Nesbitt is co @-@ owner of National Hunt racehorse ' Riverside Theatre ' , named after the theatre of the University of Ulster in Coleraine , which won the <unk> Chase at the 2012 Cheltenham Festival . 
 In March 2010 , Nesbitt accepted the ceremonial position of Chancellor of the University of Ulster , succeeding former Lord Mayor of London Sir Richard Nichols . Gerry <unk> , the chair of the university ruling council , expected Nesbitt to " bring considerable energy , <unk> and commitment " to the post . Following his official installation on 8 June 2010 , Nesbitt said , " Rather than being just an informal role officiating at ceremonies , I think I can act as an ambassador . I have access to an awful lot of people and places because of my work . I hope to be a voice that can be heard , not just at the university , but also outside promoting the importance of the funding of education . If that involves me being at <unk> , then I 'd be very happy to do that . <unk> these public spending cuts are going to have an impact and it 's important to fight for funding because it 's about investing in students and investing in the future of Northern Ireland . I believe I can bring something to that , otherwise I wouldn 't have taken this on . " 
 He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2016 New Year Honours for services to drama and to the community in Northern Ireland . 
 
 = = Filmography and awards = = 
 
 
 = = Academic honours = = 
 
 Honorary Doctor of Letters ( <unk> ) for services to drama from University of Ulster , <unk> campus ( 9 July 2003 ) . 
 Award of <unk> for contribution to drama from Belfast Metropolitan College ( 13 November 2008 ) . 
 Chancellor of the University of Ulster ( 2010 — ) ( ceremonial ) 
 
 
 = Crazy in Love = 
 
 " Crazy in Love " is a song from American singer Beyoncé 's debut solo album Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . Beyoncé wrote the song with Rich Harrison , Jay Z , and Eugene Record , and produced it with Harrison . " Crazy in Love " is an R & B and pop love song that incorporates elements of hip hop , soul , and 1970s @-@ style funk music . Its lyrics describe a romantic obsession that causes the protagonist to act out of character . Jay Z contributes a <unk> verse to the song and is credited as a featured performer . The French horn @-@ based hook samples " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " , a 1970 song by the Chi @-@ Lites . 
 Columbia Records released " Crazy in Love " on May 18 , 2003 , as the lead single from Dangerously in Love . It was a number @-@ one hit in the United States and United Kingdom , and achieved top @-@ ten peaks on several other countries ' record charts . With global sales of over 8 @.@ 5 million , including 2 million from the U.S. , it is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . Music critics praised " Crazy in Love " ' s hook , Jay Z 's contribution , and Beyoncé 's assertive delivery of the lyrics . VH1 declared it the greatest song of the 2000s decade , while Rolling Stone ranked it as the 118th best song of all time in 2010 . At the 46th Grammy Awards , " Crazy in Love " won Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . 
 The song 's accompanying music video features Beyoncé in various dance sequences . It won three awards at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , and its director , Jake Nava , won the Music Video Production Association award for Best R & B Video in 2004 . Since 2003 , " Crazy in Love " has been a staple in Beyoncé ’ s live performances and concert tours . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized " Crazy in Love " as one of the most performed songs of 2004 . Artists including David <unk> have covered the song , and it has been used in various television shows and other media . 
 
 = = Development and production = = 
 
 In July 2002 , Beyoncé had already recorded several songs which would appear on Dangerously in Love . Columbia Records planned to release the album in October 2002 ; however the release was postponed several times to capitalize on the success of American rapper Nelly 's single " <unk> " ( 2002 ) , which features Destiny 's Child singer Kelly Rowland . These delays allowed Beyoncé to record more songs for the album . 
 Before meeting Beyoncé , Rich Harrison had <unk> the beat of the song . He sampled the hook 's instrumentation from the 1970 song " Are You My Woman ? ( Tell Me So ) " , originally written by Eugene Record , frontman of the Chicago @-@ based vocal group The Chi @-@ Lites . When Harrison first played the beat to his friends , they could not " dig it " , and this made him realize that he had conceived something special , which people would appreciate better after hearing the whole record . Harrison decided not to market the track and instead waited for the right artist to record it : " I had it in the chamber , I had not really <unk> it much , because sometimes you do not want to come out of the bag before it 's right . People do not really get it and you will leave them with a foul taste in their mouth . " 
 Harrison was <unk> surprised when he got a call from Beyoncé , who was working on one of the most anticipated albums of the year . However , things did not turn up according to his plans the following day as he was late and was still suffering the effects of a <unk> . When Harrison played the sample to Beyoncé in the studio , the singer initially had doubts about the " sound so full of <unk> fanfare " ; it seemed too retro and according to her , no one used horn riffs in the 21st century . Nevertheless , Beyoncé became <unk> to the sample much to Harrison 's delight and gave him two hours to write the song while she went out . 
 Harrison confessed that it was not easy for him to come up with the lyrics to " Crazy in Love " in that length of time . Two hours later , he had penned the verses and the hook in spite of being hung over . Harrison had also made provision for a backing track ; he played all the instruments on the track . The bridge was written by Beyoncé , who was inspired by looking at herself in the mirror ; she was not wearing matching clothes and her hair was untidy as she kept saying , " I 'm looking so crazy right now . " Harrison sang back to her and said , " That 's the hook . " It also inspired the title of the song . After that Beyoncé had filled up the middle eight , she came up with the catchphrase - " Uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh , you know " - alongside Harrison . 
 American rapper Jay @-@ Z became involved late in the song 's production . Around three in the morning , he came to the studio and recorded a rap verse , which he improvised in about ten minutes . The recording of " Crazy in Love " took place nearly three months following the meeting of Beyoncé with Harrison . 
 
 = = Composition and lyrical interpretation = = 
 
 According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , " Crazy in Love " is an R & B and pop love song , composed in the key of D @-@ minor and F @-@ major . It incorporates 1970s @-@ style funk , hip hop , and contains influences of soul . As commented by Robert Webb of The Independent , the old soul influences in the song seem to have been derived from the horn hook , which samples the 1970 song " Are You My Woman ? ( Tell Me So ) " . Having a go @-@ go vibe , " Crazy in Love " is built on a hip hop beat . Beyoncé told The Sunday Herald that the beat is " so hard that it makes your heart hurt . " The song 's tempo is a moderate 100 beats per minute , in common time . Beyoncé ’ s vocal range spans around one and a half octaves in the song , from the low note of A ♯ 3 to the high note of <unk> . " Crazy in Love " uses two major chords , B ♭ and G , a minor third apart . One of the main vocal riffs uses the traditional <unk> rhythm often found in <unk> music . Lisa <unk> of The Times magazine , wrote that " Crazy in Love " makes use of big drums and bits of brass . 
 According to Natalie Nichols of Los Angeles Times , the lyrics of " Crazy in Love " reference a state of romantic obsession . Beyoncé said that the song talks " about how , when you are falling in love , you do things that are out of character and you do not really care because you are just open . " Anthony <unk> of Rolling Stone wrote that " Crazy in Love " has " such a cauldron of energy " , that Beyoncé sounds " loose and sexy " , <unk> by emotions she " can neither understand nor control " . The lyrics are composed in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . Jay Z opens the song with a brief spoken verse @-@ rap , containing the lyrics : " Yes ! So crazy right now . Most incredibly , it 's your girl , B. It 's your boy , Young . You ready ? " After Beyoncé delivers the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " catchphrase , Jay Z continues the monologue . Beyoncé begins the first verse , followed with the whistle @-@ backed chorus . She repeats the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " phrase , leading to the second verse . The chorus follows , giving way to the second verse @-@ rap which contains the lyrics : " Jay Z in the range , crazy and <unk> [ ... ] I been <unk> the chain smokers , how you think I got the name ' <unk> ' , I been real and the game 's over " . The song continues to the bridge , singing : " I 'm not myself , lately I 'm foolish , I don 't do this , / I 've been playing myself , baby , I don 't care / ' <unk> your love 's got the best of me , / And baby , you 're making a fool of me , / You got me sprung and I don 't care who sees " . She then sings the chorus again and the song fades out with the horns . 
 
 = = Release and remixes = = 
 
 " Crazy in Love " was released to radio in the United States on May 18 , 2003 under formats including <unk> , Top 40 , and Urban radios . The single was released first as a digital download to iTunes Stores in the United Kingdom and in the United States on May 20 , 2003 . Notably , the song was also fairly successful as a ringtone among cell phone users across America . The song was released as a CD single in Ireland and Switzerland on June 30 , 2003 and as a digital EP in Germany on the same date . " Crazy in Love " was released as a <unk> single in Germany on June 30 , 2003 and in Australia on July 15 , 2003 along with the song 's accompanying music video , exclusive to Australia . The song was issued on DVD and CD single in the United Kingdom on June 30 , 2003 . " Crazy in Love " was released as a digital EP in several European countries , including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden on July 8 , 2003 . This digital EP was also available in Canada and Ireland on July 8 , 2003 . On July 22 , 2003 , two remixes - one from Rockwilder and the other from Adam 12 - was serviced in the United States . 
 " Crazy in Love " has various remixes , including the Rockwilder remix , Maurice 's " Nu Soul remix " , and Juniors World remix . These versions appeared on the single releases of " Crazy in Love " under an alternative spelling , " <unk> in <unk> " . The Rockwilder remix slows down the beat and makes the song deeper and <unk> with <unk> up horn samples and sparkling synth textures . Maurice 's " Nu Soul Remix " speeds up the beat , taking it from hip @-@ hop to house territory . A version of the song included on Asian releases of Dangerously in Love features a rap in Mandarin Chinese performed by American @-@ Taiwanese singer <unk> Wu , instead of Jay Z 's performance . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Critical response = = = 
 
 " Crazy in Love " was lauded by contemporary music critics , who complimented the horn lines and the guest appearance of Jay @-@ Z. Many of them called it the Summer Anthem of 2003 . Tim <unk> of AllMusic described the song as a " stunning pop masterpiece " , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the same website called it " <unk> catchy " . Darryl <unk> of Jam ! noted the " Crazy in Love " is " instantly addictive horn lines " . Anthony <unk> of Rolling Stone wrote : " ' Crazy in Love ' ... <unk> out of the speakers on the strength of a propulsive horn sample and the charged presence of her pal , Jay @-@ Z. " Ben <unk> of Blender magazine called the song an " <unk> [ and ] eager @-@ to @-@ please " one . Marc Anthony Neal of PopMatters called the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " phrase catchy . MTV News considered " Crazy in Love " to be the " proudest moment " of Dangerously in Love . Similarly , Allison Stewart of The Washington Post called it the best song on the album , praising its instrumentation , harmonies , and the rap verse of Jay Z. This was echoed by Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times who wrote that " Crazy in Love " is the best one on the album thanks to its " simplicity , irresistible combination of triumphant horns and a wicked hip @-@ hop beat " . She added that " [ Beyoncé ’ s ] vocals - as <unk> and accurate as ever - convey none of the <unk> rush that the lyrics describe . " Likewise , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote the lyrical arrangement , the music structure and the guest vocals by Jay Z all contributed in making " Crazy in Love " a wonderful resume for Beyoncé . 
 Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called " Crazy in Love " a " head @-@ <unk> [ and ] body @-@ rocking funk @-@ soul genius " and wrote that it is " a 100 per cent , stone @-@ cold , dead @-@ <unk> classic " . He complimented Beyoncé ’ s vocals , describing them as " genuinely , hip @-@ <unk> <unk> " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols noted that " sexy dance tunes as the vintage funk @-@ flavored ' Crazy in Love ' " made Dangerously in Love a great album . Neil <unk> of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song has a " fresh sound " . Spence D. of IGN Music wrote that Beyoncé rides the " infectious rhythm " with grace and mid @-@ range <unk> . He added , " As [ it ] can be expected , the track <unk> when Jay drops his distinctive <unk> flavor . While other rap @-@ meet @-@ R & B tracks often fall flat , this one works well as Beyoncé and Jay 's <unk> play nicely against one another . " Lisa <unk> of The Times wrote that Jay Z performed a " decent rap " , however , " Beyoncé and the beats save the day " and that " Crazy in Love " was a departure for Beyoncé from Destiny 's Child . 
 
 = = = Accolades = = = 
 
 In 2004 , " Crazy in Love " was nominated for three Grammy Awards in the categories of Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration , which it won , and Record of the Year , which it did not win . A remix of " Crazy in Love " , known as " <unk> in <unk> " ( Maurice 's Nu Soul Mix ) , won the award Best <unk> Recording , Non @-@ Classical for its <unk> , Maurice Joshua . " Crazy in Love " was also recognized at the 2004 ASCAP Pop Music Awards Awards as one of the Most Performed Songs and its publisher , EMI , received the Publisher of the Year award . Vibe magazine 's <unk> Awards recognized the song for <unk> Collaboration in 2003 . In Europe , " Crazy in Love " won the Best Song award at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Crazy in Love " won the awards for Best R & B / Urban Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2003 . It was recognized by Beyoncé ’ s peers in the urban markets , and won the award for Best Collaboration at the BET Awards , where it also received a nomination in the <unk> Choice Awards category in 2004 . " Crazy in Love " was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Song award and for Favorite Song at the 2004 Kids ' Choice Awards . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 Entertainment Weekly magazine ranked " Crazy in Love " forty @-@ seven in its list of The 100 Greatest Summer Songs . The song is ranked second in Yahoo ! ' s list of biggest @-@ selling singles since 2000 . The song was listed at number three on Rolling Stone 's list of the 50 Best Songs of the 2000s Decade , in 2009 , and as the 118th greatest song of all time on the magazine 's 2010 list of the 500 greatest songs of all time , as well as ranking it number 3 in their 100 Best Songs of the 2000s list , writing " The horns weren 't a hook . They were a herald : Pop 's new queen had arrived . " . NME staff voted " Crazy in Love " the best song of the 2000s , calling it " a <unk> @-@ destroying howitzer of a pop song . " The song was ranked at number four on Pitchfork Media 's list of The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s , number seven on The Daily Telegraph 's list of the best songs of the decade and number six on Slant Magazine 's list of the 100 Best Singles of the Decade . In September 2011 , VH1 ranked " Crazy in Love " number one on its list of The 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s . In October 2011 , to mark NME fifteenth birthday , its staff members selected the 150 tracks " that have meant the most to [ them ] over the site 's lifetime " . They placed " Crazy in Love " at number 16 on their list of the 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years . In 2012 , the song was ranked at number 22 on Billboard magazine 's list of " Top 50 ' Love ' Songs of All Time " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer <unk> of E ! placed the song at number one on their list of ten best Beyoncé ’ s songs writing " It 's the song that started it all . The definitive best Beyoncé jam is her first , complete with a guest spot by now @-@ husband Jay Z , a killer hook and a chorus of horns that you have to dance to . <unk> have to , <unk> conditioning @-@ style . " In a 2013 list of Jay Z 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits , " Crazy in Love " was ranked at number 1 . On July 5 , 2013 , NME magazine named " Crazy in Love " " The Best Pop Song Of The Century " . 
 
 = = Chart performance = = 
 
 " Crazy in Love " was a commercial success in the United States . Although it was not yet released to retail stores , the single gained much attention and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official US singles chart , based on heavy rotation alone . The same week it reached number one , Dangerously in Love debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one on July 12 , 2003 . <unk> airplay , and later in retail , gains of " Crazy in Love " allowed it to dominate the chart , spending eight consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot 100 , making it Beyoncé ’ s first number one single in her solo career . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Crazy in Love " was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003 . " Crazy in Love " spent twenty @-@ seven weeks on the Hot 100 , fifteen weeks in the top ten , and twenty @-@ six weeks in the top fifty . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2004 while its Mobile <unk> was also certified gold two years later . " Crazy in Love " was the fourth biggest hit of 2003 in the United States . By October 6 , 2010 , " Crazy in Love " had sold 47 @,@ 000 physical units in the US , and as of October 2012 , 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 paid digital downloads . 
 In the United Kingdom , Beyoncé became the third female artist to top the UK Singles Chart and UK Albums Chart simultaneously , following Mariah Carey in 1994 and <unk> <unk> in 2001 . Including her career with Destiny 's Child , " Crazy in Love " became Beyoncé ’ s third number one single in Britain and was the only song to top the charts the United Kingdom and the United States in 2003 . The single spent three weeks at number one in the United Kingdom and fifteen weeks in the top 100 . As of July 2013 , it has sold <unk> @,@ 000 units in the UK . " Crazy in Love " reached number one on the Irish Singles Chart , where it spent eighteen weeks . In Australia , " Crazy in Love " peaked at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with sales of over 70 @,@ 000 units . It also peaked at number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( <unk> ) . " Crazy in Love " reached top ten positions in some European singles charts . It reached the top ten in Austria , the Belgian territories of Flanders and Wallonia , Denmark , Germany , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . As of September 2009 , " Crazy in Love " had sold more than five million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time worldwide . 
 
 = = Music video = = 
 
 
 = = = Production and synopsis = = = 
 
 The music video of " Crazy in Love " , released in May 2003 , was directed by Jake Nava and filmed in downtown Los Angeles . In MTV Making of the Video 2003 documentary , Beyoncé described the video 's conception : " [ It ] celebrates the evolution of a woman . It is about a girl who is at the point of a relationship . She realises that she is in love , she is doing stuff she would not normally do but she does not care . It does not matter she is just crazy in love . " 
 The opening sequence of the video features Jay Z as a passenger in a car <unk> along Mission Road in Los Angeles , where he encounters Beyoncé , standing in the middle of the road , at the Fourth Street bridge . Beyoncé performs in various dance sequences , beginning with her wearing a white tank top , denim blue shorts , and red high @-@ heels . She performs an elaborate solo dance on a <unk> . The scene shifts to a gold set with a mock photo shoot , before moving into a scene with dancers detailing Beyoncé and dancing against a wall while wearing caps and full length pants . Jay Z appears and <unk> a line of petrol leading to a car parked under the bridge , which explodes in flames . Jay Z performs his rap in front of the burning car , and Beyoncé dances beside him , wearing an exotic silk print over a fur coat , before kicking the valve off a fire <unk> . She continues to dance while the water is flying everywhere . The video ends with Beyoncé and her dancers wearing vibrant <unk> dresses in front of a large fan . Their outfits contrast with the neutral colors of the background , the video . <unk> <unk> , a former Pussycat Dolls singer , is one of the dancers . 
 
 = = = Reception = = = 
 
 The music video was acclaimed by critics and won several awards . Cynthia <unk> , writing for PopMatters commented that the photo shoot scene uses the routine used by Jennifer Lopez in the video for " Jenny from the Block " ( 2002 ) with hot lights , scary makeup , and inclusion of many shots of legs . She wrote that : " Beyoncé 's body becomes its undeniable emblem . Tom Moon of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that Beyoncé shakes every inch of her famously <unk> goddess frame . " The music video won three awards at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards in the categories of Best Female Video , Best R & B Video , and Best Choreography . It however lost to Good Charlotte 's " <unk> of the Rich & Famous " in the <unk> 's Choice category . Director Nava also won a Music Video Production Association award for the Best R & B Video in 2004 . During the same year , the video won the Best Collaboration award at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards Japan , where it was also nominated for the Best Female Video award . " Crazy in Love " was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Music Video award . It won the Best International Video award at the 2004 <unk> Video Awards . In 2014 , The Guardian writer Michael <unk> included the clip for " Crazy in Love " in his list of the ten best music videos by Beyoncé . He offered high praise for it , saying " Aware of how much of a statement the song was , the video is a <unk> of icon @-@ making visuals , from the locations ... the dance moves ... to the part where she makes bubble blowing look like the <unk> thing a human could do . " 
 
 = = Live performances = = 
 
 Beyoncé first performed " Crazy in Love " with Jay Z on August 28 , 2003 , during the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . She sang the song in a medley , with the pre @-@ recorded vocals of Sean Paul on " Baby Boy " ( 2003 ) . " Crazy in Love " was included on the set list for most of Beyoncé ’ s concert tours . The song was the closing track of her Dangerously in Love World Tour that began in late 2003 . Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " live at the 2004 BRIT Awards February 17 , 2004 . <unk> <unk> And Todd Peterson wrote that she , " ... lit up the stage with her performance of " Crazy in Love " , wearing a white Roberto <unk> dress and nearly half a million dollars worth of <unk> . The pop diva , appearing onstage in a puff of smoke , stopped midway through the song to pull up her top before walking away with the best international female solo artist award . " Beyoncé and Jay Z also performed " Crazy in Love " at The Prince 's Trust Urban Music Festival at Earls Court in London on May 31 , 2004 . 
 " Crazy in Love " was the first song on Beyoncé ’ s set list on The Beyoncé Experience in Los Angeles and the I Am ... Tour at several venues , including the Odyssey Arena in Belfast , the O2 Arena in London , and in Athens and Sydney . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Beyoncé emerged in a sparkling silver dress with a long train . She walked to the front of the stage , did a couple of snaps of her neck and then started singing " Crazy in Love " . She climbed a staircase where her all @-@ female band and three backup singers were positioned . The staircase moved forward in two places ; top part moved while the bottom poked out more . At the top of her staircase , she removed her train and returned to the main stage . Her backup singers followed and danced with Beyoncé . After " Crazy in Love " , Beyoncé performed a short rendition of <unk> Barkley 's " Crazy " ( 2006 ) , singing , " Who do you , who do you think you are ? / Ha , ha , ha , <unk> your soul . " 
 <unk> Reid of MTV News wrote : " There are few ( very few ) ladies out there who can really sing , a lot who can dance , a lot more who look good — but really no other who can combine all three and add iconic star power like Miss Beyoncé , arguably the best all @-@ around stage performer in the game right now . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in <unk> <unk> . But she was in constant motion , <unk> in costumes ( most of them silvery ) , from <unk> to formal dresses , flesh @-@ toned <unk> to bikini to <unk> . " Frank <unk> of The Hollywood Reporter wrote : " Her performance of ' Crazy in Love ' featured some surprising arrangements that gave the material freshness " . Performances of " Crazy in Love " were included on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , and the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " wearing a pink fringe dress at a concert at <unk> <unk> in Nice , France , on June 20 , 2011 , in support of her album 4 , and at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 to an audience of 175 @,@ 000 . 
 In August , 2011 , Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " during her revue show 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé . She performed a slowed @-@ down , <unk> version of the song and danced with a similar routine to the one in the music video . During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " to a selected crowd of fans . In May , 2012 , she performed the song during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . During the performance , Jay @-@ Z did not appear on stage but his pre @-@ recorded voice was heard . Dan <unk> of noted that the song was one of the " beat @-@ <unk> booty @-@ shaking <unk> " performed during the revue . Jim Farber of New York Daily News wrote that " The first , and last parts of the show stressed the <unk> Beyoncé , told in bold songs " like " Crazy in Love " . A writer of Black Entertainment Television noted that , " She <unk> fans with an assortment of high @-@ energy performances of her upbeat hits like ... ' Crazy in Love . ' " Beyoncé also performed the song at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show held on February 3 , 2013 . In July 2013 , while placing Beyoncé at number 33 on their list of 50 Best Live Musicians , the writers of Rolling Stone magazine noted that the performance of " Crazy in Love " was a highlight during her live shows with the singer " expertly <unk> ' her booty " . 
 
 = = Cultural impact = = 
 
 
 = = = Cover versions = = = 
 
 Several artists have recorded cover versions of " Crazy in Love " . In 2003 , Irish singer @-@ songwriter Mickey Joe <unk> recorded an acoustic rendition of " Crazy In Love " for the charity album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 1 . Alternative rock band Snow Patrol recorded the song during a BBC session with <unk> Lowe . Snow Patrol 's version was released as a B @-@ side to the single " <unk> Games " , on the compilation <unk> - Tom Middleton Presents Crazy Covers Vol . 1 and Snow Patrol 's compilation album Up to Now . Ross <unk> of PopMatters noted that their cover " sparks an initial <unk> of recognition but soon after becomes more than a bit unfortunate " . David <unk> closed his concert at the Hollywood Bowl on June 27 , 2005 with a <unk> @-@ <unk> version of " Crazy in Love " . In 2007 , American alternative rock band <unk> produced a rock version that was released as part of Yahoo ! ' s <unk> series . <unk> produced a video for their cover version . Nashville @-@ based indie <unk> Wild Cub performed a version of the song in June 2014 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series . 
 British band The Magic Numbers performed " Crazy in Love " on the Australian radio station Triple J , and recorded it for the 2007 Starbucks ( Hear Music ) compilation album , Sounds <unk> : The Covers Project . Tracy <unk> covered the song with guitar and violin accompaniment , for her 2007 album In The City + In The Woods . British close harmony trio The <unk> Sisters covered " Crazy in Love " for their 2007 album The Rise and Fall of Ruby <unk> ; this was remixed by the electronica jazz outfit The Real Tuesday <unk> . Indie artist <unk> recorded an electronic cover of the song . In 2009 , Pattern Is Movement recorded a cover of " Crazy in Love " , which they claimed was inspired by <unk> 's version ; this cover was included on their 4 / 9 / 2009 <unk> session . Antony and the <unk> released an orchestral version of the song as the b @-@ side to their 2009 single " <unk> " . 
 German group The <unk> covered the song in rockabilly style for their debut album Strike ! Back in August 2010 . " Crazy in Love " was performed live on Australian Idol in Season 1 by winner Guy Sebastian on the Final 2 showdown in 2003 , A jazz version was performed on Season 4 by runner @-@ up Jessica <unk> on the Final 6 Big Band show in 2006 . In June 2008 , <unk> performed " Crazy in Love " on Indonesian Idol with some eliminated contestants . Singapore Idol contestant <unk> Lee performed " Crazy in Love " on that program . In March 2012 , Swing Republic released their electro swing cover version which also ended up featuring on their album released the same year entitled Midnight Calling . In June 2012 , Robin <unk> and Olivia Chisholm covered the song during the show Duets . Kate <unk> of Rolling Stone gave a negative review for Chisholm 's performance , saying that " Her voice sounded thin , and she just can 't seem to shake that <unk> Wife stare . " Emeli Sandé and The Bryan Ferry Orchestra recorded a cover of the song which was included on The Great <unk> soundtrack ( 2013 ) . Upon hearing a preview of the song , Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the cover was the best song on the album sang with a " surprising , <unk> urgency " . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly also wrote that the swing cover of " Crazy in Love " was one of the highlights on the album . On October 21 , 2013 , Third <unk> covered " Crazy in Love " on the fifth series of The X Factor Australia , and on May 4 , 2014 , C Major covered the song on the third series of The Voice <unk> 2015 , Monica Michael covered the song on The X Factor UK . <unk> actress Denise Laurel covered the song while impersonating <unk> , based on her performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show in Your Face Sounds <unk> ( Philippines season 2 ) , in which Laurel won the season . 
 
 = = = Usage in media = = = 
 
 In 2002 , Beyoncé signed a contract with Pepsi , and appeared on several of its advertising campaigns , one of which featured " Crazy in Love " as background music . After winning the Best Collaboration Awards for " Crazy in Love " at the 2004 BET Awards , Beyoncé dedicated the award to the show 's host , comedian Mo <unk> , who parodied the choreography from the " Crazy in Love " video with six equally <unk> female dancers . " Crazy in Love " was included on the official soundtrack albums of the following films : <unk> Jones : The Edge of Reason ( 2004 ) , White Chicks ( 2004 ) , Taxi ( 2004 ) , Good <unk> Chuck ( 2007 ) , <unk> ( 2012 ) , and Love , <unk> ( 2014 ) , as well in the tenth season of Brazilian soap opera <unk> . In 2009 , the cast of Glee performed a mash up of the songs " Hair " from the musical Hair and " Crazy in Love " in season one , episode eleven " <unk> " . A parody of the song is also used in the Disney Channel 's show That 's So Raven , in the episode " <unk> Party " . 
 " Crazy in Love " was re @-@ recorded by Beyoncé for the film Fifty Shades of Grey ( 2015 ) and used for its trailer which was released on July 24 , 2014 . This slowed @-@ down version was produced by Boots with violin arrangements by Margot , both of whom worked on Beyoncé 's fifth studio album . Margot said , " It inspires me to work on other artists ' songs [ because ] it pushes my boundaries in a direction that I wouldn ’ t necessarily come up with . <unk> I know how ' Crazy in Love ' goes , but I knew there was the possibility her vocals would be different . It 's almost more vulnerable and beautiful this way , because you do do crazy things when you fall in love . To hear the mood reversed and flipped makes it even more powerful . " 
 
 = = Formats and track listings = = 
 
 
 = = Credits = = 
 
 Recording and management 
 Recorded at Sony Music Studios ( New York City , New York <unk> ) 
 Mixed at The Hit Factory ( New York City , New York ) 
 Additional vocals recorded at The Hit Factory ( New York City , New York ) 
 <unk> samples of the composition " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " , written by Eugene Record , published by <unk> Music Inc . ( BMI ) and performed by The Chi @-@ Lites ( courtesy of Brunswick Records ) 
 Jay @-@ Z appears courtesy of <unk> @-@ A @-@ <unk> Records and Def Jam Recordings 
 Published by Beyoncé Publishing ( ASCAP ) , <unk> South South ( ASCAP ) — all rights administered by Music of <unk> ( ASCAP ) — , EMI <unk> Music Inc . <unk> <unk> ( BMI ) , Dam Rich Music ( BMI ) , EMI April Music Inc . <unk> <unk> ( BMI ) , Carter Boyd Publishing ( ASCAP ) and <unk> Music Inc . ( BMI ) 
 Personnel 
 
 = = Charts and certifications = = 
 
 
 
 = Moro River Campaign = 
 
 The Moro River Campaign was an important battle of the Italian Campaign during the Second World War , fought between elements of the British Eighth Army and LXXVI Panzer Corps ( LXXVI <unk> ) of the German 10th Army ( 10 . <unk> ) . <unk> from 4 – 26 December 1943 , the campaign occurred primarily in the vicinity of the Moro River in eastern Italy . The campaign was designed as part of an offensive launched by General Sir Harold Alexander 's Allied 15th Army Group , with the intention of breaching the German Army 's Winter Line defensive system and advancing to Pescara — and eventually Rome . 
 Beginning on 4 December , four infantry divisions — one British , one Canadian , one Indian and one New Zealand ( which included an armoured brigade ) — and two armoured brigades ( one British and one Canadian ) of V Corps and XIII Corps attacked heavily defended German positions along the Moro River , achieving several <unk> <unk> by 8 December . Throughout the next week , nearly continuous combat operations by both sides — designed to keep one another pinned down — created <unk> defensive positions near Orsogna and a narrow pit known as " The Gully " . After being held at the Gully for 10 days , the Canadians succeeded in outflanking German defences , and forcing a German withdrawal to the Ortona – Orsogna Line . On 20 December , the line was attacked by both corps . 
 By 26 December , strong German defences had stalled Canadian forces in Ortona and British and New Zealand forces in Orsogna . Although both Ortona and Villa Grande were captured by the end of December , general exhaustion among the Allied forces prevented the capture of Orsogna and an advance to Pescara . When harsh winter weather set in , it became clear to the Allied generals that no further progress would be made and Alexander called off the offensive . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 In late 1943 , the 15th Army Group under General Sir Harold Alexander were fighting their way northward in Italy against determined German opposition commanded by <unk> Albert Kesselring , whose forces had prepared a succession of defensive lines . East of the <unk> Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army , under General Bernard Montgomery . In October , Eighth Army had crossed the <unk> river and pushed the German defenders from the Volturno @-@ <unk> Line defences . <unk> by logistical problems , they were not able to attack the next line of defences ( the Barbara Line ) behind the <unk> river until 2 November . However , by 9 November forward elements of the Eighth Army were in contact with the forward defences of the German Winter Line , which had been set on the high ground north of the <unk> River . 
 The main attack across the <unk> by V Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Charles <unk> ) , comprising the British 78th Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General <unk> <unk> ) and 8th Indian Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Dudley Russell ) with supporting and diversionary attacks further inland by 2nd New Zealand Division ( Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard Freyberg ) and XIII Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey ) — was delayed by bad weather until late November . After several days of hard fighting , the Germans withdrew to the defences they had prepared on the high ground to the north of the Moro river . 
 
 = = Offensive strategy and order of battle = = 
 
 The Moro River runs from the central mountain spine of Italy to the Adriatic coast south of Ortona . The German defences on the Moro were a centerpiece of the Winter Line , which guarded the eastern side of the <unk> along Route 5 . Montgomery hoped to punch through the Winter Line , capture Ortona and Pescara and advance to Rome . The 78th Infantry Division , which had been <unk> V Corps since the Volturno Line actions and had sustained over 7 @,@ 000 casualties in less than six months , was relieved by the fresh 1st Canadian Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Chris Vokes ) , ready to renew the offensive on 5 December 1943 . The 78th Infantry Division was sent into the mountains on the relatively quiet left wing of the army , joining the British 5th Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Gerard <unk> ) under XIII Corps . 
 Montgomery 's plan was for the Canadian Division to attack across the Moro in the coastal lowlands to take Ortona first and then Pescara . Inland , in the jagged hills above the headwaters of the Moro , the relatively fresh 2nd New Zealand Division would attack toward Orsogna , while between these two the 8th Indian Infantry Division would hold the centre of the front in a relatively static role . 
 Facing V Corps was the 1st Parachute Division ( 1 . <unk> ) under Brigadier General ( <unk> ) Richard <unk> on the coast , to their right stood the 90th Panzergrenadier Division ( 90 . <unk> ) under Major General Carl @-@ Hans <unk> succeeded by Colonel ( <unk> ) Ernst @-@ Günther <unk> on 20 December , and further inland of them was the 26th Panzer Division ( 26 . <unk> ) under Brigadier General <unk> Freiherr von <unk> with their right flank on Orsogna . Further inland , facing XIII Corps , was the 65th Infantry Division ( 65 . <unk> ) under Brigadier General <unk> <unk> supported by elements of 1st Parachute and 5th Mountain Division ( 5 . <unk> ) under Brigadier General Julius <unk> . Together , these units formed <unk> Herr ′ s LXXVI Panzer Corps , the part of Joachim <unk> 's 10th Army responsible for the front line to the east of the <unk> . 
 
 = = Canadian division across the Moro = = 
 
 On 6 December 1943 , Canadian forces began a series of large @-@ scale assaults on major crossing points along the Moro River with the objective of securing a large bridgehead along the defensive line . Three primary points of attack were chosen : Villa Rogatti , along the western edge of the Canadian sector ; San Leonardo , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Ortona ; and San Donato , a small town near the Italian coast . Five primary infantry battalions were selected to assault these positions with the objective of crossing the Moro River . The offensives were scheduled to start on the morning of 6 December . 
 
 = = = Villa Rogatti = = = 
 
 The task of taking Villa Rogatti , the westernmost crossing point , was given to Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( PPCLI ) . Having conducted reconnaissance on their objective during the night of 5 December 1943 , an attack plan was devised by the battalion 's commander — Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Cameron Bethel Ware — detailing the objectives of all four rifle companies . Once the objectives had been secured by the early morning of 6 December , Anglo @-@ Canadian reinforcements were to be moved into Villa Rogatti , with the intention of <unk> the expected potentially strong German counterattacks . Elements of three German regiments — the 200th and 361st Panzergrenadier , and 26th Panzer — maintained strong defences within the town . 
 At 00 : 00 on 5 December , two companies of the PPCLI crossed the Moro River , moving towards Villa Rogatti . Within an hour , vicious fighting had erupted throughout the town as the two companies of Canadian infantry struggled to break the German defensive lines . As B Company broke through the German defences , A Company attacked to the northeast , continuing to engage 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment ( 200 . Panzergrenadier <unk> Regiment ) near Villa Rogatti . Although two Canadian infantry companies now occupied Villa Rogatti , German Panzergrenadier forces still maintained substantial defences on the outskirts of the town . However , C Company continued to advance steadily along the eastern side of the town , encountering significant resistance from the 361st Panzergrenadier Regiment ( 361 . Panzergrenadier @-@ Regiment ) . After approximately an hour of fighting by C and D Companies , Villa Rogatti had been occupied by Canadian forces shortly before dawn . 
 By mid @-@ morning , German counterattacks on PPCLI positions in the town had begun , involving tanks from the 7th Company of the 26th Panzer Regiment ( 26 . Panzer @-@ Regiment ) , field guns and substantial infantry forces . Throughout the afternoon two infantry companies of the PPCLI fought off several attacks by German forces , eventually managing to push them back to the vineyards on the northern edge of the town . While the PPCLI had taken 68 casualties , German casualties were estimated at 120 . However , three strong German formation surrounded the Canadian positions at Villa Rogatti , rendering further exploitation of the bridgehead unlikely . Col. Ware was advised to be ready to withdraw across the Moro River , should German forces counterattack . In order to allow the Canadian Division a greater concentration of force , on the night of 7 / 8 December , the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade from the Indian 8th Infantry Division amalgamated the western flank of the 1st Canadian Division into their own lines . As a result of the withdrawal , Canadian efforts would focus on achieving a bridgehead at San Leonardo . 
 
 = = = San Leonardo = = = 
 
 The Canadian attack on San Leonardo by the Seaforth Highlanders of Canada began late on 5 December 1943 with A Company establishing a bridgehead across the Moro , taking heavy casualties . In the early morning of 6 December , A Company was withdrawn and two additional Seaforth companies resumed the offensive . As PPCLI secured and held their bridgehead over the Moro River , the Seaforth Highlanders were struggling to enter San Leonardo . By 07 : 15 , a single objective had been taken , with Canadian units pinned down by well @-@ coordinated defensive fire from several companies of the 361st Regiment . Simultaneously , small arms fire prevented C Company from moving up the road from the Moro to San Leonardo , while D Company remained on the southern banks of the Moro throughout the early morning . 
 In the afternoon , having failed to capture San Leonardo , the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment sent two rifle companies to the aid of the Seaforth Highlanders , as Seaforth B Company attacked positions west of San Leonardo — inflicting 129 casualties on German forces in the area . However , the attack on San Leonardo by three Seaforth companies stalled rapidly when the 26th Panzer Regiment 's armoured companies reinforced the sector . As a result , <unk> was ordered to prepare for a withdrawal from the San Leonardo bridgehead . 
 
 = = = San Donato = = = 
 
 While attempts were made to cross the Moro at San Leonardo and Villa Rogatti , The Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment launched an attack on the Moro River defences at the small coastal hamlet of San Donato at 13 : 40 on 6 December . However , the single rifle company making the attack achieved little territorial gain and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kennedy — commander of the Hastings & Prince Edward Regiment — ordered a withdrawal at 15 : 40 . Throughout 6 December , strong German coastal defences would prevent further advancement , despite the incorporation of tanks and artillery into the assault . By nightfall , the German defenders still possessed control of San Donato , with the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment withdrawing to the southern bank of the Moro River . 
 
 = = = Taking the Moro = = = 
 
 On 8 December 1943 , Major General Vokes devised a new plan for taking the Moro River . While the 48th Highlanders of Canada and Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry resumed the assault on San Leonardo from the southwest side of the town , the Royal Canadian Regiment ( RCR ) would break out of the bridgehead created by the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment , then move southwest towards San Leonardo to link up with the 48th and PPCLI . The operation was scheduled to start on the afternoon of 8 December . 
 The attack began with a massive artillery barrage which <unk> German positions continuously for two hours . At 16 : 00 , the <unk> Light Infantry support battalion joined in , hitting German positions with bursts of machine gun fire . The moment the heavy bombardment lifted , the 48th Highlanders and the RCR both initiated their attacks . D Company of the 48th Highlanders was able to quickly cross the Moro , taking minimal casualties . However , B Company was subjected to heavy fire from German mortars and 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) artillery positions . Eventually , however , both companies managed to establish strong positions on the western ridge overlooking San Leonardo . During the night of 8 / 9 December , units of the Royal Canadian Engineers ( <unk> ) constructed a bridge over the Moro , to allow armour and equipment to move into San Leonardo the following day . 
 As the 48th Highlanders secured their positions west of San Leonardo , the Royal Canadian Regiment was involved in intense fighting southwest of San Donato . Two companies had advanced against strong and well prepared German defences of the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment . A Company was quickly tied down by German mortar fire , while B Company flanked German positions to the north of San Donato . By nightfall , all four companies held tenuous positions in the thick of German defences . On the night of 8 / 9 December , the RCR was subjected to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment which were repulsed with the support of continuous Canadian artillery shelling . 
 By the morning of 9 December , the <unk> had completed the bridge across the Moro River , enabling the tanks of the 14th Armoured Regiment ( The Calgary Regiment ) to transport two companies of Seaforth Highlanders across the river into San Leonardo . By mid morning , San Leonardo had been cleared of German defenders , although strong positions still existed outside of the town . Within an hour , the <unk> ' tanks had broken through German positions near <unk> Castle and two companies had linked up with the 48th Highlanders and Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry within San Leonardo , finally establishing firm Canadian positions across the Moro River . Near the end of 9 December , German forces of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division fell back to their second defensive line : a formidable obstacle known as " The Gully " . 
 
 = = Attacks on Orsogna = = 
 
 While Canadian crossed the Moro River , the New Zealand Division launched a two brigade attack , Operation <unk> , against Orsogna at 14 : 30 on 7 December . The division had the British 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade under their command , anchoring their left flank and were supported by heavy concentrations of artillery and air support . <unk> was achieved as <unk> Herr , the commander of LXXVI Panzer Corps , had been persuaded that the New Zealanders would not be in a position to launch a major attack until 8 December . 
 Initially , the New Zealand attack progressed well , but the German defenders regained their <unk> and the attack lost momentum against heavily fortified defensive positions . By 21 : 00 , the NZ 24th Infantry Battalion had fought its way in slow house to house fighting to the centre of the town , but were pinned down with no prospect of further progress without significant armoured support . However , a combination of concealed minefields and well dug in German armour made the task of the Allied tanks impossible . In the early hours of 8 December , the New Zealand commander — Bernard Freyberg — ordered a withdrawal from the town with a view to renewing the attack after further <unk> up from artillery and bombers . 
 
 = = Indian Division across the Moro – the " impossible " bridge = = 
 
 With both the Canadian and New Zealand Divisions finding progress difficult , it was decided to bring the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade into the attack with orders to seize <unk> . With no river crossing available , the Indian engineers rushed to build a bridge across the Moro which was completed on 9 December and allowed infantry and supporting armour to cross and expand the bridgehead on the far bank . The bridge was named the " Impossible Bridge " because the local geography required for it to be built backwards from the enemy bank of the river . 
 
 = = The Gully = = 
 
 
 = = = Initial attacks = = = 
 
 Following the loss of San Leonardo and the Moro River , the 90th Panzergrenadier Division withdrew to a primary defensive line 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of San Leonardo . The line centred around a natural ravine known as " The Gully " , with an average depth of 200 ft ( 61 m ) . General Vokes ' initial plan to take the position ( as well as achieve a foothold on the roads toward Ortona ) consisted of a frontal assault by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade , which would seize <unk> Ridge , capture The Gully and gain positions on the Ortona to Orsogna road . However , German defences were adequately prepared , including gun @-@ pits , bunkers and shelters . 
 On 10 December , three Canadian battalions made their first attempt to cross The Gully . Although they succeeded in capturing <unk> Ridge , directly south of The Gully , attempts to <unk> German positions in the ravine were unsuccessful . On 11 December , the three battalions made another attempt , with the Loyal Edmonton Regiment suffering heavy casualties in their attempts to take German positions in the sector . Although a badly <unk> A Company was able to gain a foothold on the reverse slope , newly arrived German units forced the remaining men to withdraw . 
 On 12 December 1943 , General Vokes sent the three battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade against German defences in The Gully . The assault started poorly , when Canadian artillery plans were captured by soldiers of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division 's 200th Regiment . When The West Nova Scotia Regiment attacked The Gully , they were subject to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment approximately 10 : 30 . By 14 : 00 , the regiment had called off its attacks and had taken heavy casualties . To the west , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry fared little better , with C Company taking heavy casualties in their assault . Attempts were again made on 13 December , by two battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade , and the attacks were driven back by <unk> German resistance . On the evening of 13 December , the heavily depleted 90th Panzergrenadier Division were relieved from their positions in The Gully by units of the 1st Parachute Division . 
 
 = = = Casa Berardi = = = 
 
 By 14 December , Vokes had devised a new assault plan for taking The Gully . A small force from the Royal 22e Régiment would move to Casa Berardi , a small set of <unk> west of The Gully , before outflanking German positions with infantry and armour , thereby forcing the 1st Parachute Division to withdraw . The attack was to begin at dawn , with two companies of the Royal 22e Régiment attacking Casa Berardi with artillery support . By 07 : 50 , both companies had control of the lateral highway leading to Casa Berardi . C Company — under Captain Paul Triquet — pushed on toward Casa Berardi with support from the Ontario Regiment , while D Company found itself involved in <unk> southwest of Casa Berardi . At 08 : 30 , C Company began their assault toward the manor house in Casa Berardi , some 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) away . Strong German defences caused heavy casualties to the attackers ; only 21 men and five tanks made it to within 200 yd ( 180 m ) of the objective . Despite the arrival of several Panzer <unk> , Triquet 's remaining forces captured the manor house at 14 : 30 . However , only 14 men of C Company remained fit to continue fighting . For his efforts to capture Casa Berardi , Triquet was awarded the Victoria Cross . 
 
 = = Eighth Army <unk> to intensify the attack = = 
 
 With the Indian Division committed , Montgomery decided to raise the stakes further by bringing the British 5th Infantry Division from the relatively tranquil XIII Corps front in the high mountains on the left wing of the 8th Army and insert them between the New Zealand and Indian Divisions . This would allow the Indian division to narrow and concentrate their attack and give Montgomery four divisions to continue the attack between Orsogna and the sea . By 12 December , the British 17th Infantry Brigade — the first of 5th Division 's brigades — was in place and under the New Zealand division 's command . Once 5th Division headquarters and its other brigades had arrived , these two left hand divisions were to be organised under the command of XIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey . 
 To the left of the Canadian division , the Indian 21st Brigade had by 13 December established a solid bridgehead around the " Impossible Bridge " . That night , a second 8th Indian Division brigade — the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade — passed through and attacked towards <unk> . The 1st Battalion Royal Fusiliers stormed the village in a wild night 's fighting while the 1st Battalion 5th <unk> Rifles seized Point 198 nearby , holding it against determined counterattacks , including from tanks in the afternoon of 14 December . That evening , 1st Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment attacked on the left of the <unk> and established positions on the lateral road between Ortona and Orsogna running parallel to the Moro some 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) north of the " Impossible Bridge " . On the evening of 15 December , the 1st / 5th Battalion Essex Regiment from the Indian Division 's 19th Indian Infantry Brigade , which had been held in reserve , was committed on the left flank of the Frontier Force Regiment to advance in the direction of <unk> and overran a number of German positions . By the end of 16 December , further attacks from the 15th Punjab Regiments 3rd Battalion had secured positions on the lateral road , ensuring that the 8th Indian Division was firmly embedded in the main German defences . 
 Meanwhile , at 01 : 00 on 15 December , the New Zealand Division — <unk> not to make a further frontal assault on Orsogna — launched their 5th Brigade in Operation Florence , a new flanking attack to the right of the village . By that afternoon , 5th Brigade was well established on the Orsogna to Ortona lateral road and had driven a shallow salient into the German forward defensive line . Although they had exhausted nearly all their reserves , divisional headquarters was optimistic for the prospects for the next day , given the heavy casualties they had inflicted that day . 
 However , the Germans launched a counterattack at 03 : 15 on 16 December , throwing in men from the 6th Parachute Regiment , sent by Herr to the 26th Panzer Division to relieve the exhausted 9th Panzergrenadier Regiment . These troops had arrived late that evening after a long journey . <unk> by tanks , they attacked the right @-@ hand New Zealand positions held by the 21st NZ Battalion , but were held off and had retired by daylight . Meanwhile , even before the German counterattack had been repelled , the 20th Regiment had attacked toward Orsogna with two squadrons of Sherman tanks . Under intense artillery and anti @-@ tank fire , the tanks and infantry became separated and the tanks became a target rather than a threat . 
 Operation Florence had come to an end . While the German line had been pushed back and they had sustained casualties they could ill afford , they still firmly held Orsogna . Furthermore , the New Zealand Division was , for the time being , fought out and needed a period of consolidation and reorganisation . 
 By 16 December , the British 5th Division had completed its move into the line between the New Zealand and the Indian divisions . There followed a period of hostile patrolling and <unk> on the XIII Corps front . The main burden of the fighting was therefore assumed by V Corps as the Canadians pushed for Ortona with the Indian Division on their left flank attacking toward Villa Grande and <unk> . 
 
 = = Taking The Gully = = 
 
 In preparation for what he hoped would be the final attack on The Gully , Vokes shifted the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade to occupy positions formerly belonging to the 1st Brigade . Vokes planned for an attack by The Carleton and York Regiment to be the last of the frontal assaults against The Gully . Should this attack fail , the 1st Brigade 's Seaforth Highlanders and the Royal Canadian Regiment would move through Casa Berardi and outflank German defences , forcing a withdrawal from The Gully . 
 At 07 : 30 on 15 December , two companies of the Carleton and York Regiment attacked . After little more than an hour of fighting , however , the Canadians were forced to call the attack off . In the afternoon , the two heavily depleted companies of the Royal 22e Régiment fought off a large German counterattack on Casa Berardi , with the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery firing 5 @,@ 398 rounds in support of Canadian forces . 
 On 18 December , Vokes planned what would be the largest assault on The Gully during the campaign . Beginning at 08 : 00 , Canadian artillery would bombard a 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) front , to a depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . Every five minutes , the barrage would move 100 m ( 110 yd ) forward , continuing to pound German defences in the bombardment area . Less than 100 m behind this barrage , the 48th Highlanders would advance across the Ortona @-@ Orsogna <unk> Road . At the same time , the 8th Indian Division would attack northward toward <unk> , preventing German reinforcements from reaching The Gully . When the 48th Highlanders reached the Cider Crossroads , the Royal Canadian Regiment would move north , overrunning Cider itself , then advance up the Ortona @-@ Orsogna road . Both battalions would be supported by tanks of The Three Rivers Regiment . At first , the attack went extremely well . However , when the artillery shifted their barrage , the German defences quickly recovered and their machine gun fire devastated the advancing forces . In C Company of the Royal Canadian Regiment , every platoon commander was killed or wounded . The attack was quickly abandoned . 
 On 20 December , Canadian forces tried again and The Royal Canadian Regiment attacked Cider Crossroads at noon . This time , Vokes was determined that the operation would be successful , with armoured forces of the Three Rivers Regiment moving to the start lines well before 07 : 00 . Due to shortages of fuel and poor weather , H @-@ Hour was postponed until 14 : 15 . When H @-@ Hour came , a powerful <unk> barrage supported two companies of the Royal Canadian Regiment eastward . By evening , B Company controlled the Cider Crossroads , having met virtually no resistance in their advance to the objective . However , German forces had already evacuated The Gully , falling back to prepare for a strong defence of Ortona , with elements of the powerful 1st Parachute Division firmly entrenched in the town . 
 
 = = Villa Grande = = 
 
 In order to keep up pressure on the whole front , the 19th Indian Brigade was ordered to attack Villa Grande and exploit any gains as far as the <unk> river which ran from the mountains through <unk> to the Adriatic . The attack went in at 05 : 30 on 22 December but failed in desperate fighting . The 1 / 5th Battalion , Essex Regiment renewed their attack the following morning with more success . After a counterattack by German <unk> had been repulsed at midday , the Essex advanced to <unk> up the remainder of the village . However , deadly small scale house @-@ to @-@ house battles continued throughout the rest of 23 December and for the next two days as the determined parachute soldiers <unk> on . To the south of Villa Grande , the 3rd / 15th <unk> had taken <unk> on 23 December and a continuous brigade line had been established . 
 On 25 December , reinforcements in the form of 3rd Battalion , 8th Punjab Regiment were brought forward and after a <unk> up barrage were launched at the east side of Villa Grande . With four battalions now involved ( the 5th Battalion , Royal West <unk> had by now been tasked on the south east side of the village ) supported by tanks , Villa Grande was finally cleared by the end of 26 December . The troops of the 8th Indian Division entered the village to find a <unk> . One correspondent described the scene " as though a giant had <unk> on a child 's box of blocks " . 
 
 = = XIII Corps attacks Orsogna = = 
 
 On 23 December , Lieutenant @-@ General Dempsey 's XIII Corps launched a new attack to push back the German line from Orsogna . In the afternoon , the British 5th Infantry Division attacked on the right wing of the Corps front toward the <unk> stream . Their objective was to secure the flank of the 2nd New Zealand Division , which was in turn to attack northwest and west from the salient in order to roll up the Orsogna defences from the north . 
 After the British 5th Infantry Division had achieved its objectives , the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade attacked at 04 : 00 on 24 December . Despite intensive artillery support ( 272 guns on a 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) front ) , the tired and <unk> New Zealand battalions struggled to make progress . By the afternoon , it had become clear to the New Zealand commander — Bernard Freyberg — that the stubborn defences of the 26th Panzer Division would not be <unk> . He is reported to have remarked , " It is not a question of further advance , it is a question of holding on to what we have got " . The XIII Corps front was effectively <unk> and settled into a posture of active defence and patrolling . 
 
 = = Ortona = = 
 
 Throughout the week of 11 – 18 December , the 1st Parachute Battalion from the German 1st Parachute Division — with supporting units — had prepared strong defences within the Italian coastal town of Ortona . <unk> engineers and infantry had destroyed much of Ortona itself , turning the streets into a debris @-@ filled maze . Major streets were mined , with demolition charges throughout the main <unk> , and booby traps littered the town . German forces had also buried tanks in the rubble , leaving only the turrets exposed . 
 On 20 December 1943 , the under @-@ strength Loyal Edmonton Regiment moved toward Ortona , with the Seaforth Highlanders covering their eastern flank . Throughout the day , they encountered heavy machine gun fire during their attempts to enter Ortona . By nightfall , both battalions held a <unk> on the western edge of Ortona , yet had encountered heavy resistance in their attempts to secure it . The following day , D Company of the Loyal Edmonton Regiment launched attacks eastward towards the city centre , but accurate German sniper fire rapidly stalled the advance . 
 Throughout the remainder of the week , the Battle of Ortona degenerated into a small @-@ scale version of the Battle of Stalingrad , with vicious house @-@ to @-@ house fighting through the narrow streets and debris of Ortona . Over the course of the battle , Canadian forces developed innovative " mouse @-@ <unk> " tactics , moving between houses to avoid German sniper fire in the open streets . German counterattacks on 24 and 26 December caused significant casualties to Canadian forces in the town . In danger of being outflanked by Allied advances west of Ortona , the 1st Parachute Regiment abandoned the town the following day , leaving Ortona to Canadian forces . Canadian casualties in the fighting for the town approached 650 killed or wounded . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 With Ortona and Villa Grande captured , it looked as if it would require Eighth Army only to <unk> itself and strike one more concentrated blow at Orsogna to complete the breaching of the Gustav Line 's main Adriatic <unk> . However , on 31 December , as V Corps <unk> along the coastal plain towards Pescara , a <unk> enveloped the battlefield . Drifting snow , <unk> and biting winds <unk> movement and communications on the ground while cloud ceiling and visibility fell to nil and grounded the <unk> . Montgomery — realising the Eighth Army no longer had the strength or conditions to force its way to Pescara and the Via Valeria to Rome — recommended to General Alexander that the Eighth Army offensive should be halted . Alexander agreed but ordered him to maintain aggressive patrolling in order to pin the units of the LXXVI Panzer Corps in the Adriatic sector and prevent Kesselring moving them to reinforce the XIV Panzer Corps front opposite Mark Clark 's U.S. Fifth Army where the Allied offensive would continue . 
 In spite of this , three attempts during the winter of 1943 / 44 by Fifth Army to break through into the <unk> valley at Cassino failed . As spring approached in 1944 , Alexander concentrated his forces in great secrecy by thinning out the Adriatic front and bringing the bulk of Eighth Army 's striking power to the Cassino front . The combined attack of his two armies during the fourth and final Battle of Monte Cassino in early May took Kesselring by surprise and led to the Allied capture of Rome in early June . 
 
 
 = Berkley Bedell = 
 
 Berkley Warren Bedell ( born March 5 , 1921 ) is a former U.S. Representative from Iowa . After starting a successful business in his youth , Berkley Fly Co . , he ran for the United States Congress in 1972 , but was defeated by incumbent Wiley Mayne . In 1974 , however , Bedell beat Wiley Mayne and was elected to Congress . 
 He was known for his support of representative democracy and his populist style . For example , he would hold town halls and let constituents vote on motions to decide what he would do in Congress on their behalf . These meetings helped Bedell understand the problems of his constituents ; as a result , he backed issues that were important to his farming constituency , such as waterway usage fees and production constraints . 
 He did not seek reelection in 1986 after contracting <unk> disease from a tick bite . Though he no longer serves in Congress , Bedell remains active in Iowa politics , strongly supporting Howard Dean in 2004 over John Kerry . In the 2008 presidential election , he met several times with Chris Dodd , but endorsed Barack Obama in the end . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Born in Spirit Lake , Iowa , Bedell was educated in Spirit Lake public schools . He graduated from Spirit Lake High School in 1939 , where he earned spending money with a business in the midst of the Great Depression . His business involved <unk> dog hairs around <unk> , the result of which could be sold as trout flies . He began tying the fly @-@ fishing <unk> in his bedroom , then he moved the business into his parents ' basement . In time , he got space above a grocery store to continue the business full @-@ time . 
 After graduating from high school , he attended Iowa State University from 1940 to 1942 , where he met fellow <unk> student Elinor <unk> from Grand <unk> , Minnesota . Berkley and Elinor married in Minneapolis on August 29 , 1943 and their son Kenneth was born in 1947 , Thomas in 1950 and daughter <unk> in 1952 . Berkley ’ s college and personal life was interrupted in 1942 when he joined the army . He served in the United States Army as first lieutenant and flight trainer from 1942 to 1945 . When he got back , he began to garner success from his fish tackling business . His business became larger , with hundreds of employees and international operations ; he had become a millionaire by the 1960s . He served as member of the Spirit Lake Board of Education from 1957 to 1962 . 
 
 = = Political career = = 
 
 
 = = = Running for Congress = = = 
 
 By the early 1970s , Bedell had decided to run for political office . In 1972 , he ran against Wiley Mayne , a Republican incumbent in Iowa 's 6th congressional district . Mayne was a staunch supporter of Richard Nixon and secured victory along with the President in a year favorable to the Republicans . Mayne , however , would politically suffer after Watergate ( he was one of only a few Republicans to vote against <unk> the President on the judiciary committee . ) The damage had already been done , and Bedell defeated Mayne in a 1974 rematch . 
 During his time at Congress , Bedell took efforts to uphold representative democracy . He held town halls regularly with his constituents , and he would let them vote on motions to decide what he would do in Congress on their behalf . This type of communication told Bedell of the types of issues affecting his farming constituency . Thus , though Bedell had not farmed in his life , he would take steps in Congress to benefit farmers . 
 
 = = = Waterway usage fees = = = 
 
 Bedell sponsored several bold initiatives during his tenure in the United States House of Representatives . One initiative , which came from his constituents ' problems with the barge industry , focused on waterway usage fees . He introduced legislation in 1977 that would require the barge industry to pay a fee for using the waterways which , Bedell pointed out , the Government paid millions of dollars to create and maintain . Bedell 's original plan set the rate the barge industry paid as directly related to the amount the Government spent on waterway projects . This would have the additional effect of helping curb unnecessary waterway projects , and it was the same plan proposed by Pete Domenici in the Senate . 
 Congress eventually passed a watered @-@ down version of the original plan put forward by Bedell and Senator Pete Domenici . The compromise version enacted a tax on the gasoline barges used and put it into a " trust " for waterway projects . While other supporters of waterway usage fees , including Domenici , backed the compromise , Bedell gave a <unk> plea for his colleagues to oppose it . He viewed it as lacking a crucial element of the original plan - that of capital recovery . The trust was optional , and the Government could spend money on waterway projects irrespective of the trust . The compromise was eventually signed by Jimmy Carter . Bedell 's original plan never made it through the House of Representatives , but he continued to introduce it in succeeding sessions . It would not , however , get a floor vote in succeeding sessions . 
 
 = = = <unk> issues = = = 
 
 In 1985 , Bedell put forward an agricultural plan that he thought would increase production controls for farmers , thus raising prices for crops . This plan , backed by labor unions and certain Democrats , passed the Agriculture Committee as an amendment to farm legislation . It mandated a referendum that would then be used to determine what types of production controls to enact . The purpose of this plan was <unk> : production controls would decrease the aggregate supply of crops , thus making individual crops cost more ( which would benefit farmers , who were in the middle of an acute debt crisis . ) Second , by styling it as a referendum , the farmers would get to decide the severity of the controls . 
 On the other hand , opponents of the Bedell plan had a very different view of this legislation . Representatives such as Pat Roberts claimed that the referendum was redundant because the farmers already voted the politicians into office , and this bill was an example of the politicians not doing their jobs . The Reagan Administration opposed the bill because of their opposition to production controls , and the President threatened to veto the farm bill if Bedell 's plan was left in place . When the bill got to the floor , an amendment was proposed to strike this provision , and it was passed 251 @-@ 174 . 
 
 = = = Investigations of large businesses = = = 
 
 While in Congress , Berkley Bedell was Chairman of the Small Business <unk> , and he used this position to investigate <unk> on the part of large oil companies . He also claimed that certain large oil companies <unk> their " <unk> taxes " in certain cases and wanted to pass legislation to increase regulations on these corporations . 
 In these investigations , Bedell quickly gained the support of small gasoline <unk> and Congressman Bill Nelson . The chief target , <unk> , was accused of not paying all of its taxes on <unk> crude oil . In the end , the government tried to make a case against <unk> , but it was eventually dropped in 1985 . Bedell used this opportunity to attack the Administration for " not caring " about small business owners , and he advocated that <unk> agencies put aside 1 @-@ 3 % of their research and development money for small businesses . 
 
 = = = Clash with Reagan = = = 
 
 In late 1982 , Congress passed a law which forbade the United States from funding groups aiming to overthrow the <unk> government of Nicaragua . Then , in 1983 , Bedell visited Nicaragua and Honduras along with Representative Robert G. <unk> . During the trip , Bedell spoke with soldiers , generals , governmental officials and members of the contras . His conclusion at the end of the trip was that Ronald Reagan was aiding the contras in violation of federal law . He promised to hold hearings after returning to Congress . Bedell would later join other House Democrats in demanding documents from the White House related to the contras , but the Reagan Administration refused to provide them . Bedell became <unk> with the Reagan Administration as the decade wore on . He called his Central American policies " sheer <unk> , " saying that the mining of <unk> was an acts of war . Bedell would retire from Congress before Reagan 's acts in Central America would <unk> with the Iran @-@ <unk> Affair . 
 Furthermore , Bedell was a sharp critic of Reagan 's agricultural policies , calling for John Block to resign after calling his agricultural plan a failure that was " dead on arrival " in both the House and the Senate . Reagan 's agricultural plan consisted primarily of a gradual reduction in farm subsidies . He also attacked the Department of Agriculture for " looking backward " when it dismissed the only expert on organic farming . Also , as chairman of the <unk> on Department Operations , Research and Foreign Agriculture , which was in charge of regulating USDA operations , he opposed the proposals Reagan had for reforming the organization . The proposals generally involved shifting costs for meat inspections and other USDA duties from the federal government to the industry . 
 
 = = = Controversy = = = 
 
 In 1981 , it was revealed in internal <unk> that Bedell may have known about potential customs violations that his company engaged in . It asserted that Bedell had gone to Taiwan in 1973 to discuss " prior violations of customs law " in regards to the sale of fishing rods from the company 's Taiwan subsidiary . Bedell responded by denying any wrongdoing , saying that he has not been personally involved in the company in years . In the end , no charges were <unk> against him , and he was reelected after the story was published . 
 
 = = After politics = = 
 
 Bedell decided not to seek reelection in 1986 after contracting <unk> Disease from a tick bite . Since then , he has founded a center for alternative medicine and is a noted advocate of health freedom . Due largely to his friendship with Tom <unk> , he remains an important political figure in Iowa , with politicians such as Howard Dean meeting him in their trips to the state . Also , the Elinor Bedell State Park was established in 1998 on land donated by Berkley Bedell . The park is named after the Congressman 's wife . 
 As an opponent of the Vietnam War , Bedell signed a petition urging against United States military intervention in Iraq . This petition was signed with the names of 70 former <unk> from the 1970s and was presented in a press conference on March 15 , 2003 . Bedell said that it was unbelievable for the United States to settle disputes with war , and he said that an Iraq war would be similar to the Vietnam War . 
 In the 2004 presidential election , Bedell attacked John Kerry for voting for <unk> <unk> 's Freedom to Farm Act , which Bedell claims wrecked the farm program . Bedell would later officially endorse Howard Dean 's candidacy . For the 2008 election , Bedell met with Chris Dodd . However , in December 2007 , he announced his endorsement of Barack Obama . 
 
 
 = Bart vs. Australia = 
 
 " Bart vs. Australia " is the sixteenth episode of the sixth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 19 , 1995 . In the episode , Bart is indicted for fraud in Australia , and the family travels to the country so Bart can apologize . The Australian Parliament decides to give him the additional punishment of a boot to his buttocks , but the Simpson family refuses . Bart later changes his mind and agrees to the punishment , but just as he is about to receive it , he moons the Australians and the family flee back to America . 
 The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein and directed by Wes Archer . It features cultural references to films such as Mad Max 2 and Crocodile Dundee . " Bart vs. Australia " acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 and was the fourth highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . It received mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian viewers saying the episode was a mockery of their country . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 While in the bathroom , Bart notices that the water in the sink always drains <unk> . Lisa explains ( not entirely correctly ) that the water never drains the other way except in the southern hemisphere , due to the Coriolis effect , but Bart does not believe her . To confirm this , Bart makes phone calls to various countries in the southern hemisphere . Lisa points out how expensive international calls are , so Bart decides to make a collect call instead . He calls Australia , where a little boy answers the phone . <unk> to represent the " International Drainage Commission " , Bart is informed that the toilet and sink are both draining clockwise . Frustrated , Bart asks him to go and check the toilets of the neighbors . The call takes six hours to complete , since the boy lives in the outback , and Bart <unk> to hang up the phone . Later , the boy 's father is billed A $ 900 ( referred to as " <unk> " ) . The father calls Bart and demands that he pay , but Bart only taunts him . Unfortunately for Bart , the father 's neighbour is a federal Member of Parliament , who reports Bart 's offense to the Prime Minister — who is relaxing naked in a nearby pond . 
 After a long series of ignored letters , Australia <unk> Bart for fraud . The United States Department of State wants to send him to prison in order to <unk> the Australian government , but Marge furiously objects to this idea . The State Department then settles on having Bart publicly apologize in Australia . The family is sent to Australia and they stay in the American Embassy , which is fitted with all the comforts of their home country , including a specially modified toilet that <unk> an exaggerated Coriolis effect . Then they start exploring the local culture . 
 After Bart makes his apology , the Parliament reveals that they want to give him the additional punishment of a " <unk> " , which is a kick in the buttocks using a giant boot . Bart and Homer escape and the family flees to the American Embassy . After a prolonged standoff , the two governments propose a compromise to the Simpson family : one kick from the Prime Minister , through the gate of the embassy , with a regular shoe , believed to be a <unk> . Marge is opposed to the idea , but Bart agrees . However , Bart <unk> the kick , moons the Australians with the words " don 't <unk> on me " written on his buttocks , then <unk> " The Star @-@ <unk> Banner " . In a scene reminiscent of the Fall of Saigon the Simpson family flees the outraged country in a helicopter . Looking down on Australia , they see that <unk> have begun to <unk> and destroy the Australian ecosystem , due to a <unk> Bart left earlier at the airport . <unk> the devastation , the family remark upon the destruction that can be caused by introducing a foreign species into a new environment , and laugh at the Australians ' misfortune , unaware that a <unk> is hanging onto the helicopter . The camera <unk> in on the <unk> , ending with a close @-@ up of its eye , implying that America will face a similar fate as Australia . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , and directed by Wes Archer . The writing staff wanted to do an episode where the Simpsons family traveled to Australia , because they thought everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and that they " would get the jokes " . The staff had previously poked fun at several American institutions on the show and they thought it would be interesting to poke fun at a whole nation . They designed Australia and the Australian people very inaccurately and many things were completely made up for fun . The animators , however , got two Australian tourist guides to help them out with the design of the Australian landscape and buildings , as well as the American Embassy . The writers did research on the Coriolis effect for this episode . Lisa 's explanation of the effect is incorrect ; it affects global weather patterns and is caused by the spinning of the globe on its axis . The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it . 
 In 1999 , Fox Studios Australia in Sydney used a different version of " Bart vs. Australia " as part of their Simpsons attraction , called The Simpsons Down Under . They had contacted the Simpsons writing staff and asked if they would write the screenplay for a ride in their attraction , based on this episode . The episode was re @-@ edited and re @-@ animated for the ride and new scenes were included . The attraction featured motion capture technology , allowing audience members faces and expressions to be transformed into moving cartoon characters . 
 
 = = Cultural references = = 
 
 The plot of the episode is based on the story of Michael Fay , an American teenager who was <unk> in Singapore in 1994 for <unk> cars . This episode <unk> a popular myth that the Coriolis effect affects the motion of drains in the Northern and Southern <unk> . In reality , the Coriolis effect affects global weather patterns . The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it . 
 When Bart is talking to the boy 's father on the phone he says " I think I hear a <unk> eating your baby " , referencing the case of Azaria Chamberlain , a ten @-@ week @-@ old baby who was killed by <unk> . The <unk> taking over Australia and destroying all the crops is a reference to the cane <unk> , originally introduced to Australia in order to protect sugar <unk> from the cane beetle , but became a pest in the country . 
 When the Simpson family go to an Australian pub , Bart plays with a <unk> at the table and a man asks him : " You call that a knife ? " , and as the man draws a spoon from his pocket he says : " This is a knife . " The scene is a reference to a famous scene from Crocodile Dundee in which Mick Dundee is threatened by some thugs with a <unk> , and Mick takes out a <unk> knife and says ; " That 's not a knife ; that 's a knife ! " The Simpson family is shown a slide show by the US Department of State depicting a boarded up cinema with a sign out the front saying " Yahoo Serious Festival " , in reference to the Australian actor and director Yahoo Serious . <unk> , one of the characters from the 1981 film Mad Max 2 : The Road Warrior , is seen in the Australian mob that chases Bart and Homer to the American Embassy . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 In its original American broadcast , " Bart vs. Australia " finished 56th in the ratings for the week of February 13 – 19 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 . It was the fourth highest rated show on Fox that week . The episode has since become study material for sociology courses at the University of California , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . " 
 Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . In a DVD review of the sixth season , Ryan Keefer said " all the Australian jabs you expect to have here are present . Bart 's international incident is hilarious , from top to bottom . The phone calls he makes to other countries ( particularly Buenos Aires ) are fantastic . This is one of the more under appreciated episodes in the series ' run . " Vanity Fair named it the second best episode of The Simpsons in 2007 . " Bart vs. Australia " was also nominated for an Emmy Award in 1995 in the category " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " . 
 
 = = = Reaction in Australia = = = 
 
 The episode received mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian fans saying the episode was a mockery of their country . Shortly after it had aired , the Simpsons staff received over 100 letters from Australians who were insulted by the episode . They also received letters from people complaining about the Australian accents used in the episode that " sounded more like South African accents " . The Simpsons writer and producer Mike <unk> claimed that this episode is Australia 's least favorite , and that " whenever we have the Simpsons visit another country , that country gets furious , including Australia " . He claimed that they were " condemned in the Australian Parliament after the episode had aired " . 
 The Newcastle Herald 's James Joyce said he was shocked when he first saw the episode : " Who are the Americans trying to kid here ? I agree Australia has its faults , as does any other country . But laughing in our face about it , then mocking our heritage was definitely not called for . It embarrassed and degraded our country as well as making us look like total <unk> " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , advised that the episode is " best if watched with Australians who will be , perhaps understandably , <unk> at their portrayal . After the attack on the French , this is a vicious , <unk> , offensive and wonderfully amusing slaughter of Australian culture by the makers of The Simpsons " . 
 The Simpsons executive producer David Mirkin , who produced the episode , responded to the criticism in an interview with The Newcastle Herald by saying : " We like to have the Simpsons , the entire family , travel and this was the beginning of that . Australia was a fantastic choice because it has lots of quirky visual things . And it 's a country that is really very close to America , very in sync with America . We are so similar but yet there are all these fantastic differences , familiar yet twisted . It was intentional to make it very inaccurate . That was our evil side coming out : We 'll take our knowledge of Australia and we 'll twist it around to stimulate an audience and annoy them at the same time " . Despite being criticized for mocking the country , the episode received positive reviews from Australians , too . Jim <unk> of the Australian newspaper The Age named it the funniest episode ever while the <unk> was forked ( the ' <unk> @-@ <unk> ' fork ) into the ' <unk> ' <unk> in honour of the episode . 
 
 
 = Leslie Andrew = 
 
 Brigadier Leslie <unk> Andrew VC DSO ( 23 March 1897 – 8 January 1969 ) was a senior officer in the New Zealand Military Forces and a recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award of the British Commonwealth for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " . He received the decoration for his actions during the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 . 
 Born in 1897 , Andrew joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1915 , having gained military experience while serving with the Territorial Force . He served on the Western Front from September 1916 to early 1918 , and ended the war as a commissioned officer in England . He remained in the military after the cessation of hostilities , and joined the New Zealand Staff Corps . He held staff and administrative positions in New Zealand and , while on an officer exchange program , British India . 
 Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Andrew was appointed commander of the 22nd Battalion , which he led during the Battles of Greece , Crete and the early part of the North African Campaign . For a short period in late 1941 he commanded an infantry brigade of the 2nd New Zealand Division , and received the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership . He returned to New Zealand in 1942 and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the remainder of the war . He retired from the military in 1952 with the rank of brigadier , and died in 1969 aged 71 . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Leslie Andrew was born on 23 March 1897 in <unk> in the <unk> region of New Zealand , the son of a local school headmaster . He grew up in <unk> , where his father had moved his family having taken up a position in the area , and was educated at <unk> Collegiate School . After leaving school he was employed by the New Zealand Railways Department as a clerk . He participated in the cadet program while at school , and later joined the Territorial Force . By 1915 , he had been promoted to sergeant and had sat the necessary exams to become a commissioned officer in the <unk> . 
 
 = = Military career = = 
 
 
 = = = First World War = = = 
 
 Andrew volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in October 1915 . Because only men between the ages of 19 and 45 were required to register for service with the NZEF , he falsified his age to ensure that he would be eligible for duty overseas . A member of the 12th Reinforcements , he embarked for the Western Front via Egypt on 1 May 1916 . In France , he was posted to B Company , Wellington Infantry Battalion with the rank of private . 
 Andrew 's arrival at the front coincided with the start of the Somme Offensive . He participated in the Battle of <unk> @-@ <unk> , which began on 15 September , and was wounded . Promoted to corporal in January 1917 , he took part in the Battle of <unk> the following June . 
 During the early phase of the Battle of Passchendaele , Andrew 's battalion was engaged in fighting around the village of La <unk> , a few kilometres southwest of <unk> . Originally captured by the New Zealanders prior to the battle on 26 July , the village had been re @-@ taken by the Germans the next day . Under cover of an artillery barrage , the <unk> began an advance towards the village . Andrew was tasked with leading two sections to destroy a machine @-@ gun post . During the advance , he noticed another machine @-@ gun post that was holding up the advance of another platoon . On his own initiative , he promptly diverted his force and removed the newly spotted threat with a flanking attack . He then continued with his men to his original objective . <unk> continuous gunfire , he and his men captured the machine @-@ gun post . While most of his men withdrew with the gun , he and another man continued to scout further forward . Coming across another machine @-@ gun post , the two men destroyed it before returning to their lines with useful information on the increasing numbers of Germans in the area . 
 It was for his leadership and bravery during these actions that Andrew was awarded the Victoria Cross ( VC ) at the age of 20 . The citation read as follows : 
 For most conspicuous bravery when in charge of a small party in an attack on the enemy 's position . His objective was a machine @-@ gun post which had been located in an isolated building . On leading his men forward he encountered unexpectedly a machine @-@ gun post which was holding up the advance of another company ; he immediately attacked , capturing the machine gun and killing several of the crew . He then continued the attack on the machine gun post which had been his original objective . He displayed great skill and determination in his disposition , finally capturing the post , killing several of the enemy and putting the remainder to flight . <unk> Andrew 's conduct throughout was <unk> for cool daring , initiative , and fine leadership , and his magnificent example was a great <unk> to his comrades . 
 Andrew was promoted to sergeant the day after his VC @-@ winning action . He continued to serve on the front until early 1918 , when he was sent to England for officer training . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in March 1918 , but remained in England until the end of the war . 
 
 = = = <unk> period = = = 
 
 While in England , Andrew met <unk> Ball , of Nottingham , and they were married on 12 November 1918 . The couple had five children although one died in infancy . Upon discharge from the NZEF in August 1919 , he joined the New Zealand Staff Corps and served in a number of administrative positions for the next several years . From 1927 to 1929 he served with the Highland Light Infantry in British India on an officer exchange program . On his return to New Zealand he was appointed adjutant of the 1st Wellington Regiment . In 1937 , having been promoted to captain , he commanded the New Zealand contingent sent to London for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth . 
 
 = = = Second World War = = = 
 
 Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Andrew was seconded to the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force . In early 1940 , he was appointed commander of 22nd Battalion , then forming at <unk> Military Camp near Wellington . He trained his new command hard , and quickly earned the nickname of February due to his habit of issuing 28 @-@ day <unk> for any breaches in discipline . 
 The battalion embarked for England in May 1940 as part of 5th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division . Arriving in June , it spent the remainder of the year on garrison duties in the south of England . In March 1941 it travelled for Egypt and then onto Greece . Andrew led the battalion through the subsequent Battle of Greece , during which it saw little action , and the Battle of Crete . 
 In Crete , the battalion was tasked with the defence of <unk> airfield and the overlooking hill , Point 107 . Andrew was ordered to maintain control of his positions " at all costs " . Forced to disperse the companies of his battalion widely to cover his positions , he lost contact with most of his units after German paratroopers began landing in the area on 20 May . <unk> to receive any support from his brigade commander following a request for assistance , and fearing most of his command overrun after a failed counterattack by his small reserve , he withdrew his remaining units . As it happened , most of his forward companies remained intact and were subsequently able to withdraw themselves after finding they had been abandoned . Andrew was criticised for his withdrawal , which led to the loss of <unk> airfield . This was a significant factor in allowing the German forces to become established on Crete . He and the surviving elements of his battalion were later evacuated from Crete . 
 Despite the setback of Crete , Andrew remained as commander of 22nd Battalion during the early phases of the North African Campaign . At one stage he was temporary commander of 5th Infantry Brigade when its nominal commander , Brigadier James <unk> , was captured in late November 1941 . Andrew was awarded with the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership of the brigade , which had to deal with repeated attacks by German forces in early December . He relinquished command of 22nd Battalion on 3 February 1942 , and returned to New Zealand . He was promoted to full colonel and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the rest of the war . 
 
 = = Later life = = 
 
 Andrew commanded the New Zealand contingent for the 1946 Victory Parade in London , and the following year attended the Imperial Defence College . He was promoted to brigadier in 1948 and appointed commander of the Central Military District . He remained in this capacity until his retirement from the military in 1952 . Andrew was later invited to run for Parliament but declined . He died on 8 January 1969 , aged 71 . He was buried with full military honours in a ceremony at Levin <unk> Cemetery , in Levin . 
 
 = = Victoria Cross = = 
 
 Andrew 's VC was displayed at the <unk> Army Memorial Museum , Waiouru , New Zealand . On 2 December 2007 it was one of nine Victoria Crosses that were among a hundred medals stolen from the museum . On 16 February 2008 , New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom <unk> . 
 
 
 = Rebbie Jackson = 
 
 Maureen <unk> " Rebbie " Brown ( née Jackson ; born May 29 , 1950 ) is an American singer professionally known as Rebbie Jackson / <unk> <unk> / . Born and raised in Gary , Indiana , she is the eldest child of the Jackson family of musicians . She first performed on stage with her siblings during shows in Las Vegas , Nevada , at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in 1974 , before subsequently appearing in the television series The Jacksons . Her sister La Toya was born on Jackson 's 6th birthday . At age 34 , Jackson released her debut album Centipede ( 1984 ) . The album featured songs written by Smokey Robinson , Prince , and Jackson 's younger brother Michael , whose contribution ( the title track " Centipede " ) became Rebbie 's most successful single release . By the end of the 1980s , the singer had released two more albums in quick succession : Reaction ( 1986 ) and R U Tuff Enuff ( 1988 ) . 
 Following a 10 @-@ year hiatus in her musical career , Jackson returned with the 1998 album Yours Faithfully . The production of the album , her last to date , was a collaboration with artists and producers such as Men of <unk> 's Spanky Williams , Keith Thomas , and Eliot Kennedy . It also featured contributions from her children . In 2011 , Rebbie embarked on the " Pick Up the <unk> Tour , " which is dedicated to teens who have committed suicide all over the U.S. 
 
 = = Life and career = = 
 
 
 = = = Childhood and youth = = = 
 
 Maureen <unk> " Rebbie " Jackson was born in Gary , Indiana , to a working @-@ class family on May 29 , 1950 . The daughter of Joseph Walter " Joe " and Katherine Esther ( née <unk> ) , she is the eldest of their ten children . Her siblings are Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , La Toya , Brandon ( d . March 12 , 1957 ) , Marlon , Michael ( d . June 25 , 2009 ) , Randy , and Janet . Joseph was a steel mill employee who often performed in a rhythm and blues ( R & B ) band called The Falcons with his brother , Luther . His wife , Katherine , is a <unk> 's Witness and raised her children to follow the religion . Rebbie , La Toya , and Michael became the most devout of the children as time progressed . Reflecting on her early life , Rebbie acknowledged in a 1980s magazine interview that her role within the family had been that of a " second mother " to her younger siblings , whom she would often <unk> . She also <unk> from Theodore Roosevelt High school in Gary IN in 1968 
 
 = = = Marriage = = = 
 
 18 @-@ year @-@ old Rebbie 's announcement that she wanted to marry her childhood love , Nathaniel Brown , in May 1968 created a division in the Jackson family . Jackson expressed her feelings for the man and proclaimed that she wanted to move with him to Kentucky . Katherine encouraged her daughter to proceed with the union ; she felt that being a wife and mother were important roles for all of her daughters to play . Joseph , however , was against the marriage ; he wanted Rebbie to follow in the footsteps of her brothers ( The Jackson 5 ) and become a singer . Her father felt that married life would stop her from becoming a success in the entertainment business . Though Rebbie had taken <unk> , piano and dance lessons in her childhood , she had no interest in a music career . This was despite the fact that according to brother Jermaine she had won several singing contests , <unk> with brother Jackie . The teenager thought a happy home was more <unk> and secure than the instability of show business . She also wanted to leave her family 's drama @-@ filled home on Jackson Street as well as get away from her controlling father . <unk> ensued for several weeks before her father relented and allowed Rebbie to wed Brown . Having the last word on the matter , Joseph refused to walk his daughter down the aisle . 
 Brown and Jackson have three children ; daughters , Stacee ( born May 5 , 1971 ) and <unk> ( born October 5 , 1977 ) and son , Austin ( born November 22 , 1985 ) . Jackson 's husband , Nathaniel Brown , died of cancer on January 6 , 2013 . Rebbie has one grandson , London Blue <unk> ( born July 25 , 2005 ) , from Stacee . 
 
 = = = Early career = = = 
 
 Jackson began her singing career in 1974 , performing with her siblings in Las Vegas . The Vegas shows had initially begun in April , without Rebbie ; due to a <unk> ankle , Rebbie 's debut was postponed until June . Her five brothers were the main draws , with herself , Randy , Janet , and La Toya serving as <unk> for the performances . 
 When The Jackson 5 parted with their record label Motown in 1976 , they signed to CBS Records and rebranded themselves as The Jacksons . Additionally , the brothers were signed to CBS @-@ TV to star with their family in a variety series called The Jacksons . The shows premiered in June 1976 , and featured all of the siblings excluding Jermaine , who had chosen to stay with Motown . The initial series run of the 30 @-@ minute programs was four weeks . Due to ratings success , more episodes were ordered in January 1977 . The shows marked the first time that an African @-@ American family had ever starred in a television series . The run of programs concluded shortly afterward . 
 Prior to the series , Jackson had thought of her singing as merely a private <unk> . The Jacksons — as well as an early love of musicals — motivated her to become a professional recording artist , and the show 's producer encouraged her to sing . Jackson served as a backing vocalist for several musicians around this time , as well as a cabaret singer . She contributed her voice for songs by artists such as The <unk> , Sonny Bono and Betty Wright before Jackson 's second pregnancy stalled her musical career for a short time . 
 
 = = = Centipede = = = 
 
 Following years of preparation , Jackson 's debut album Centipede was distributed in October 1984 by CBS Records , who had signed her as a solo artist two years previously . The album was only released once the singer had ensured that family life was secure and that she had spent time with her children during their important younger years . Centipede became a moderate chart success , reaching number 13 on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and number 63 on its Top 200 . The recording of the album had been a family affair ; it involved several contributions from her relatives . Her husband Nathaniel Brown co @-@ wrote the song " Come Alive Saturday Night " with two of his wife 's brothers : Randy and Tito . The latter Jackson also penned " Hey Boy " with his wife Dee Dee . The most successful song from the album was the million @-@ selling title track , " Centipede " . Written , arranged and produced by Michael , the song also featured Jackson 's famous brother on backing vocals . It reached number 4 on the Black Singles Chart and was subsequently certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . " Centipede " marked Michael 's first effort at writing and producing since the release of his successful Thriller ( 1982 ) . 
 Other tracks from Rebbie 's album included cover versions of songs by Prince ( " I Feel for You " ) and Smokey Robinson and the <unk> ( " A Fork in the Road " ) . The album received mixed reviews from journalists and music critics . According to the magazine Jet , Centipede marked Jackson 's emergence as a " legitimate recording artist " and " cleared the major hurdle of demonstrating that she [ was ] talented and <unk> " . With the album , Jackson became the last of her siblings to embark on a recording career and the last in line to release hit material . 
 Rebbie later revealed that there was a lot of discussion at the time of the release of Centipede over whether she should use the Jackson surname professionally or not . To begin with Rebbie did not want to use her pre @-@ marriage surname , but later reasoned that it was silly to deny her heritage . Jackson explained that she did , however , compromise with the use of her family name on the Centipede album cover - " Rebbie is large and Jackson is small " . She further stated that the success of siblings Michael and Janet had not been a hindrance to her , but served as an enhancement to her career . Rebbie added that she did not have to worry about " name recognition " . 
 
 = = = Reaction and R U Tuff Enuff = = = 
 
 Reaction served as a follow @-@ up album to Centipede , and was released in October 1986 . The album was recorded at Tito 's Ponderosa Studios in Los Angeles , California . Her brother Tito produced Reaction along with David <unk> and David Townsend of the R & B group Surface . Duets were featured on the album , including one with <unk> <unk> lead singer Robin Zander and another with Isaac Hayes . The Zander @-@ Jackson collaboration ( " You <unk> the Rain Away " ) was released as a single , and peaked at number 50 on the R & B singles chart . Jackson 's duet with Hayes , the ballad " Tonight I 'm Yours " , was not released as a single , though received substantial airplay . Reaction 's title track ( " Reaction " ) was the most popular hit from the album , reaching number 16 on the R & B singles chart . 
 The R U Tuff Enuff album succeeded Reaction upon its release in July 1988 . Jackson was more involved with the production of the album than she had been on her previous releases . She stated at the time of R U Tuff Enuff 's distribution that the sound on the album differed from anything she had done previously . Jackson commented that the album was " more versatile " , while noting that it resembled other albums because it had a lot of dance music . Two singles were released from the album and charted on the R & B singles chart : " <unk> " , which made it into the top 10 , and the title track " R U Tuff Enuff " , which peaked at number 78 . By mid @-@ June 1988 , R U Tuff Enuff had reportedly sold 300 @,@ 000 copies . MTV later concluded that the album " struggled " . Jackson would lend her vocals to " 2300 Jackson Street " ( the title track of her brothers ' 2300 Jackson Street album ) , before taking a hiatus from releasing music . Jackson later stated that she performed around the world during this hiatus . 
 
 = = = Yours Faithfully = = = 
 
 Following a 10 @-@ year break from music , Jackson signed with her brother Michael 's record label , <unk> Music , in 1997 . From the label , Yours Faithfully was released on March 31 , 1998 . The album featured a remixed version of Jackson 's successful " Centipede " . Initially , the singer had not wanted to feature the track , believing that it was part of the past . After thinking about it for a while , Jackson felt that the inclusion of the remix — which features a rap by son Austin — would be a good way to return to the music scene . In addition , two of her other children , Stacee and <unk> , contributed backing vocals for the album . Other tracks from the album included " Fly Away " , which was written and produced by brother Michael , who also served as co @-@ executive producer for Yours Faithfully . Fellow producers included Keith Thomas and Eliot Kennedy . The album also featured a duet with Men of <unk> 's Spanky Williams on The <unk> ' " I Don 't Want to <unk> You " , which Jet described as being a " <unk> " rendition . Yours Faithfully 's title track was released as a single and peaked at number 76 on the R & B chart . Vibe magazine 's <unk> Mitchell expressed disappointment in the album , labelling its content a " mix of dated R & B grooves dressed up with a few cleverly placed samples " . 
 
 = = = Death of Michael Jackson = = = 
 
 Rebbie 's brother Michael died on June 25 , 2009 , after suffering a cardiac arrest . His memorial service was held twelve days later on July 7 , and the finale featured group renditions of the Jackson anthems " We Are the World " and " <unk> the World " . The <unk> featured Michael 's siblings ( including Rebbie ) and the late singer 's children . Following the service — which was held at Los Angeles ' Staples Center — Rebbie , along with sisters Janet and La Toya , addressed fans at the nearby L.A. Live entertainment complex . " We are extremely grateful for all the support . We love you all . " In the weeks following Michael 's death , it was speculated by media sources that Rebbie would be the primary caregiver for her late brother 's children : Prince , Paris and <unk> . It was stated that even if Michael and Rebbie 's mother Katherine were granted custody of the children , Rebbie would care for the siblings on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis at the Jackson family 's <unk> home . Katherine was named the legal guardian of them in August 2009 after the death of Michael Jackson . In early 2011 , Rebbie announced she 's begun recording for a new album , her first in 14 years . She 's also been performing throughout the states with a set list that contains her best known songs , some of her brothers ' songs , and some Motown classics . 
 
 = = = Voice Type = = = 
 
 Rebbie Jackson is a <unk> with a 3 octave range . She has an impressive belting range , belting up to F # 5 in her song " Reaction . " 
 
 = = Discography = = 
 
 
 = = = Albums = = = 
 
 
 = = = Singles = = = 
 
 
 
 = Hugh Foliot = 
 
 Hugh Foliot ( c . 1155 – 1234 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford . Related somehow to his predecessor at Hereford , he served as a priest and papal judge as well as being an unsuccessful candidate as Bishop of St David 's in Wales . In 1219 , he was appointed Bishop of Hereford . During his time in office , he mostly attended to ecclesiastical duties , but did occasionally serve as a royal administrator . He helped found a hospital and a priory , and died in 1234 after a months @-@ long illness . 
 
 = = Early life = = 
 
 Foliot possibly was the son of Roger Foliot and his wife <unk> . Roger held three knight 's fees in <unk> . Probably born sometime between 1150 and 1160 , Hugh was related in some manner to Robert Foliot , his predecessor at Hereford . He was a canon of Hereford Cathedral before becoming Archdeacon of Shropshire by May <unk> . Foliot is a frequent witness on charters as archdeacon , but little else is known of his tenure of the office . From 1212 to 1219 , he served as a papal judge @-@ delegate three times . In 1215 he was also King John 's candidate for the see of St David 's in Wales , but was not elected . 
 After Foliot 's failed candidacy as bishop , in February 1216 John appointed him to the benefice of <unk> in <unk> , the king having the ability to make the appointment because Giles de <unk> , the Bishop of Hereford , who would normally have made the appointment , had recently died . Also from this time comes Foliot 's patronage of Robert <unk> , the theologian and future Bishop of Lincoln . 
 
 = = Bishop = = 
 
 Foliot had been one of three members of the cathedral chapter from Hereford sent to King Henry III 's court to secure permission for the chapter to hold an election in 1219 Foliot was elected to the see of Hereford in June 1219 and consecrated on 27 October 1219 along with William de <unk> , the Bishop of Llandaff , at Canterbury . 
 The new bishop accompanied Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester , on a pilgrimage in 1221 . Because des Roches travelled to Spain to the shrine of St James at Compostela , and it is known that Foliot accompanied him , the statement by a medieval chronicler from <unk> that Foliot 's destination was not certain , being either Rome or Compostela , should be discounted . 
 Foliot spent most of his tenure of office in his diocese , only rarely attending the royal court or being assigned governmental duties . On 30 December <unk> , Foliot assumed one of those duties , when he took custody of Hereford Castle after it was surrendered by Hubert de <unk> , during the <unk> of royal castles when de <unk> ousted des Roches from power . He also was appointed to determine the size of the royal forest in Gloucestershire . Foliot also founded a hospital in <unk> , devoted to St Katherine . He helped found <unk> Priory , a house of the <unk> order . In his cathedral , he reorganised the <unk> and offices of the chapter , as well as <unk> further <unk> . 
 Foliot died 7 August 1234 , after an illness that began in the spring . He was buried in Hereford Cathedral , where his tomb survives . Foliot appointed his younger brother Thomas to offices in the diocese , first as precentor in the <unk> and then around 1230 as treasurer of the cathedral chapter . 
 
 
 = AIL Storm = 
 
 The AIL Storm ( Hebrew : <unk> , <unk> ) is an Israeli manufactured off @-@ road vehicle and the <unk> of the Israeli Security Forces . The series of Jeep Wrangler based vehicles have been produced by Automotive Industries Ltd. in Upper Nazareth under licence from Chrysler since 1990 . The vehicles fill a number of military roles , including that of armoured Infantry <unk> Vehicle , and certain models are available for export as well as for the civilian market . 
 Production of an updated four @-@ door second generation model commenced in 2006 despite some mixed messages from the Storm 's primary customer , the Israel Defense Forces . Development of a third generation vehicle based on the new Jeep Wrangler JK has been completed and significant production for both Israeli and foreign customers is under way . 
 
 = = Storm I = = 
 
 The M @-@ 240 Storm <unk> Vehicle is the first of three Storm generations . A variant of the 1991 Jeep Wrangler <unk> and the older <unk> @-@ 6 / <unk> @-@ 8 <unk> , it is entirely produced in Israel by Automotive Industries Ltd. with the exception of the engines , as their manufacture is not economically viable on the Storm 's market scale . 
 The Storm was primarily meant to satisfy Israeli military needs , but capable long and short versions are produced for the local civilian market . Like the Jeep , it has a conventional front @-@ engine design with a driver and passenger seated behind the engine , and room for cargo or passengers behind them . It is powered by an AMC 3 @.@ 983 litre 6 @-@ cylinder in @-@ line petrol with fuel injection developing 180 hp ( 130 kW ) at 4 @,@ 700 rpm , fitted with <unk> 2 @-@ stage air cleaner or a <unk> 2 @.@ 5 litre 4 @-@ cylinder <unk> diesel developing 88 <unk> ( 118 hp ) at 4 @,@ 200 rpm . The front axle is fully floating and the rear axle is semi @-@ floating , while a reinforced frame and body as well as good angles of approach and departure ( 40 ° and 37 ° for short frame , 40 ° and 26 @.@ 5 ° for long frame ) add to the Storm 's off @-@ <unk> capability . 
 The two production frame lengths , 4 @.@ 15 ( 13 @.@ 6 ) and 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 @.@ 8 ft ) , the latter of which was among the few such Jeep @-@ derivatives in production in recent years , were both available in civilian and military models . Aside from the Israeli market , Storms have long been exported to countries in South America , Asia , and Africa . A Jeep @-@ managed production line in Egypt , whose vehicles are used by the Egyptian armed forces , was absorbed into the AIL Storm production after it closed in 1995 . 
 
 = = = Security versions = = = 
 
 Like its parent Jeep Wrangler , the Storm is first and foremost an <unk> , capable <unk> and utility vehicle meant to tackle extreme terrain in a general reconnaissance role , and can be outfitted with a machine gun or other weapons systems . When armed with a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) <unk> recoilless rifle , the vehicle is uniquely capable of firing directly over its blast guard equipped hood rather than in the perpendicular position required by most other vehicles . 
 A variant of the extended version used in desert border patrol makes use of a high @-@ <unk> canopy to allow a <unk> rear @-@ facing heavy machine @-@ gun mount , while the canopy can be extended to provide a mobile command post . An air conditioned <unk> version of the extended model is often used by officers , and a version developed for riot control has clear <unk> shielding along the rear sides and roof , as well as gunports for less @-@ lethal weapons . The shielding allows for a wide field of view while at the same time protecting against <unk> and rock @-@ throwing . 
 
 = = = Armoured version = = = 
 
 As with several analogous light military vehicles , despite being originally designed to fill a light reconnaissance role , the rise of urban warfare and close quarters combat meant that the Israel Defense Forces had to recast the Storm in new roles . 
 When the need for a light armoured vehicle became apparent to the Israeli security forces , AIL 's engineering department designed a vehicle protection system from the bottom up , integrating it into the existing vehicle in a manner that did not compromise its off @-@ road and other capabilities , and that did not create the mechanical strain and increase in maintenance often associated with up @-@ <unk> , in part due to its computerized 180 horsepower ( 130 kW ) <unk> engine . 
 The armour protects against 7 @.@ 62 × <unk> ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) armour @-@ piercing ammunition , and maintains a high protection @-@ to @-@ weight and cost ratio by employing IDF approved advanced materials . The protected Israeli configuration 's gross vehicle weight is 3 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) , though several varying protection levels are in use with individual units . 
 Another important asset are the Storm 's narrow dimensions , which allow it to traverse the narrow alleyways common to the <unk> of many Middle Eastern cities , places that armoured <unk> can only enter with great difficulty and minimal <unk> , if at all . Full @-@ height rear doors which allow for the quick deployment of fully equipped troops into combat are <unk> as another advantage over similar vehicles . 
 
 = = = Civilian use = = = 
 
 First generation Storms were made available to the general public in Israel from 1992 to 2001 . A small number were purchased directly by private consumers , while larger numbers were acquired second @-@ hand from Israeli government @-@ owned firms like the Israel Electric Company and <unk> water company , as well as National Parks Authority and Israel Police . <unk> Storms are popular with off @-@ <unk> enthusiasts in Israel . 
 
 = = Storm II = = 
 
 Beginning in 2006 , AIL began delivery of an improved model to the IDF , the M @-@ 242 Storm Mark II , known in the field as the " Storm Commander " . A number of significant changes have been incorporated into the new TJ @-@ based Storms stemming from soldiers ' feedback , updated operational requirements , and testing by <unk> Army Headquarters and <unk> , Medical , and the Centers Directorate . Perhaps the most obvious change is the addition of dual passenger doors , making the Storm II the first five @-@ door Jeep Wrangler derivative . 
 Other improvements include the change to a manual transmission with six forward speeds ( instead of the previous four ) , and increased stability resulting from wider track axles than its predecessor . Leaf springs were replaced with modern coil spring suspension front and rear , and the Storm II features rear Dana 44 axles and front TJ Dana 30s , factory designed slip <unk> <unk> , and the added safety of standard <unk> . Soldiers ' comfort was addressed as well with the addition of standard rear air conditioning and a compact disc player . 
 Storm II is also produced in an armoured version , and is offered with an optional 2 @.@ 8 litre <unk> <unk> <unk> , automatic transmission , right hand drive , and run @-@ flat tyres . AIL is capable of completing ten vehicles daily . Due to recently passed tax laws , a civilian version is not yet available in the local market . 
 
 = = = MDT David controversy = = = 
 
 Developed in the 2000s at an investment of US $ 2 million after IDF commitments for 1 @,@ 200 units , some AIL jobs were believed to be in jeopardy following a mid @-@ 2005 announcement that the IDF would purchase 100 US sold Land Rover Defender @-@ based MDT David . The announcement provoked threats of protests from AIL 's management and labourers , who had recently faced the blow of local <unk> assembly <unk> due to budget <unk> . The MDT David was chosen over the armoured version of the Storm because the heavy Storm was said to suffer from handling and reliability problems , safety <unk> and limited mission <unk> . However the IDF said that the purchase of the David was to fill a temporary gap in production until the Storm II 's testing was completed , and has since begun filling its commitment . 
 
 = = Storm III = = 
 
 A Storm Mark III was set to be produced for the Israeli defense forces starting in June 2008 , when the IDF was to purchase around 600 vehicles beginning in early 2011 . Based on the then new four @-@ door Jeep Wrangler JK design , the Mark III is meant to address some of the <unk> of the earlier Mark II . Whereas the previous vehicle was an update of the original TK Storm , the Storm III was designed from the outset with a five @-@ door configuration . Unlike the TJ @-@ L , the new JK Storm has a much higher maximum load capacity in part due to heavier @-@ duty shock <unk> , springs and axles , necessary for an armored version . It includes a standard <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> and automatic transmission . 
 Like the Storm II , the Mark III was initially available only to the military with versions set to be delivered to the Israel Police in 2009 . A civilian version would only be released if the local tax code was modified to allow it to compete with foreign imports of the same class . AIL states that if such a thing would happen , a petrol engine version could be offered . Regarding <unk> markets , the Storm 3 has already seen use in several countries , especially in its armored version . 
 A pair of production <unk> 's was tested by Israeli web magazine <unk> journalists in April 2009 . It was dubbed " probably , the best Jeep ever " . 
 
 = = = Commander version = = = 
 
 The commander version incorporates a 5 @-@ door hard top cab allowing for the quick and convenient entrance and exit of the driver and all passengers or troops . A large rear compartment enables the storage of both cargo and communications equipment . 
 This version comes equipped with an air conditioning system providing maximum comfort in hot climatic conditions . A roll over protection structure ( <unk> ) <unk> safety conditions for passengers . 
 
 = = = Armored version = = = 
 
 The armored version of the Storm 3 , designed for protection against light weapon threats , incorporates a heavy duty transfer case and a specially designed suspension system which includes heavy duty springs ( front - coil , rear - leaf ) and shock <unk> , together with rigid heavy duty axles allowing for a smooth and safe ride on both rough terrain as well as regular highways . 
 
 = = = Reconnaissance & Patrol version = = = 
 
 The Storm 3 reconnaissance and patrol model allows for extra stowage of fuel , water and equipment . This version is especially suited to be fitted with various machine gun or special equipment mountings . 
 
 
 = 1940 Atlantic hurricane season = 
 
 The 1940 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally average period of tropical cyclogenesis in 1940 . Though the season had no official bounds , most tropical cyclone activity occurred during August and September . Throughout the year , fourteen tropical cyclones formed , of which nine reached tropical storm intensity ; six were hurricanes . None of the hurricanes reached major hurricane intensity . Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes , especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration , may have remained undetected . Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s , historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable . As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012 , an additional hurricane was added to HURDAT . The year 's first tropical storm formed on May 19 off the northern coast of Hispaniola . At the time , this was a rare occurrence , as only four other tropical disturbances were known to have formed prior during this period ; since then , reanalysis of previous seasons has concluded that there were more than four tropical cyclones in May before 1940 . The season 's final system was a tropical disturbance situated in the Greater Antilles , which dissipated on November 8 . 
 All three hurricanes in August brought flooding rainfall to areas of the United States . The first became the wettest tropical cyclone recorded in Louisiana history . The second hurricane impacted regions of the Southeastern United States , producing record precipitation and killing at least 52 people . Despite not making landfall , the third hurricane in August interacted with a stationary front over the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , resulting in localized flooding and thus making the tropical cyclone the wettest in New Jersey history . This hurricane would also be the strongest in the hurricane season , with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . <unk> decreased in September , though a damaging hurricane swept through areas of the Canadian <unk> , resulting in large crop and infrastructural losses . Two tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm strength were recorded in October , though neither resulted in fatalities . <unk> , storms in the hurricane season caused 71 fatalities and $ 29 @.@ <unk> million in damages . The 1940 South Carolina hurricane , which swept through areas of the Southeastern United States in August , was the most damaging and deadly of the tropical cyclones . 
 
 = = Storms = = 
 
 
 = = = Tropical Storm One = = = 
 
 On May 18 , a weak low @-@ pressure area was detected south of Hispaniola . Moving northward , the low became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on May 19 , southeast of Turks Island . At the time , ship observations indicated that the disturbance had a well @-@ defined cyclonic circulation , with the strongest winds situated in the northern <unk> of the cyclone . Continuing northward , the tropical storm gradually intensified and attained maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 0000 UTC on May 22 . The Belgian ship <unk> <unk> recorded a peripheral barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) ; this was the lowest pressure measured in connection with the storm . The following day , the tropical storm temporarily curved towards the east @-@ southeast before <unk> back towards a northeast direction . At the same time , the storm expanded in size and began to transition into an extratropical cyclone . By 1200 UTC , the cyclone completed its extratropical transition , due to the <unk> of colder air . The remnant system persisted until 0600 UTC on May 27 . 
 
 = = = Hurricane Two = = = 
 
 On August 3 , an extratropical cyclone developed into a tropical depression off the west coast of Florida . Initially a weak disturbance , it moved generally westward , slowly gaining in intensity . Early on August 4 , the depression attained tropical storm intensity . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported a much stronger tropical cyclone than initially suggested . After reaching hurricane strength on August 5 south of the Mississippi River Delta , the storm strengthened further into a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 7 . The hurricane moved ashore near Sabine Pass , Texas later that day at peak strength . Once inland , the storm executed a sharp curve to the north and quickly weakened , degenerating into a tropical storm on August 8 before dissipating over Arkansas on August 10 . 
 Reports of a potentially destructive hurricane near the United States Gulf Coast forced thousands of residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate prior to the storm moving inland . Offshore , the hurricane generated rough seas and a strong storm surge , peaking at 6 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 95 m ) on the western edge of Lake <unk> . The <unk> high tides flooded many of Louisiana 's outlying islands , <unk> resorts . Strong winds caused moderate infrastructural damage , primarily in Texas , though its impact was mainly to communication networks along the U.S. Gulf Coast which were disrupted by the winds . However , much of the property and crop damage wrought by the hurricane was due to the torrential rainfall it produced in low @-@ lying areas , setting off record floods . Rainfall peaked at 37 @.@ 5 in ( <unk> mm ) in Miller Island off Louisiana , making it the wettest tropical cyclone in state history . Nineteen official weather stations in both Texas and Louisiana observed record 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals for the month of August as a result of the slow @-@ moving hurricane . Property , livestock , and crops – especially cotton , corn , and <unk> crops – were heavily damaged . Entire ecosystems were also altered by the rainfall . Overall , the storm caused $ 10 @.@ 75 million in damages and seven fatalities . 
 
 = = = Hurricane Three = = = 
 
 A storm of potentially Cape Verde origin was detected in the Virgin Islands at 1800 UTC on August 5 . Initially moving westward , the tropical storm gradually gained in intensity before making a sharp curve towards the north on August 8 . The storm continued in a northerly motion before a second <unk> brought it in a generally westward direction on August 9 . Shortly after , the tropical storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane . The hurricane eventually made landfall at peak intensity on Hilton Head Island , South Carolina at <unk> UTC on September 21 . At the time , the storm had maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane . Once inland , the tropical cyclone gradually weakened , and recurved northeastward before dissipating over the Appalachian Mountains on August 14 . 
 The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall over the Southeast United States , causing unprecedented devastation in the region . The storm was considered the worst to impact in the region in at least 29 years . Precipitation peaked at 20 @.@ 65 in ( 525 mm ) in <unk> , North Carolina . The heavy rainfall caused streams to greatly exceed their respective flood stages , damaging waterfront property . Many of the deaths occurred in North Carolina , where 30 people died . Transportation was disrupted as a result of the debris scattered by the wind and rain . In Caldwell County alone , 90 percent of bridges were swept away . Overall , the storm caused 50 fatalities and $ 13 million in damages . 
 
 = = = Hurricane Four = = = 
 
 On August 26 , a low @-@ pressure area in the open Atlantic Ocean became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical cyclone . Moving slowly in a general west @-@ northwest motion , the disturbance intensified , reaching tropical storm strength on August 28 and subsequently hurricane intensity on August 30 . The hurricane passed within 85 mi ( 135 km ) of Cape Hatteras before <unk> towards the northeast . However , the hurricane continued to intensify , and reached peak intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) , though these statistical peaks were achieved at different times on September 2 . Afterwards , the tropical cyclone began a weakening trend as it proceeded northward , and had degenerated into a tropical storm by the time it made its first landfall on Nova Scotia later that day . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the next day while making another landfall on New Brunswick . The extratropical remnants persisted into Quebec before merging with a larger extratropical system late on September 3 . 
 Despite not making landfall on the United States , the hurricane caused widespread damage . Extensive <unk> measures were undertaken across the coast , particularly in New England . The heightened precautions were due in part to fears that effects from the storm would be similar to that of a devastating hurricane which struck the region two years prior . Most of the damage associated with the hurricane occurred in New Jersey , where the combination of moisture from the hurricane and a stationary front produced record rainfall , peaking at 24 in ( 610 mm ) in the town of Ewan . This would make the storm the wettest in state history . The resultant floods damaged infrastructure , mostly to road networks . Damage in the state amounted to $ 4 million . Further north in New England , strong winds were reported , though damage remained minimal . Although the storm made two <unk> in Atlantic Canada , damage too was minimal , and was limited to several boating incidents caused by strong waves . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 4 @.@ 05 million in damage , primarily due to flooding in New Jersey , and seven fatalities . 
 
 = = = Hurricane Five = = = 
 
 A tropical depression was first detected east of the Lesser Antilles on September 7 , though at the time weather observations in the area were sparse . The disturbance gradually intensified throughout much of its early formative stages , attaining tropical storm strength on September 10 ; further strengthening into a hurricane north of Puerto Rico occurred two days later . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane recurved northward , and reached peak intensity the following day as a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of at least <unk> mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The cyclone steadily weakened thereafter before making landfall on Nova Scotia on September 17 with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Moving into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence later that day , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system curved eastward and passed over Newfoundland before dissipating over the Atlantic on September 19 . 
 While off of the United States East Coast , the hurricane caused numerous shipping incidents , most notably the stranding of the Swedish freighter <unk> off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on September 16 . Two other boat incidents resulted in two deaths . The hurricane also brought strong winds of tropical storm @-@ force and snow over areas of New England . In Atlantic Canada , a strong storm surge peaking at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average sunk or damaged several ships and inundated cities . In New Brunswick , the waves hurt the lobster fishing industry . In Nova Scotia , strong winds disrupted telecommunication and power services . The winds also severely damaged crops . Roughly half of <unk> production in Annapolis Valley was lost during the storm , resulting in around $ 1 @.@ 49 million in economic losses . Strong winds in New Brunswick caused moderate to severe infrastructural damage , and additional damages to crops occurred there . Overall , the hurricane caused three fatalities , with two off of the United States and one in New Brunswick . 
 
 = = = Tropical Storm Six = = = 
 
 A westward moving tropical depression developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea just west of <unk> , Nicaragua at 1200 UTC on September 18 . The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm at 0600 UTC . The tropical storm made landfall on the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua at 1400 UTC , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The cyclone weakened to a tropical depression over land , but <unk> back to tropical storm strength upon entry into the Gulf of Honduras on September 20 . The cyclone 's northwest motion caused it to make a second landfall near the border of Mexico and British Honduras at 0300 UTC on September 21 as a slightly stronger system with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) ; this would be the storm 's peak intensity . Over the Yucatán Peninsula , the tropical storm re @-@ weakened , but later intensified once again once it reached the Gulf of Mexico . In the Gulf , the storm made a gradual curve northward , before making a final landfall near Lafayette , Louisiana at <unk> UTC on September 24 with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1002 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 59 inHg ) . Once inland , the tropical cyclone curved eastward and weakened before dissipating the next day , after becoming absorbed by a frontal boundary . 
 Upon making landfall , the tropical storm produced strong winds over a wide area . The strongest winds were reported by a station in San Antonio , Texas , which reported 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds , far removed from the storm 's center ; these strong winds were likely due to squalls . Heavy rainfall was also reported , though the rains mainly occurred to the east of the passing tropical cyclone . Precipitation peaked at 10 in ( 254 mm ) in <unk> Platte , Louisiana . The tropical storm produced three tornadoes over the Southern United States which <unk> caused $ 39 @,@ 000 in damage and caused two fatalities . Two of the tornadoes formed in Mississippi while one formed in Louisiana . Several other people were also injured by the tornadoes . 
 
 = = = Hurricane Seven = = = 
 
 In late September , a tropical wave persisted in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean . The low @-@ pressure area later became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on September 22 . The disturbance quickly organized after tropical cyclogenesis , and reached a strength equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane strength at 1800 UTC later that day . The American steamship <unk> encountered the system that day , and reported gale force winds in conjunction with a peripheral barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) . The tropical cyclone continued to the east @-@ northeast , where it gradually intensified . At 1200 UTC on September 23 , the hurricane attained modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane intensity with winds of 100 mbar ( 155 km / h ) ; a peak which would be maintained for at least the following 12 hours . A second steamship , the <unk> , reported hurricane @-@ force winds along with a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) ; this would be the lowest pressure measured associated with the tropical cyclone . After reaching peak intensity , the hurricane began a weakening trend , and degenerated to a Category 1 hurricane at 0600 UTC as it passed over the Azores . The following day , the hurricane recurved westward , where it weakened before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 28 . This remnant system subsequently dissipated . 
 As the hurricane passed over the Azores , several weather stations reported low barometric pressures , with the lowest being a measurement of <unk> mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) on <unk> Island at 0600 UTC on September 25 . As a result of the impending storm , several Pan Am <unk> flights to the archipelago were suspended for three consecutive days . The maximum reported gust in the Azores was an observation of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 25 . As a result of moving slowly over the islands , torrential rainfall was also reported . At <unk> do <unk> , 13 @.@ 11 in ( 333 mm ) of precipitation was reported in a four @-@ day , accounting for a third of the station 's yearly average rainfall . Strong storm surge was reported at the same location . The waves swept boats away from the coasts of islands . Further inland , there was extensive damage to homes and crops , though no people died . Despite evidence that the system had distinct tropical characteristics , it was not operationally added to HURDAT . 
 
 = = = Hurricane Eight = = = 
 
 On October 19 , a low @-@ pressure area moved into the southwestern Caribbean Sea . The area of disturbed weather quickly became well @-@ organized , and was analyzed to have become a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 20 . Initially , the tropical cyclone moved very slowly towards the west and then the northwest . Shortly after formation , the disturbance intensified into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC later that day . The S.S. <unk> provided the first indications of a tropical cyclone in the region , after reporting strong gusts and low pressures north of the Panama Canal Zone during that evening . Continuing to intensify , the storm reached hurricane intensity at 0600 UTC on October 22 . Several vessels in the storm 's vicinity reported strong gusts and rough seas generated by the storm . Later that day at 1200 UTC , the ship S.S. <unk> reported a minimum pressure of 983 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) near the periphery of the storm . Based on this observation , the hurricane was estimated to have reached intensity at the same time with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane subsequently curved west and then southwest , before making its only landfall in northern Nicaragua at 1900 UTC on October 23 at peak intensity . Once inland , the tropical cyclone rapidly weakened over mountainous terrain , and dissipated at 1200 UTC the following day . Reports of damage were limited , though a report stated that considerable damage had occurred where the hurricane made landfall . 
 
 = = = Tropical Storm Nine = = = 
 
 On October 23 , an open trough was centered north of Hispaniola near the Turks and <unk> islands . At 0000 UTC the following day , the area of disturbed weather became organized and was analyzed to have become a tropical storm southeast of <unk> , based on nearby vessel reports . Initially , the storm drifted northward , but later began to accelerate towards the northeast after a roughly 12 @-@ hour period . At 0600 UTC on September 25 , the disturbance slightly gained in intensity to attain maximum wind speeds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) ; these would be the strongest winds associated with the storm as a fully tropical cyclone . A reanalysis of the system indicated that due to a lack of definite tropical features , the storm may have had been a subtropical cyclone . On October 26 , the system became increasingly asymmetric and had developed frontal boundaries , allowing for it to be classified as an extratropical cyclone at 0600 UTC that day . Once transitioning into an extratropical system , the storm continued to intensified as it moved northward . On October 27 , the system was analyzed to have a minimum pressure of at least 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) after passing to the southeast of Bermuda . At 1200 UTC later that day , the cyclone reached an extratropical peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) just east of Newfoundland . Had the storm been tropical at the time , it would have been classified as a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane . Subsequently , the extratropical storm curved eastward , where it persisted before dissipating by 1800 UTC on September 29 . 
 
 = = = Tropical depressions = = = 
 
 In addition to the storms which attained at least tropical storm strength in 1940 , five additional tropical depressions were analyzed by the HURDAT reanalysis project to have developed during the season . Due to their weak intensity , however , they were not added to HURDAT . On September 2 , a closed low @-@ pressure area was detected in the open Atlantic Ocean southeast of Bermuda and was analyzed as a tropical depression . At the time , the disturbance had a minimum pressure of at least 1015 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 98 inHg ) . The depression initially moved to the southeast , but later recurved towards the northwest over the next two days . On September 4 , the S.S. West <unk> en route for Boston , Massachusetts reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , which would be considered as tropical storm @-@ force winds . The depression later moved to the northeast before it was absorbed by a stationary front on September 7 . Since there was only one report that the disturbance may have reached tropical storm intensity , it was not included in HURDAT . Later on September 10 , a trough was detected in a similar region in the Atlantic where the first depression formed . The trough later became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression . The cyclone moved slowly to the east and did not further intensify before dissipating on September 13 . 
 On October 7 , a large elongated extratropical cyclone extended across the Atlantic Ocean with a pressure of at most 1015 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 98 inHg ) . The following day , the low @-@ pressure area became more narrow and well @-@ defined , with its central pressure deepening to 1000 mph ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . On October 9 , the extratropical system was analyzed to have become a tropical depression . The low moved slowly to the northeast and gradually weakened before dissipating on October 10 . On October 14 , offshore observations indicated that a tropical depression had developed north of The Bahamas . The following day , however , the depression became less defined and degenerated into a trough of low pressure . On October 16 , two ships listed in the International <unk> Ocean @-@ <unk> Data Set reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) off the coast of North Carolina . However , since these reports occurred in a higher pressure gradient , the system was not included in HURDAT . 
 On November 2 , a trough of low @-@ pressure was analyzed near the Lesser Antilles . The system moved westward into the Caribbean Sea without much organization . On November 7 , the low @-@ pressure area moved south of Cuba and became sufficiently organized to be considered a tropical depression with a pressure of at least <unk> mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 83 inHg ) . The depression moved over Cuba and into the Atlantic , where it dissipated the following day . On November 9 , a second system was detected northeast of Bermuda with a pressure of 1005 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) , though it remained unclear whether the two systems were related . 
 
 = = Season effects = = 
 
 
 
 = Ode to a Nightingale = 
 
 " Ode to a Nightingale " is a poem by John Keats written either in the garden of the Spaniards Inn , Hampstead , London or , according to Keats ' friend Charles <unk> Brown , under a plum tree in the garden of Keats ' house at Wentworth Place , also in Hampstead . According to Brown , a nightingale had built its nest near the house Keats and Brown shared in the spring of 1819 . Inspired by the bird 's song , Keats composed the poem in one day . It soon became one of his 1819 odes and was first published in Annals of the Fine Arts the following July . 
 " Ode to a Nightingale " is a personal poem that describes Keats 's journey into the state of negative capability . The tone of the poem rejects the optimistic pursuit of pleasure found within Keats 's earlier poems and , rather , explores the themes of nature , <unk> and mortality , the latter being particularly personal to Keats . 
 The nightingale described within the poem experiences a type of death but does not actually die . Instead , the <unk> is capable of living through its song , which is a fate that humans cannot expect . The poem ends with an acceptance that pleasure cannot last and that death is an inevitable part of life . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination . The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem , as spring came early in 1819 , bringing <unk> all over the heath . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Of Keats 's six major odes of 1819 , " Ode to Psyche " , was probably written first and " To Autumn " written last . <unk> between these two , he wrote " Ode to a Nightingale " . It is possible that " Ode to a Nightingale " was written between 26 April and 18 May 1819 , based on weather conditions and similarities between images in the poem and those in a letter sent to Fanny Keats on May Day . The poem was composed at the Hampstead house Keats shared with Brown , possibly while sitting beneath a plum tree in the garden . According to Keats ' friend Brown , Keats finished the ode in just one morning : " In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house . Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song ; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast @-@ table to the grass @-@ plot under a plum @-@ tree , where he sat for two or three hours . When he came into the house , I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand , and these he was quietly <unk> behind the books . On inquiry , I found those scraps , four or five in number , contained his poetic feelings on the song of the nightingale . " Brown 's account is personal , as he claimed the poem was directly influenced by his house and preserved by his own doing . However , Keats relied on both his own imagination and other literature as sources for his depiction of the nightingale . 
 The exact date of " Ode to a Nightingale " , as well as " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , is unknown , as Keats dated all as ' May 1819 ' . However , he worked on the four poems together , and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes . The exact order the poems were written in is also unknown , but they form a sequence within their structures . While Keats was writing " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and the other poems , Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted them to Richard Woodhouse . During this time , Benjamin <unk> , Keats ' friend , was given a copy of " Ode to a Nightingale " , and he shared the poem with the editor of the Annals of the Fine Arts , James <unk> . <unk> paid Keats a small sum of money , and the poem was published in the July issue . The poem was later included in Keats ' 1820 collection of poems , <unk> , Isabella , The Eve of St Agnes , and Other written by <unk> Kumar 
 Poems . 
 
 = = Structure = = 
 
 " Ode to a Nightingale " was probably the first of the middle set of four odes that Keats wrote following " Ode to Psyche " , according to Brown . There is further evidence of this in the structure of the poems because Keats combines two different types of lyrical poetry in an experimental way : the <unk> hymn and the lyric of questioning voice that responds to the <unk> hymn . This combination of structures is similar to that in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . In both poems the dual form creates a sort of dramatic element within the poem . The stanza forms of the poem is a combination of elements from <unk> <unk> and Shakespearean <unk> . 
 When it came to vowel forms , Keats incorporated a pattern of alternating historically " short " and " long " vowel sounds in his ode . In particular , line 18 ( " And purple @-@ stained mouth " ) has the historical pattern of " short " followed by " long " followed by " short " and followed by " long " . This alteration is continued in longer lines , including line 31 ( " Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee " ) which contains five pairs of <unk> . However , other lines , such as line 3 ( " Or emptied some dull <unk> to the drains " ) rely on a pattern of five " short " vowels followed by " long " and " short " vowel <unk> until they end with a " long " vowel . These are not the only combination patterns present , and there are patterns of two " short " vowels followed by a " long " vowel in other lines , including 12 , 22 , and 59 , which are repeated twice and then followed up with two sets of " short " and then " long " vowel pairs . This reliance on vowel sounds is not unique to this ode , but is common to Keats 's other 1819 odes and his Eve of St. Agnes . 
 The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance — the repetition of vowel sounds — in a conscious pattern , as found in many of his poems . Such a reliance on assonance is found in very few English poems . Within " Ode to a Nightingale " , an example of this pattern can be found in line 35 ( " Already with thee ! tender is the night " ) , where the " <unk> " of " Already " connects with the " e " of " tender " and the " i " of " with " connects with the " i " of " is " . This same pattern is found again in line 41 ( " I cannot see what flowers are at my feet " ) with the " a " of " cannot " linking with the " a " of " at " and the " ee " of " see " linking with the " ee " of " feet " . This system of assonance can be found in approximately a tenth of the lines of Keats 's later poetry . 
 When it came to other sound patterns , Keats relied on double or triple <unk> in approximately 6 % of lines throughout the 1819 odes . An example from " Ode to a Nightingale " can be found within line 45 ( " The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild " ) as the <unk> after the commas are a " masculine " pause . Furthermore , Keats began to reduce the amount of Latin @-@ based words and <unk> that he relied on in his poetry , which in turn shortened the length of the words that dominate the poem . There is also an emphasis on words beginning with consonants , especially those that begin with " b " , " p " or " v " . These three consonants are relied on heavily in the first stanza , and they are used <unk> to add a musical tone within the poem . 
 In terms of poetic meter , Keats relies on <unk> throughout his 1819 odes and in just over 8 % of his lines within " Ode to a Nightingale " , including line 12 : 
 and line 25 : 
 To Walter Jackson Bate , the use of spondees in lines 31 – 34 creates a feeling of slow flight , and " in the final stanza . . . the distinctive use of scattered spondees , together with initial <unk> , lend [ s ] an approximate phonetic suggestion of the peculiar spring and bounce of the bird in its flight . " 
 
 = = Poem = = 
 
 My heart <unk> , and a <unk> <unk> pains 
 My sense , as though of hemlock I had drunk , 
 Or emptied some dull <unk> to the drains 
 One minute past , and <unk> @-@ wards had sunk : 
 <unk> not through envy of thy happy lot , 5 
 But being too happy in <unk> happiness , 
 That thou , light @-@ <unk> <unk> of the trees , 
 In some <unk> plot 
 Of <unk> green , and shadows <unk> , 
 <unk> of summer in full @-@ throated ease . 10 
 O for a draught of vintage ! that hath been 
 Cool 'd a long age in the deep @-@ <unk> earth , 
 <unk> of Flora and the country @-@ green , 
 Dance , and <unk> song , and <unk> <unk> ! 
 O for a <unk> full of the warm South ! 15 
 Full of the true , the <unk> <unk> , 
 With <unk> bubbles <unk> at the <unk> , 
 And purple @-@ <unk> mouth ; 
 That I might drink , and leave the world unseen , 
 And with thee fade away into the forest dim : 20 
 <unk> far away , dissolve , and quite forget 
 What thou among the leaves <unk> never known , 
 The weariness , the fever , and the fret 
 Here , where men sit and hear each other <unk> ; 
 Where <unk> shakes a few , sad , last grey hairs , 25 
 Where youth grows pale , and <unk> @-@ thin , and dies ; 
 Where but to think is to be full of <unk> 
 And <unk> @-@ eyed <unk> ; 
 Where beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes , 
 Or new Love pine at them beyond to @-@ <unk> . 30 
 Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee , 
 Not <unk> by <unk> and his <unk> , 
 But on the <unk> wings of Poesy , 
 Though the dull brain <unk> and <unk> : 
 Already with thee ! tender is the night , 35 
 And <unk> the Queen @-@ Moon is on her throne , 
 <unk> 'd around by all her <unk> <unk> 
 But here there is no light , 
 Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown 
 Through <unk> <unk> and winding <unk> ways . 40 
 I cannot see what flowers are at my feet , 
 Nor what soft incense hangs upon the <unk> , 
 But , in <unk> darkness , guess each sweet 
 <unk> the <unk> month <unk> 
 The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild ; 45 
 White hawthorn , and the pastoral <unk> ; 
 Fast @-@ fading <unk> cover 'd up in leaves ; 
 And mid @-@ May 's eldest child , 
 The coming <unk> @-@ rose , full of <unk> wine , 
 The <unk> haunt of flies on summer <unk> . 50 
 <unk> I listen ; and , for many a time 
 I have been half in love with <unk> Death , 
 Call 'd him soft names in many a <unk> rhyme , 
 To take into the air my quiet breath ; 
 Now more than ever seems it rich to die , 55 
 To cease upon the midnight with no pain , 
 While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad 
 In such an ecstasy ! 
 Still <unk> thou sing , and I have ears in vain — 
 To thy high <unk> become a sod . 60 
 <unk> <unk> not born for death , immortal Bird ! 
 No hungry generations <unk> thee down ; 
 The voice I hear this passing night was heard 
 In ancient days by emperor and clown : 
 Perhaps the self @-@ same song that found a path 65 
 Through the sad heart of Ruth , when , sick for home , 
 She stood in tears amid the alien corn ; 
 The same that <unk> hath 
 <unk> 'd magic <unk> , opening on the <unk> 
 Of perilous seas , in <unk> lands forlorn . 70 
 <unk> ! the very word is like a bell 
 To toll me back from thee to my sole self ! 
 <unk> ! the fancy cannot <unk> so well 
 As she is famed to do , <unk> elf . 
 <unk> ! <unk> ! thy plaintive anthem fades 75 
 Past the near meadows , over the still stream , 
 Up the hill @-@ side ; and now ' tis buried deep 
 In the next valley @-@ <unk> : 
 Was it a vision , or a waking dream ? 
 <unk> is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? 80 
 
 = = Themes = = 
 
 " Ode to a Nightingale " describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature . In the words of Richard Fogle , " The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual : inclusive terms which , however , contain more particular <unk> of pleasure and pain , of imagination and common sense reason , of <unk> and <unk> , of permanence and change , of nature and the human , of art and life , freedom and bondage , waking and dream . " Of course , the nightingale 's song is the dominant image and dominant " voice " within the ode . The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem . However , the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song , but about human experience in general . This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor , but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning . On this theme , David Perkins <unk> the way " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " perform this when he says , " we are dealing with a talent , indeed an entire approach to poetry , in which symbol , however necessary , may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry , any more than it could with Shakespeare , but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions " . However , there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity . Furthermore , in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale . 
 The nightingale 's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " is connected to the art of sculpture . As such , the nightingale would represent an <unk> presence and , unlike the urn , is directly connected to nature . As natural music , the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth . Keats follows Coleridge 's belief , as found in " The Nightingale " , in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird 's song . Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge 's masculine bird , both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of <unk> . Their <unk> is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions . The bird is only a voice within the poem , but it is a voice that <unk> the narrator to join with in and forget the <unk> of the world . However , there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats 's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats , his brother . The song 's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy . 
 Like Percy <unk> Shelley ’ s " To a <unk> " , Keats ’ s narrator listens to a bird song , but listening to the song within “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is almost painful and similar to death . The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird . As the poem ends , the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream . The poem reliance on the process of sleeping common to Keats 's poems , and " Ode to a Nightingale " shares many of the same themes as Keats 's Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes . This further separates the image of the nightingale 's song from its closest comparative image , the urn as represented in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The nightingale is distant and mysterious , and even disappears at the end of the poem . The dream image emphasizes the <unk> and <unk> of the poem . These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self @-@ identification with the nightingale , but it also allows for self @-@ awareness to <unk> throughout the poem , albeit in an altered state . 
 Midway through the poem , there is a split between the two actions of the poem : the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song , and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present . This second theme is reminiscent of Keats 's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain . The <unk> fields and the nightingale 's song in the first half of the poem represent the <unk> moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug . However , the experience does not last forever , and the body is left <unk> it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure . Instead of embracing the coming truth , the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure . Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for , but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure . 
 Responding to this emphasis on pleasure , Albert Guerard , Jr. argues that the poem contains a " longing not for art but a free <unk> of any kind . The form of the poem is that of progression by association , so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance , such words as fade and forlorn , the very words that , like a bell , toll the <unk> back to his sole self . " However , Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are " <unk> translations " and that Guerard <unk> Keats 's aesthetic . After all , the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and , in turn , of death . Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life . Within the poem , there are many images of death . The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death , but his death reveals his own divine state . As Perkins explains , " But , of course , the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying . The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying . But , as the ode makes clear , man cannot — or at least not in a visionary way . " 
 With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death , the poem , according to Claude <unk> , describes " the <unk> of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty " . Earl <unk> essentially agrees with <unk> , but he extended his <unk> of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats 's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says , " the core of the poem is the search for the mystery , the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness " and this " leads only to an increasing darkness , or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals . " With these views in mind , the poem recalls Keats 's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems , especially Sleep and Poetry , and rejects them . This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air , which connects " Ode to a Nightingale " with Keats ' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination , including <unk> . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — he uses an abrupt , almost brutal word for it — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man , sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination . 
 
 = = Keats 's reception = = 
 
 Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem , and it was heavily quoted in their reviews . An anonymous review of Keats 's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated : " Amongst the minor poems we prefer the ' Ode to the Nightingale . ' Indeed , we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book ; but let the reader judge . The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain . We have read this ode over and over again , and every time with increased delight . " At the same time , Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats 's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The <unk> : " As a specimen of the Poems , which are all lyrical , we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' . There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief , which poetry alone presents us in her ' charmed cup , ' and which some over @-@ rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true . It does not follow that what is not true to them , is not true to others . If the relief is real , the mixture is good and <unk> . " 
 John Scott , in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine , argued for the greatness of Keats 's poetry as exemplified by poems including " Ode to a Nightingale " : 
 The injustice which has been done to our author 's works , in estimating their poetical merit , rendered us <unk> anxious , on opening his last volume , to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy , and thus turn an overwhelming power against the <unk> <unk> of talent , more eminently promising in many respects , than any the present age has been called upon to encourage . We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this <unk> it would have been very extraordinary if we had , for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations . But we have found it of a nature to present to common <unk> the poetical power with which the author 's mind is gifted , in a more <unk> and <unk> shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions . It is , therefore , calculated to throw shame on the lying , vulgar spirit , in which this young <unk> in the temple of the <unk> has been cried @-@ down ; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits . Take for instance , as proof of the justice of our praise , the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale : <unk> is distinct , noble , pathetic , and true : the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally @-@ constituted hearts : the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human <unk> . 
 In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal , Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem , " The poet had then his mortal illness upon him , and knew it . Never was the voice of death <unk> . " David <unk> , in 1851 , used The Even of St Agnes to claim , " We have here a specimen of descriptive power <unk> rich and original ; but the following lines , from the ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration . " 
 At the end of the 19th century , Robert Bridges 's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem . Bridges , in 1895 , declared that the poem was the best of Keats 's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language . In particular , he emphasised the use of the word " forlorn " and the last stanza as being examples of Keats 's artificial language . In " Two odes of Keats 's " ( 1897 ) , William C Wilkinson suggested that " Ode to a Nightingale " is deeply flawed because it contains too many " incoherent <unk> " that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird . However , Herbert <unk> , arguing in 1928 , believed Nightingale to be superior to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode to Psyche " , arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that " Nightingale " , along with " To Autumn " , showed a greater amount of logical thought and more <unk> presented the cases they were intended to make . 
 
 = = = 20th @-@ century criticism = = = 
 
 At the beginning of the 20th century , <unk> Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70 , alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Kubla Khan , when he claimed of poetry : " In all the millions permitted there are no more than five — five little lines — of which one can say , ' These are the magic . These are the vision . The rest is only Poetry . ' " In 1906 , Alexander <unk> argued : " The nightingale and the <unk> for long <unk> poetic <unk> privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre @-@ <unk> as song birds . Keats 's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley 's Ode to a <unk> are two of the <unk> of English literature ; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of <unk> as such . " Sidney <unk> , in 1920 , argued , " Throughout this ode Keats ’ s genius is at its height . <unk> cannot be more rich and satisfying , <unk> of phrase and <unk> cannot be more absolute , than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage [ … ] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza [ … ] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader ’ s power to perceive it for himself . " 
 Bridge 's view of " Ode to a Nightingale " was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats 's poems . Like Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944 , Garrod believed that the problem within Keats 's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem . When describing the fourth stanza of the poem , Maurice Ridley , in 1933 , claimed , " And so comes the stanza , with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes , one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material . " He later declared of the seventh stanza : " And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet <unk> heat , the stanza that would , I suppose , by common consent be taken , along with Kubla Khan , as offering us the <unk> <unk> of ' Romanticism ' " . He concluded on the stanza that " I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes , and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining , will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which , in the draft we have , it was obviously written down . " In 1936 , F. R. Leavis wrote , " One remembers the poem both as recording , and as being for the reader , an indulgence . " Following Leavis , <unk> Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , in a 1938 essay , saw the poem as " a very rich poem . It contains some complications which we must not <unk> over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged . " Brooks would later argue in The Well @-@ <unk> Urn ( 1947 ) that the poem was thematically unified while <unk> many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem . 
 Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats 's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod , Gerard , and others in 1953 . His argument was similar to Brooks : that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem . As such , Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination . Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis : " I find Mr. Leavis too austere , but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for . His <unk> and <unk> is , however , modified by a principle of sobriety . " It is possible that Fogle 's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability . <unk> , following in 1953 , claimed that " Of all Keats ' poems , it is probably the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' that has most tormented the critic [ ... ] in any reading of the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' the turmoil will not down . Forces contend wildly within the poem , not only without resolution , but without possibility of resolution ; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in ' a wild Abyss ' " . He then explained , " It is this turbulence , I suspect , that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode ' at least tries to say everything that poetry an say . ' But I propose it is the ' Ode on a Grecian Urn ' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say , and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can . " 
 
 = = = Later critical responses = = = 
 
 Although the poem was defended by a few critics , E. C. <unk> returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word " forlorn " as evidence of his view . In his 1957 work , <unk> did praise the poem as he declared , " The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats ’ s poems . Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent : there is its <unk> evocation of that late spring and early summer season [ … ] and there is its exceptional degree of ' distillation ' , of concentrated recollection " . David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word " forlorn " and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination . When praising the poem in 1959 , Perkins claimed , " Although the " Ode to a Nightingale " ranges more widely than the " Ode on a Grecian Urn , " the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol , and , compared with the urn as a symbol , the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages . " Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word " forlorn " by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land . When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry , Bate argued in 1963 , " Ode to a Nightingale " is among " the greatest lyrics in English " and the only one written with such speed : " We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly . " In 1968 , Robert <unk> stated , " It may not be wrong to regard [ Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy ] as Keats 's earlier essays in this [ ode ] form , and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works . " 
 From the late 1960s onward , many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton 's poetic diction , but they argued that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet . The critics , Harold Bloom ( 1965 ) , Leslie <unk> ( 1973 ) , Paul Fry ( 1980 ) , John <unk> ( 1981 ) and Cynthia Chase ( 1985 ) , all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to " Ode to a Nightingale " while ignoring other possibilities , including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats 's phrases . Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats 's shortcomings , critics like R. S. White ( 1981 ) and Willard Spiegelman ( 1983 ) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just Milton or escape from his shadow . Instead , " Ode to a Nightingale " was an original poem , as White claimed , " The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare , yet the <unk> are so profound that the Ode is finally original , and wholly <unk> " . Similarly , Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream had " flavored and <unk> the later poem " . This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was " left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare , the ' immortal bird ' " . 
 Focusing on the quality of the poem , Stuart <unk> , argued in 1973 , " ' Ode to a Nightingale ' is the supreme expression in all Keats 's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation , the impulse fully expressed in ' Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee . ' " Wolf <unk> , in 1981 , described the poem as " <unk> celebrated " and claimed that " Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature , the poet 's return to actuality is all the more shattering . " Helen <unk> continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped . In 1983 , she argued , " In its absence of <unk> and its abandonment to <unk> , the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal , the most apparently spontaneous , the most immediately beautiful , and the most confessional of Keats 's odes . I believe that the ' events ' of the ode , as it <unk> in time , have more logic , however , than is usually granted them , and that they are best seen in relation to Keats 's pursuit of the idea of music as a <unk> art . " 
 In a review of contemporary criticism of " Ode to a Nightingale " in 1998 , James O <unk> claimed that " To judge from the volume , the variety , and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered , there have been few moments in English poetic history as <unk> as Keats 's repetition of the word ' forlorn ' " . When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William <unk> within the poem , Poet Laureate Andrew Motion , in 1999 , argued " whose notion of poetry as a ' movement ' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates . " 
 
 = = In fiction = = 
 
 F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel <unk> is the Night from the 35th line of the ode . 
 According to <unk> de <unk> Carrington , Keats ' wording , " when , sick for home , / She stood in tears amid the alien corn " , seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro 's Save the <unk> ( 1998 ) , the end of which reads : " Eve would lie down [ ... ] with nothing in her head but the <unk> of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark " ( book version ) . 
 The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse 's novel Full Moon ( 1947 ) : " ' Coming here ? Freddie ? ' <unk> <unk> seemed to be <unk> his sense , as though of hemlock he had drunk . " 
 
 
 = Weather buoy = 
 
 Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world 's oceans , as well as aid during emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored buoys have been in use since 1951 , while drifting buoys have been used since 1979 . Moored buoys are connected with the ocean bottom using either chains , nylon , or <unk> <unk> . With the decline of the weather ship , they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s . During the 1980s and 1990s , a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific ocean helped study the El Niño @-@ Southern <unk> . Moored weather buoys range from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in diameter , while drifting buoys are smaller , with diameters of 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) . Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number , with 1250 located worldwide . Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships . There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well , relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The first known proposal for surface weather observations at sea occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927 , when <unk> <unk> stated that " weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the seaplane to have an equally long range , would result in regular ocean flights within ten years . " Starting in 1939 , United States Coast Guard vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce . 
 During World War II The German Navy deployed weather buoys ( <unk> See — <unk> ) at fifteen fixed positions in the North Atlantic and <unk> Sea . They were launched from U @-@ boats into a maximum depth of ocean of 1000 <unk> ( 1 @,@ 800 metres ) , limited by the length of the anchor cable . Overall height of the body was 10 @.@ 5 metres ( of which most was submerged ) , surmounted by a mast and <unk> aerial of 9 metres . Data ( air and water temperature , atmospheric pressure and relative humidity ) were encoded and transmitted four times a day . When the batteries ( high voltage dry @-@ cells for the <unk> , and nickel @-@ iron for other power and to raise and lower the aerial mast ) were exhausted , after about eight to ten weeks , the unit self @-@ <unk> . 
 The Navy Oceanographic Meteorological <unk> <unk> ( NOMAD ) buoy 's 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) hull was originally designed in the 1940s for the United States Navy ’ s offshore data collection program . Between 1951 and 1970 , a total of 21 NOMAD buoys were built and deployed at sea . Since the 1970s , weather buoy use has superseded the role of weather ships by design , as they are cheaper to operate and maintain . The earliest reported use of drifting buoys was to study the behavior of ocean currents within the <unk> Sea in 1972 and 1973 . Drifting buoys have been used increasingly since 1979 , and as of 2005 , 1250 drifting buoys roamed the Earth 's oceans . 
 Between 1985 and 1994 , an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the El Niño phenomenon . Hurricane Katrina capsized a 10 m ( 33 ft ) buoy for the first time in the history of the National Data Buoy Center ( <unk> ) on August 28 , 2005 . On June 13 , 2006 , drifting buoy <unk> ended its long @-@ term data collection of sea surface temperature after transmitting for 10 years , 4 months , and 16 days , which is the longest known data collection time for any drifting buoy . The first weather buoy in the Southern Ocean was deployed by the Integrated Marine Observing System ( <unk> ) on March 17 , 2010 . 
 
 = = Instrumentation = = 
 
 Weather buoys , like other types of weather stations , measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean surface , wind speed ( steady and gusting ) , barometric pressure , and wind direction . Since they lie in oceans and lakes , they also measure water temperature , wave height , and dominant wave period . Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio , cellular , or satellite communications to meteorological centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study . Both moored buoys and drifting buoys ( drifting in the open ocean currents ) are used . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies . These measurements are <unk> to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution . Other than their use as a source of meteorological data , their data is used within research programs , emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid , like other types of buoys . 
 
 = = Types = = 
 
 Weather buoys range in diameter from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . Those that are placed in shallow waters are smaller in size and moored using only chains , while those in deeper waters use a combination of chains , nylon , and <unk> <unk> . Since they do not have direct navigational significance , moored weather buoys are classed as special marks under the <unk> scheme , are coloured yellow , and display a yellow flashing light at night . 
 <unk> buoys are round and moored in deep ocean locations , with a diameter of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . The aluminum 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) buoy is a very rugged meteorological ocean platform that has long term <unk> . The expected service life of the 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) platform is in excess of 20 years and properly maintained , these buoys have not been retired due to corrosion . The NOMAD is a unique moored aluminum environmental monitoring buoy designed for deployments in extreme conditions near the coast and across the Great Lakes . <unk> moored off the Atlantic Canadian coast commonly experience winter storms with maximum wave heights approaching 20 metres ( 66 ft ) into the Gulf of Maine . 
 Drifting buoys are smaller than their moored counterparts , measuring 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in diameter . They are made of plastic or fiberglass , and tend to be either bi @-@ colored , with white on one half and another color on the other half of the float , or <unk> black or blue . It measures a smaller subset of meteorological variables when compared to its moored counterpart , with a barometer measuring pressure in a tube on its top . They have a <unk> ( metallic <unk> ) on its base , and an underwater <unk> , or sea anchor , located 15 metres ( 49 ft ) below the ocean surface connected with the buoy by a long , thin <unk> . 
 
 = = <unk> and maintenance = = 
 
 A large network of coastal buoys near the United States is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center , with deployment and maintenance performed by the United States Coast Guard . For South Africa , the South African Weather Service deploys and <unk> their own buoys , while the Meteorological Service of New Zealand performs the same task for their country . Environment Canada operates and deploys buoys for their country . The Met Office in Great Britain deploys drifting buoys across both the northern and southern Atlantic oceans . 
 
 = = <unk> to data from ships = = 
 
 Wind reports from moored buoys have smaller error than those from ships . <unk> the comparison of the two measurements are that NOMAD buoys report winds at a height of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) , while ships report winds from a height of 20 metres ( 66 ft ) to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) . Sea surface temperature measured in the intake port of large ships have a warm bias of around 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 1 ° F ) due to the heat of the engine room . This bias has led to changes in the perception of global warming since 2000 . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) . 
 
 
 = HMS Marlborough ( 1912 ) = 
 
 HMS Marlborough was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy , named in honour of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough . She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard between January 1912 and June 1914 , entering service just before the outbreak of the First World War . She was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) . 
 Marlborough served with the Grand Fleet for the duration of the war , primarily patrolling the northern end of the North Sea to enforce the blockade of Germany . She saw action at the Battle of Jutland ( 31 May – 1 June 1916 ) , where she administered the coup de <unk> to the badly damaged German cruiser SMS Wiesbaden . During the engagement , Wiesbaden hit Marlborough with a torpedo that eventually forced her to withdraw . The damage to Marlborough was repaired by early August , though the last two years of the war were uneventful , as the British and German fleets adopted more cautious strategies due to the threat of underwater weapons . 
 After the war , Marlborough was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she took part in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919 – 20 . She was also involved in the Greco @-@ Turkish War . In 1930 , the London Naval Treaty mandated that the four Iron Duke @-@ class battleships be discarded ; Marlborough was used for a variety of weapons tests in 1931 – 32 , the results of which were incorporated into the reconstruction programme for the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . 
 
 = = Design = = 
 
 Marlborough was <unk> feet 9 inches ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 m ) and an average draught of 29 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ <unk> t ) as designed and up to 29 @,@ 560 long tons ( 30 @,@ <unk> t ) at combat loading . Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 625 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Marlborough 's cruising radius was 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 446 km ; 8 @,@ <unk> mi ) at a more economical 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 995 officers and enlisted men ; during wartime this increased to up to 1 @,@ <unk> . 
 The ship was armed with a main battery of ten BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets . They were arranged in two superfiring pairs , one forward and one aft ; the fifth turret was located amidships , between the funnels and the rear superstructure . Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . Marlborough was also fitted with a pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was typical for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with four 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside . She was protected by a main armoured belt that was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the ship 's <unk> . Her deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick . The main battery turret faces were 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , and the turrets were supported by barbettes 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick . 
 
 = = Service history = = 
 
 Marlborough was laid down at Devonport Royal Dockyard on 25 January 1912 . She was launched nearly ten months later , on 24 October , and was commissioned on 2 June 1914 . The ship was completed on 16 June 1914 , a month before the First World War broke out on the Continent . Marlborough initially joined the Home Fleets , where she served as the flagship for Sir Lewis <unk> . Following the British entry into the war in August , the Home Fleets was reorganised as the Grand Fleet , commanded by Admiral John Jellicoe . Marlborough was assigned as the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron , where she served for the duration of the conflict . 
 
 = = = First World War = = = 
 
 On the evening of 22 November 1914 , the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea to support Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November . Marlborough and most of the fleet initially remained in port during the German raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 16 December 1914 , though the 3rd Battle Squadron was sent to reinforce the British forces in the area . After receiving further information about the possibility of the rest of the German fleet being at sea , Jellicoe gave the order for the fleet to sortie to try to intercept the Germans , though by that time they had already retreated . Vice Admiral Cecil Burney replaced <unk> aboard Marlborough in December ; at that time , Marlborough became the second @-@ in @-@ command flagship for the Grand Fleet . On 25 December , the fleet sortied for a sweep in the North Sea , which concluded on 27 December without event . Marlborough and the rest of the fleet conducted gunnery drills during 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the <unk> and <unk> . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet but the rest of the fleet did not become engaged in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day . 
 On 7 – 10 March 1915 , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it undertook training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place during 16 – 19 March . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place during 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the <unk> on 20 – 21 April . The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea during 17 – 19 May without encountering German vessels . Another patrol followed during 29 – 31 May ; it too was uneventful . The fleet conducted gunnery training in mid @-@ June . During 2 – 5 September , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises . 
 On 13 October , the majority of the fleet conducted a sweep into the North Sea , returning to port on 15 October . During 2 – 5 November , Marlborough participated in a fleet training operation west of the <unk> . Another such cruise took place during 1 – 4 December . The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January 1916 . The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the <unk> Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . On the night of 25 March , Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow , to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German <unk> base at <unk> . 
 On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans , while the Russian Navy <unk> its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and <unk> , before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on <unk> . The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the Germans had withdrawn . During 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea . 
 
 = = = = Battle of Jutland = = = = 
 
 In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet , the German High Seas Fleet with 16 dreadnoughts , six pre @-@ dreadnoughts , six light cruisers and 31 torpedo boats commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The Royal Navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and <unk> German radio traffic containing plans of the operation . The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet of 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet . On the day of the battle , Marlborough was stationed toward the rear of the British line in the 6th Division of the 1st Battle Squadron . 
 The initial action was fought primarily by the British and German battlecruiser formations in the afternoon , but by 18 : 00 , the Grand Fleet approached the scene . Fifteen minutes later , Jellicoe gave the order to turn and deploy the fleet for action . The transition from their cruising formation caused congestion with the rear divisions , forcing Marlborough and many of the other ships to reduce speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) to avoid colliding with each other . The British ships initially had poor visibility and Marlborough could only <unk> make out a group of German Kaiser @-@ class battleships at 18 : 17 . In the span of four minutes , she fired seven salvos , first at 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and then at 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Marlborough 's gunners claimed to have made hits with the 5th and 7th salvos but these claims are unlikely . Her guns were then masked by a burning cruiser , probably the armoured cruiser HMS Warrior . 
 Marlborough joined the group of battleships battering the German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden at 18 : 25 . She fired five salvos , before a premature detonation in the right barrel of " A " turret disabled the gun . She also engaged the ship with her secondary battery . At 18 : 39 , Marlborough again engaged what appeared to be a Kaiser @-@ class ship , firing a salvo before the German vessel disappeared into the haze . During the engagement with Wiesbaden , the German cruiser launched one or two torpedoes at around 18 : 45 , one of which struck Marlborough around the starboard diesel generator room . The detonation tore a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) hole in the hull and causing significant flooding , that forced the forward boilers on that side of the ship to be <unk> and reduced the ship 's speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Burney initially reported to Jellicoe that his ship had struck a mine or had been hit by a torpedo at 18 : 57 . Several more torpedoes , this time from the torpedo boat SMS <unk> , forced Marlborough and the rest of the ships in her division to take <unk> action . 
 At 19 : 03 , Marlborough engaged Wiesbaden again , firing four salvos at ranges of 9 @,@ 500 to 9 @,@ 800 yards ( 8 @,@ 700 to 9 @,@ 000 m ) . She hit the German cruiser with probably three shells from the last two salvos and these finally neutralised the ship , although it took several more hours before Wiesbaden sank . Marlborough then shifted fire to the König @-@ class battleships leading the German line at 19 : 12 . She fired thirteen salvos in the span of six minutes at SMS Grosser Kurfürst at ranges of 10 @,@ 200 to 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 330 to 9 @,@ 830 m ) , scoring three hits , though she incorrectly claimed a fourth hit . During this phase of the battle , Marlborough fired two torpedoes , both of which missed their targets : the first at Wiesbaden at 19 : 10 and the second at SMS Kaiser at 19 : 25 . 
 By about 19 : 30 , Marlborough 's pumps had contained the flooding in the boiler rooms but she took on a list of around 7 – 8 degrees . Instead of using counter @-@ flooding to minimise the list , her crew attempted to correct the list by using coal and oil from the starboard bunkers first . The list caused the generators supplying power to the main battery turrets to flood , hampering the gun crews , particularly as shells were transferred from the magazines to the turrets . The blast from the torpedo was so powerful that forty <unk> compartments were damaged , though the torpedo bulkhead localised most of the damage and the more badly damaged compartments were sufficiently <unk> up . Three more torpedoes approached Marlborough at 19 : 33 . She <unk> the first two and the third <unk> passed under the ship . 
 After the opposing fleets <unk> late in the day , the Grand Fleet steamed south in an attempt to cut off the retreating Germans and destroy them the following morning . The 6th Division was slowed down by Marlborough , which could make no more than 15 @.@ 75 kn ( 29 @.@ 17 km / h ; 18 @.@ 12 mph ) by this point . By around 02 : 00 on 1 June , the 6th Division was about 12 nmi ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) behind the rest of the fleet . At that time , the bulkheads in the starboard forward boiler room started to give way under the strain , forcing Marlborough to reduce speed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The damage control teams believed that if the main battery were to fire , the shoring supporting the damaged bulkheads would give way , greatly increasing the risk to the ship . Jellicoe detached the ship to proceed independently to Rosyth or the <unk> ; Burney had ordered the scout cruiser Fearless to come alongside to transfer him to the battleship Revenge . Marlborough thereafter proceeded northward at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . 
 Fearless rejoined Marlborough around 04 : 00 and both ships briefly fired at the German <unk> <unk> . Commodore Reginald <unk> 's Harwich Force had been ordered to reinforce the Grand Fleet , particularly to relieve ships low on fuel ; they departed at 03 : 50 but this was too late for them to reach the fleet by morning , so Jellicoe ordered <unk> to detach destroyers to escort Marlborough back to port . On the way , Marlborough and Fearless encountered the British submarines <unk> and <unk> ; the two submarines prepared to attack the ships but <unk> recognised them before they launched torpedoes . By 15 : 00 , eight destroyers from the Harwich Force had joined Marlborough and another pump had been lowered into the flooded boiler room . At around 23 : 30 , the pump was being moved to clean it when the roll of the ship threw the pump into the damaged bulkhead , knocking the shores loose . Water flooded into the ship and Marlborough 's captain ordered Fearless and the destroyers to prepare to come alongside , to rescue the crew if the flooding worsened at 00 : 47 on 2 June . A diver was sent into the boiler room at that time , and he was able to keep the pump clean , which slowly reduced the water level in the ship . 
 Jellicoe ordered Marlborough to proceed to the <unk> for temporary repairs . While there , her forward main battery and 6 @-@ inch magazines were emptied to lighten the ship , more pumps were brought aboard and the shoring supporting the damaged bulkhead was reinforced . On the morning of 6 June , the ship left the <unk> for the <unk> , where she would receive permanent repairs , escorted by four destroyers from the Harwich Force . In the course of the battle , Marlborough had fired 162 shells from her main battery , 60 rounds from her secondary guns and five torpedoes . The torpedo hit had killed two men and wounded another two . She was repaired by the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard at <unk> , with the work lasting until 2 August , after which she departed for <unk> , arriving on 5 August . During the repair work , an extra 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of armour plating was added to the ship , primarily over the magazines . These alterations were the result of the British experience at Jutland , where three battlecruisers had been destroyed by magazine explosions . 
 
 = = = = Later operations = = = = 
 
 On 18 August , the Germans again sortied , this time to bombard Sunderland ; Scheer hoped to draw out Beatty 's battlecruisers and destroy them . British signals intelligence <unk> German wireless transmissions , allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle . Both sides withdrew the following day , after their opponents ' submarines inflicted losses in the Action of 19 August : the British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth were both torpedoed and sunk by German U @-@ boats and the German battleship SMS <unk> was damaged by the British submarine <unk> . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited <unk> the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats . 
 In February 1917 , Revenge replaced Marlborough as the 1st Battle Squadron flagship ; she thereafter served as the second command flagship . She was briefly replaced in this role by Emperor of India in May and she temporarily became a private ship . Toward the end of the year , the Germans began using destroyers and light cruisers to raid the British convoys to Norway ; this forced the British to deploy capital ships to protect the convoys . On 23 April 1918 , the German fleet sortied in an attempt to catch one of the isolated British squadrons , though the convoy had already passed safely . The Grand Fleet sortied too late the following day to catch the retreating Germans , though the battlecruiser SMS Moltke was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine HMS <unk> . In 1918 , Marlborough and her sisters received flying @-@ off platforms on their " B " and " Q " turrets to handle reconnaissance aircraft . 
 Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . That morning , the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training manoeuvres and while they were away Reuter issued the order to <unk> the High Seas Fleet . 
 
 = = = Postwar career = = = 
 
 On 12 March 1919 , Marlborough was recommissioned at Devonport and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , as part of the 4th Battle Squadron , along with her three sisters and two Centurion @-@ class battleships . During this period , she served in the Black Sea during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the Whites against the Red <unk> . On 5 April 1919 , Marlborough arrived in Sevastopol before proceeding to <unk> the following day . The ship took <unk> Empress Maria <unk> and other members of the Russian Imperial Family including Grand Duke Nicholas and Prince Felix <unk> aboard in <unk> on the evening of the 7th . The Empress refused to leave unless the British also evacuated wounded and sick soldiers , along with any civilians that also wanted to escape the advancing <unk> . The Russian entourage aboard Marlborough numbered some 80 people , including 44 members of the Royal Family and nobility , with a number of governesses , nurses , maids and <unk> , plus several hundred cases of luggage . 
 About 35 officer ’ s cabins were vacated and additional <unk> were installed , with the Empress taking over the Captain 's cabin . On the morning of 12 April the ship anchored off <unk> Island , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Constantinople , due to some uncertainty over the final destination for the Russian Royal family . On 16 April Grand Duke Nicholas <unk> and his wife the Grand Duchess <unk> , the Grand Duke Peter <unk> and his wife Grand Duchess <unk> , Princess Marina , Prince Roman , Count and Countess <unk> , Baron and Baroness <unk> , Mr <unk> and Dr <unk> with their respective servants left the ship and boarded HMS Lord Nelson destined for Genoa . They were replaced by Count Dimitri and Countess Sophia Mengden , Count George and Countess <unk> Mengden , Countess <unk> Mengden , Count Nicholas Mengden , Madame Helena <unk> and two maids . On the morning of 18 April , Good Friday , the ship sailed for Malta . The ship departed on 18 April , bound for Malta to deposit the Russians , before returning to Constantinople . 
 In May 1919 , Marlborough conducted tests with new high @-@ explosive 6 @-@ inch shells off the Kerch Peninsula , though these proved to be unreliable . During this period , she operated a <unk> balloon to aid in spotting the fall of shot . Later that month , a shell broke up in the left barrel of " A " turret and caused minor damage . While stationed off the Kerch Peninsula , the ship provided artillery support to White troops , including bombardments of <unk> positions in the villages of Koi @-@ <unk> and <unk> <unk> . By 1920 , British attention had turned to the Greco @-@ Turkish War . On 20 June 1920 , Marlborough arrived in Constantinople , where the Mediterranean Fleet was being concentrated to support the occupation of the city . On 6 July , British forces landed at <unk> , while Marlborough provided artillery support . 
 In October 1920 , the battleship King George V arrived to replace Marlborough in the Mediterranean Fleet . Marlborough then returned to Devonport , where she was paid off for a major refit that took place between February 1921 and January 1922 . During the refit , range dials were installed , along with another range @-@ finder on the rear superstructure . The aircraft platform was removed from " B " turret . Long @-@ base range @-@ <unk> were installed on " X " turret . After completing the refit in January 1922 , Marlborough was recommissioned and assigned to the Mediterranean , where she replaced Emperor of India . She served as the second command flagship until October . Following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 , the Allied countries withdrew their occupation forces from Turkey ; Marlborough was involved in escorting the troop convoys out of Constantinople . 
 Marlborough briefly served as the flagship for the deputy commander of the 4th Battle Squadron after King George V was damaged from striking a rock off <unk> . In November 1924 , the 4th Battle Squadron was renamed the 3rd Battle Squadron . In March 1926 , the 3rd Battle Squadron , including Marlborough , was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet . There , the battleships served as training ships . In 1929 , the ship 's 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with more powerful 4 @-@ inch guns . In January 1931 , Marlborough served as the squadron flagship , relieving Emperor of India . She remained in the position for only five months , being decommissioned on 5 June . According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , the four ships of the Iron Duke class were to be scrapped or <unk> ; Marlborough was scheduled to be removed from service in 1931 and broken up for scrap . 
 The ship was used as a target to test the effect of various weapons on capital ships , along with Emperor of India . The tests included firing destroyer armament at the upper works at close range to test their effectiveness in a simulated night engagement , direct hits from 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells , bomb tests , and experiments with flash tightness in the magazines . The first two tests were conducted in July 1931 , and were <unk> of magazine explosions . The <unk> system worked as designed , and while the explosions caused serious internal damage , Marlborough was not destroyed , as the three battlecruisers had been at Jutland . In 1932 , further tests were conducted with <unk> 250 @-@ pound ( 110 kg ) and 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs to test deck strength ; 450 @-@ pound ( 200 kg ) armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) bombs and 1 @,@ <unk> @-@ pound ( 490 kg ) high explosive ( <unk> ) bombs were then detonated inside the ship to test their effectiveness . The Royal Navy determined that the <unk> bombs were useless , but that thick deck armour would be required to defeat AP bombs . This led to the decision to reinforce the deck armour of existing battleships throughout the 1930s . 
 Marlborough was placed on the disposal list in May 1932 and was quickly sold to the <unk> <unk> Co . On 25 June , she arrived in Rosyth , where she was broken up for scrap . 
 
 
 = 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( North Korea ) = 
 
 The 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( Korean : <unk> ) was a light infantry unit of North Korea 's Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) that existed briefly during the Korean War . It was headquartered in <unk> , North Korea , and was also known as the 766th Unit ( Korean : <unk> ) . <unk> extensively in amphibious warfare and unconventional warfare , the 766th Regiment was considered a special forces commando unit . The regiment was trained to conduct assaults by sea and then to lead other North Korean units on offensive operations , to infiltrate behind enemy lines and to disrupt enemy supplies and communications . 
 <unk> in 1949 , the regiment trained for more than a year before the outbreak of the war on June 25 , 1950 . On that day , half of the regiment led North Korean forces against South Korean troops by land and sea , pushing them back after several days of fighting . Over the next six weeks the regiment advanced slowly down the Korean Peninsula , acting as a forward unit of the North Korean army . Suffering from a lack of supplies and mounting casualties , the regiment was committed to the Battle of Pusan Perimeter as part of a push to force United Nations ( UN ) troops out of Korea . 
 The regiment saw its final action at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , fighting unsuccessfully to take the town from <unk> troops . <unk> by <unk> naval and air forces and suffering extensive losses from continuous fighting , the regiment was forced to retreat from the P 'ohang @-@ dong battlefield . It moved north , joining a concentration of other KPA units , before being disbanded and absorbed into the KPA 's 12th Division . 
 
 = = Organization = = 
 
 Upon creation , the 766th Unit was designed to vary in size , consisting of a number of smaller units capable of acting alone . Eventually , it was reinforced to the size of a full regiment , with 3 @,@ 000 men equally distributed across six battalions ( numbered 1st through 6th ) . It was made directly subordinate to the KPA Army headquarters and put under the command of Senior Colonel Oh Jin <unk> , who would command the unit for its entire existence . All 500 men of the 3rd Battalion were lost just before the war started when their transport was sunk while attacking Pusan harbor by the Republic of Korea Navy . For the remainder of its existence the regiment was <unk> down by losses until it numbered no more than 1 @,@ 500 men and could not muster more than three battalions . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 
 = = = Origins = = = 
 
 During the planning for the invasion of South Korea in the years before the war , the North Korean leadership began to create large numbers of commando and special forces units to send south . These units <unk> South Korean authority before and during the war with terror campaigns , sabotage and inducing rebellions in ROK military units . Hundreds of commandos were sent to South Korea in this fashion , and by the end of the war up to 3 @,@ 000 of them had been trained and armed . During this time , North Korean leadership also ordered the creation of large conventional units to act as advance forces for the actual invasion . The 766th Unit was formed in April 1949 at the Third Military Academy in <unk> , North Korea . The academy was specially designed to train commandos , and the 766th was originally designed to supervise North Korean light infantry ranger units . Over the next year , the 766th Unit received extensive training in unconventional warfare and amphibious warfare . During this time , the unit was expanded in size to 3 @,@ 000 men in six battalions . 
 Prior to the beginning of the war in June 1950 , the 766th completed training and was moved to the front at <unk> to support the KPA 's 5th Division . The North Korean plan was to conduct amphibious landings in <unk> and Imwonjin on the eastern coast using the 766th Regiment , in conjunction with the 549th Unit . These amphibious landings would harass the rear area of the Republic of Korea Army , providing supporting attacks to the planned frontal attack by the KPA 's II Corps directly from the north . The 766th was in position by June 23 and prepared for the attack . The unit was moved to the ports of <unk> and <unk> and loaded into ships . With the 3 @,@ 000 men in the 766th , another 3 @,@ 000 in the 549th , and 11 @,@ 000 men in the KPA 's 5th Division , the 17 @,@ 000 North Korean troops outnumbered the Republic of Korea Army 's ( ROK ) 8th Division 's 6 @,@ <unk> by a ratio of 2 @.@ 1 to 1 . The combination of the frontal attack and the landings were expected to crush the ROK division and prevent reinforcements from moving in to support it . 
 The regiment was split into three groups for the attack . Three battalions acted as <unk> for the 5th Division on land while two more battalions conducted the landings in Imwonjin . This 2 @,@ 500 man force reassembled and then led the North Korean units south . In the meantime , the 3rd Battalion , 766th Regiment was detached and sent on a mission to infiltrate Pusan . Paired with additional support , it formed the 600 @-@ man 588th Unit . 588th Unit was tasked with raiding Pusan harbor , destroying vital facilities to make it impossible for UN forces to land troops there . However , the troop transport carrying the 588th Unit was discovered and sunk by United Nations ships outside Pusan harbor the morning of June 25 , destroying the 3rd Battalion . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Around 04 : 00 on June 25 , the KPA 's 5th Division began its first attacks on the ROK 10th Regiment 's forward positions . Three hours later , the 766th Regiment 's two battalions landed at the village of Imwonjin , using motor and sail boats to land troops and <unk> South Korean villagers to assist in setting up supplies . The two battalions separated ; one headed into the T <unk> Mountains and the second advanced north toward <unk> . At this point , the ROK 8th Division , under heavy attack from the front and aware of attacks in the rear , urgently requested reinforcements . It was denied these reinforcements , as ROK higher commanders informed the division commander that the ROK Army was under heavy attack across the entirety of the 38th parallel and had no reinforcements to spare . 
 The ROK 21st Regiment , 8th Division 's southernmost unit , moved to counter the amphibious attack . The regiment 's 1st Battalion moved from <unk> <unk> into the <unk> area and ambushed forward elements of the 766th in conjunction with local police and militia forces . They were able to drive back the 766th Regiment 's northern advance . However , at least one of the 766th Regiment 's battalions massed at <unk> , blocking one of the 8th Division 's main supply routes . ROK troops mustered a civilian militia to help fight the North Koreans , which was only moderately effective . The embattled ROK 8th Division was forced to withdraw under overwhelming attacks and <unk> in communication on July 27 . With the retreat of the ROK 6th Division , the entire ROK eastern flank was forced back . The 766th Regiment had been successful in establishing a bridgehead and disrupting communications in the initial attack . 
 
 = = = Advance = = = 
 
 With the ROK army in retreat , the 766th Regiment , 549th Unit , and KPA 's 5th Divisions all advanced steadily south along the eastern roads without encountering much resistance . Across the entire front the North Korean Army had successfully routed the South Koreans and was pushing them south . The 766th Regiment acted as an advance force , attempting to infiltrate further inland as it moved through the mountainous eastern region of the country . The rugged terrain of the eastern regions of Korea , poor communication equipment , and unreliable resupply lines thwarted the South Korean resistance . The North Koreans used this to their advantage in advancing but they began to experience the same problems themselves . The 5th Division and the two other units began advancing south slowly and cautiously , sending strong reconnaissance parties into the mountains to ensure they would not be threatened from the rear . However , this more cautious advance began to give the South Koreans valuable time to build up further south . By June 28 , the 766th had infiltrated into <unk> @-@ <unk> from Uljin and was moving toward <unk> , <unk> and <unk> in order to block communications between <unk> and <unk> , where United States Army forces were landing in an attempt to support the collapsing ROK Army . 
 The ROK 23rd Regiment of the ROK 3rd Division was moved to block the advance of the three units at Uljin . The ROK forces mounted a series of delaying actions against the main North Korean force , which was significantly dispersed throughout the mountainous region and unable to muster its overwhelming strength . The ROK regiment was subsequently able to hold up the North Korean advance until July 5 . On July 10 , the 766th separated from the 5th Division and met an advance party of North Korean civilians in Uljin who had been sent to set up government in the area . From here , the 766th dispersed in small groups into the mountains . On July 13 it reached <unk> @-@ ri , 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Yongdok . 
 Over the next week the 766th Regiment and the KPA 's 5th Division continued in a slow advance south as it met increasing South Korean resistance . United Nations air support began to increase , slowing the advance further . The force continued to occupy the eastern flank , and by July 24 it was advancing from the <unk> @-@ <unk> region and approaching <unk> . On its flank was the KPA 's 12th Division . Progress halted as UN aerial and naval bombardment made movement more difficult . At the same time the North Korean units ' supply lines were stretched thin and began to break down , forcing them to <unk> South Korean civilians to carry supplies . 
 
 = = = Resistance = = = 
 
 On July 17 , the KPA 's 5th Division entered Yongdok , taking the city without much resistance before fierce UN air attacks caused the division heavy losses . Still , it was able to surround the ROK 3rd Division in the city . By now , the 5th Division and the 766th Regiment had been reduced to a combined strength of 7 @,@ 500 men to the ROK 3rd Divisions ' 6 @,@ <unk> . The 766th massed its force again to assist the 5th Division in surrounding and besieging the ROK 3rd Division , which was trapped in the city . The 3rd Division , in the meantime , was ordered to remain in the city to delay the North Koreans as long as possible . It was eventually evacuated by sea after delaying North Korean forces for a considerable time . The rugged terrain of the mountains prevented the North Korean forces from conducting the <unk> maneuvers they had used so effectively against other troops , and their advantages in numbers and equipment had been negated in the fight . 
 By July 28 , the division was still embroiled in this fight and the 766th bypassed it and moved toward <unk> on the left flank of the city . However the 766th had suffered significant setbacks at Yongdok , with substantial losses due to American and British naval artillery fire . Once it arrived in the area , it met heavier resistance from South Korean police and militia operating in armored vehicles . With air support , they offered the heaviest resistance the unit had faced thus far . With the support of only one of the 5th Division 's regiments , the 766th was unable to sustain its advance , and had to pull back by the 29th . Movement from the ROK Capital Division prevented the 766th Regiment from infiltrating further into the mountains . ROK cavalry and civilian police then began isolated <unk> against the 766th . These forces included special counter @-@ guerrilla units targeting the 766th and <unk> its tactics . South Korean troops halted the advance of the North Koreans again around the end of the month thanks to increased reinforcements and support closer to the Pusan Perimeter logistics network . 
 On August 5 , the KPA 's 12th Division pushed back the ROK Capital Division in the Ch <unk> @-@ <unk> area , and linked up with elements of the 766th which had infiltrated the area of <unk> . <unk> , they began to prepare to attack P 'ohang to secure entry into the UN 's newly established Pusan Perimeter . The Regiment was ordered to begin an attack in coordination with the KPA 's 5th Division . The Korean People 's Army planned simultaneous offensives across the entire Perimeter , including a flanking maneuver by the 766th and the 5th Division to <unk> UN troops and push them back to Pusan . The 766th was not reinforced ; North Korean planners intended it to move unseen around the UN lines while the majority of the UN and North Korean troops were locked in fighting around <unk> and the <unk> <unk> . 
 By this time , however , North Korean logistics had been stretched to their limit , and resupply became increasingly difficult . By the beginning of August , the North Korean units operating in the area were getting little to no food and ammunition supply , instead relying on captured UN weapons and foraging for what they could find . They were also exhausted from over a month of advancing , though morale remained high among the 766th troops . The 766th Regiment specialized in raiding UN supply lines , and effectively mounted small disruptive attacks against UN targets to equip themselves . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 At dawn on August 11 , one 300 @-@ man battalion of the 766th Regiment entered the village of P 'ohang , creating a state of alarm among its populace . The village was only protected by a small force of South Korean Navy , Air Force and Army personnel comprising the rear guard of the ROK 3rd Division . The South Korean forces engaged the 766th forces around the village 's middle school with small @-@ arms fire until noon . At that point , North Korean armored vehicles moved in to reinforce the 766th troops and drove the South Koreans out of the village . 
 The village was strategically important because it was one of the few direct routes through the mountains and into the <unk> plain . It also led directly to the land routes being used by the UN to reinforce <unk> . Upon hearing of the fall of P 'ohang , UN Eighth United States Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker immediately ordered naval and air bombardment of the village . He also ordered ROK and US forces to secure regions around the village to prevent further advance of the North Korean troops . Within a few hours , the village was being blasted by artillery forcing the Regiment 's advance force to pull back . The 766th 's forces congregated and fought in the hills around the village . They joined elements of the KPA 's 5th Division , and did not enter P 'ohang until night . 
 UN forces responded to the threat with overwhelming numbers . A large force of South Korean troops , designated Task Force P 'ohang , was massed and sent into P 'ohang @-@ dong to engage the 766th Regiment and the 5th Division . ROK troops attacked toward An <unk> @-@ <unk> to the east , forcing the KPA 's 12th Division into a full retreat . Threatened with <unk> , the KPA 's 5th Division and 766th Regiment were ordered into full retreat on August 17 . By this time , the 766th had been reduced to 1 @,@ 500 men , half its original strength . 
 <unk> and out of supplies , the 766th Regiment moved to <unk> @-@ <unk> , a mountain 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of <unk> , to join the shattered KPA 's 12th Division . The 12th Division was reduced to 1 @,@ 500 men in the fighting , and 2 @,@ 000 army replacements and South Korean conscripts were brought to replenish the division . The 766th Regiment was also ordered to merge its remaining troops into the depleted KPA 's 12th Division . Upon the completion of the merger with the 12th Division on August 19 , 1950 , the 766th Regiment ceased to exist . It had trained for close to 14 months prior to the war but fought for less than two . 
 
 
 = Sister Wives = 
 
 Sister Wives is an American reality television series broadcast on TLC that began airing in 2010 . The show documents the life of a polygamist family , which includes patriarch Kody Brown , his four wives , and their 18 children . The family began the series living in <unk> , Utah , but has since moved to Las Vegas , Nevada in 2011 . 
 Brown and his wives have said they participated with the show to make the public more aware of polygamist families and to combat societal prejudices . Brown believes his polygamist arrangement is legal because he is legally married only to one woman , and the other marriages are spiritual unions . The series led to the Brown family being investigated for possible prosecution . 
 
 = = Concept = = 
 
 The show follows the lives of advertising salesman Kody Brown , his wives Meri , Janelle , Christine , and Robyn , and their 18 children . In the first season the show televised Brown 's courting and marriage of his fourth wife , Robyn Sullivan , in 2010 . Sullivan was the first new wife to enter the family in 16 years . 
 The only legal marriage was between Kody and his first wife Meri , until their legal divorce in September 2014 . ( He legally married fourth wife Robyn in December 2014 in order to legally adopt her three children ) . The other marriages are considered spiritual unions . As of 2015 Kody has been married to Meri for 25 years , Janelle for 22 years , Christine for 21 years , and Robyn for 5 years . Kody and Meri have a daughter named Mariah , their only child . Kody and Janelle have six children : daughters Madison and <unk> and sons Logan , Hunter , Garrison , and Gabriel . Kody and Christine have six children : daughters <unk> , Mykelti , <unk> , Ysabel , and Truely and son <unk> . Robyn had three children from her first marriage , which was monogamous : Dayton , Aurora , and <unk> . Kody legally adopted them in June 2015 . Kody and Robyn have two children : son Solomon and daughter <unk> . 
 Meri , Robyn , and Christine were all raised in polygamist families , but Janelle was not . Although Christine 's mother left the faith she still supports them . Months before the marriage of Janelle and Kody , however , Janelle 's mother entered into a polygamist marriage with Kody 's father . The Brown family belongs to the Apostolic United Brethren ( <unk> . ) For years before the series , the family kept their polygamist lifestyle what they called a " quasi @-@ secret " . 
 
 = = Children = = 
 
 Kody has 18 children : 
 With Meri : 
 Mariah ( July 29 , 1995 ) daughter 
 With Janelle : 
 Logan ( May 21 , 1994 ) son 
 Madison ( November 3 , 1995 ) daughter 
 Married to Caleb <unk> since June 4 , 2016 
 Hunter ( February 9 , 1997 ) son 
 Garrison ( April 10 , 1998 ) son 
 Gabriel ( October 11 , 2001 ) son 
 <unk> ( December 7 , 2004 ) daughter 
 With Christine : 
 <unk> ( March 14 , 1995 ) daughter 
 Mykelti ( June 9 , 1996 ) daughter 
 <unk> to Antonio <unk> 
 <unk> ( August 7 , 1998 ) son 
 <unk> ( July 23 , 2001 ) daughter 
 Ysabel ( March 7 , 2003 ) daughter 
 Truely ( April 13 , 2010 ) daughter 
 With Robyn : 
 Solomon ( October 27 , 2011 ) son 
 <unk> <unk> ( January 10 , 2016 ) daughter 
 Robyn 's children from her first marriage who were adopted by Kody on June 17 , 2015 : 
 Dayton ( January 16 , 2000 ) son 
 Aurora ( June 4 , 2002 ) daughter 
 <unk> ( April 8 , 2005 ) daughter 
 
 = = Development = = 
 
 In the autumn of 2009 , independent producers Timothy Gibbons and Christopher Poole approached Figure 8 Films , a North <unk> company , with the concept of a reality series about the Brown family . Bill Hayes , the president of Figure 8 Films , said the company agreed to the idea after meeting with the Browns and deciding their lives would make a great story . Camera crews shot footage of the family in mid @-@ 2010 to be used in the first season , ending in May with the marriage of Kody Brown and Robyn Sullivan . The crews continued to film them afterward in case the series was picked up for a second season . Sister Wives was publicly introduced on August 6 , 2010 , at the Television Critics Association summer media tour in Beverly Hills , California . The series ' first episode , an hour long , was broadcast on TLC on September 26 , 2010 , and the first season continued with six half @-@ hour chapters until October 17 , 2010 . 
 The broadcast of Sister Wives came at a time that polygamy and multiple marriages were a prevalent topic in American pop culture . Big Love , the hit HBO series about fictional Utah polygamist Bill <unk> , his three sister wives , and their struggle to gain acceptance in society , had already been on the air for several years . In early September 2010 , the drama series Lone Star , about a con man on the verge of entering into multiple marriages , premiered on Fox but was quickly canceled after two episodes , and when Sister Wives debuted , actress Katherine <unk> was in the process of developing a film about Carolyn <unk> , a woman who fled from a polygamist sect . 
 In October 2010 , TLC announced it had commissioned a second season , which began in March 2011 . A TLC interview with the Brown family was broadcast on October 31 , 2010 , and a one @-@ hour program featuring the honeymoon of Kody Brown and Robyn Sullivan aired on November 22 , 2010 . 
 
 = = Episodes = = 
 
 
 = = = Season 1 = = = 
 
 The nine @-@ episode first season ran from September 26 to November 21 , 2010 . The season premiere introduced viewers to Kody Brown and his three wives , Meri , Janelle , and Christine , and their twelve children , all of whom lived in a <unk> @-@ style home with three interconnected apartments . It also chronicled Kody 's dating and engagement to Robyn Sullivan , who herself has three children , marking the first time in 16 years Kody had <unk> another wife . The new relationship creates insecurity and jealousy among the other three wives , but they ultimately accept her and welcome her into the family . During the fourth episode of the season , Christine gives birth to her sixth child , Truely , which brings the family to 16 children including Robyn 's three kids . 
 Later , Kody and Meri go to Mexico to celebrate their twentieth wedding anniversary , where Meri discussed her sadness about her infertility problems and the jealousy that has arisen from Kody 's engagement to Robyn . Kody proposes in vitro fertilisation , but she turns down the idea as she is only interested in a naturally occurring conception . As Robyn 's wedding approaches , the three sister wives help Robyn prepare , and they begin to bond . However , Kody upsets his wives when he reveals he secretly chose Robyn 's wedding dress himself , which makes Christine feel so betrayed that she angrily walks away in mid @-@ interview . Kody eventually apologizes , and the five reconcile . The first season finale ends with the wedding of Kody and Robyn , where Meri , Janelle , and Christine present her with a <unk> ring to welcome her into the family . 
 
 = = = Season 2 = = = 
 
 Season 2 ran 23 episodes from March 13 , 2011 to November 27 , 2011 , though many sources refer to the episodes airing from September 25 , 2011 to November 27 , 2011 as Season 3 . This is due to a short hiatus from June 5 , 2011 to September 25 , 2011 . 
 Season 2 begins with the Browns heading to New York to appear on national television for the first time as open polygamists , while back home the kids head off to their first day of public school . Throughout the season , the Browns visit various friends and family members and reflect on how their relationships have changed with these people since they became open polygamists . These friends and family members include Kody 's parents ( also polygamists ) , Kody 's high school friends , and various monogamous couples that Kody and the sister wives know . Part 1 of Season 2 also follows the Browns through Kody and Janelle 's anniversary camping trip , preparing and participating in Halloween , and Christmas , which the Browns celebrate in a <unk> mountain cabin . During Season 2 we also learn more about Meri 's personal struggle with her risk of cancer and the loss of her sister . In episode 5 , Kody , Christine , and their children take a trip to Las Vegas , which we later learn is the beginning of the Browns ' subsequent move to Las Vegas . The final episodes of Season 2 follow the Browns with their real estate agent Mona Riekki through their struggle to find a home in Las Vegas suitable for polygamists , telling the kids that they are moving , and the subsequent move to Las Vegas . <unk> , Mona Riekki finds rental homes for each of the wives and Kody . Once the Browns settle into their new homes they discuss the possibility of finding a home for all of them to live together or four homes in one <unk> @-@ de @-@ sac . In the last episode before the hiatus , Robyn announces that she is expecting her and Kody 's first child . 
 The second part of Season 2 brings the announcement of the sex of Robyn and Kody 's baby and the Browns ' struggle to adjust to life in Las Vegas . The episodes following the Season 2 hiatus focus largely on Robyn 's pregnancy and the kids ' adjustment to their new lives . The abrupt move to Las Vegas brings about behavioral problems in some of the older kids , which is also discussed largely in the second half of Season 2 . During these episodes the Browns also explore possible businesses that the five of them ( Kody and the sister wives ) can run together . Several episodes after the hiatus discuss specific topics such as jealousy among the sister wives , especially regarding courting a new wife , how the parents combat the influence of Las Vegas on their children , and how the Browns are preparing the older children for college . Mona Riekki is back in this season and is working with the family on finding a permanent home in Vegas . In the finale , Robyn gives birth to baby Solomon on October 27 , 2011 and the possibility of Meri having more children once again <unk> . 
 Although the ongoing investigation of the Browns is brought up during Season 2 , it is not extensively discussed , and the progress of the investigation is unknown . 
 
 = = = Season 3 = = = 
 
 Season 3 premiered on May 13 , 2012 after vague details surfaced about the show 's spring return on the Twitter account of sister wife Robyn Sullivan Brown . The twenty one episode season mainly dealt with the family 's inability to be a cohesive unit while living in four separate homes . Meri explains more about the infertility problems she has experienced , while Christine <unk> more on her jealousy of Robyn . The season returned from hiatus on November 18 , 2012 , to the Brown family still discussing their options into moving their family onto one property , and invest in a <unk> @-@ de @-@ sac where they can build four homes . It is more evident this season that living in separate homes is tearing the family apart . Towards the end of the season , the family plans a three @-@ day trip to <unk> , Illinois , the birthplace of American polygamy . In the last episode on December 30 , 2012 , the family also deals with the upcoming departure to college of the eldest Brown child , Logan . 
 
 = = = Season 4 = = = 
 
 Season 4 premiered on July 21 , 2013 . It chronicles the family as they move into four adjacent houses within the same neighborhood . The wives are still working on starting their jewelry business . Meri comes to a decision following Robyn 's offer to be her surrogate . 
 
 = = = Season 5 = = = 
 
 Season 5 includes seven episodes , eight if you include the " Tell All " at the end , and eleven if you include the " <unk> Down with the Browns " , " Meri @-@ Behind the Scenes " , and the " Robyn , <unk> the Scenes " episodes . Season 5 begins with two daughters graduating high school , Mykelti and Madison . The grown ups plan to lip sync a song to celebrate , but it brings out some negative feelings for Janelle , who is not comfortable being so outgoing and admits to being embarrassed in public by the others ' behavior . And a deeper issue of feeling like she 's not heard bubbles to the surface and she sees a therapist to discuss that along with her challenging relationship with first wife Meri . On a business level , the family discusses whether to turn down investors ' money and keep full ownership of <unk> ' <unk> and whether to keep the products all their own creations or branch out and <unk> other artists ' designs and products . Christine 's mother moves in with her in Las Vegas , and in episode four , the Browns allow two <unk> to live with them for two days to see the inner workings of polygamy , an arrangement that could either put their lifestyle in a positive or negative light . 
 Finally , after five years of mental <unk> , Meri files for legal divorce from Kody so Kody can adopt Robyn 's three children from her previous marriage . By the end of the season , Meri and Kody maintained that they would continue their relationship . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Critical reception = = = 
 
 Sister Wives drew national media attention after its first season and garnered generally mixed reviews from critics . Washington Post staff writer Hank Stuever called it " refreshingly <unk> " and found most interesting the small details of the family 's everyday life , such as the food supply , division of labor , and minor arguments . Los Angeles Times television critic Mary McNamara said she was intrigued by the <unk> nature of the polygamist family , a unit that is traditionally considered patriarchal . McNamara said the wives form the center of the family and that " their bonds appear far stronger and more vital than the casual fondness with which they all treat Kody " . <unk> writer <unk> <unk> praised Sister Wives for introducing viewers to unfamiliar subject matter and called it " refreshingly modest " considering its controversial subject matter . <unk> said it has " a natural , honest presence in a genre fabled for the camera @-@ <unk> antics of Jersey Shore " . Shelley <unk> of The Vancouver Sun called it fascinating and surprising and was impressed with the sensible and articulate way in which the family defended their lifestyle . When the Brown family made an October 2010 appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show , talk show host Oprah Winfrey said she found particularly fascinating the relationship between the sister wives . 
 Mark A. <unk> of the Boston Herald criticized Kody Brown for opening himself and his family up to potential criminal prosecution by appearing in the series , describing him as " a <unk> who is <unk> himself and the family he claims is so precious just to star in his own TV show " . Elizabeth <unk> of The Washington Post called the series " one part domestic <unk> , another part <unk> " and claimed it relied on a " familiar reality TV recipe " shared by other TLC series such as 19 Kids and <unk> and Kate Plus 8 . Religion <unk> writer Joanna Brooks shared <unk> 's perspective , criticizing the show for presenting polygamy in a manner that " is about as interesting to me as Kate <unk> 's latest makeover . " In this vein Brooks criticized the show for not engaging the theology of plural marriage and for letting Kody Brown 's superficial comments about the <unk> of Fundamentalist and mainstream <unk> pass onto the viewers without any critical scrutiny or added nuance . <unk> <unk> , television columnist with the <unk> Park Press , felt the sister wives had issues with jealousy and self @-@ worth , and she compared Kody to a cult leader . <unk> added , " I can 't speak for everyone , but I believe in the <unk> of marriage . It 's sad to see that TLC 's <unk> on people who don 't . " Former prosecutor and television personality Nancy Grace criticized the show and said she believed Kody Brown should go to jail , but she expressed doubt he would based on Utah 's history of overlooking polygamy . Christine <unk> , an associate professor of communications at Westminster College in Salt Lake City , said the show could give viewers who are unfamiliar with the <unk> church the incorrect assumption that polygamy is accepted by the mainstream church . Several commentators have taken notice of the fact that the family 's religious convictions are <unk> in Sister Wives . 
 
 = = = Ratings = = = 
 
 According to Nielsen Media Research , the September 26 , 2010 , one @-@ hour premiere episode of Sister Wives drew 2 @.@ 26 million viewers , a strong rating for the network . It marked the biggest series debut for TLC since Cake Boss launched in 2009 and was a stronger rating than any of the season premieres for HBO 's Big Love . The remaining episodes of the first season were each a half @-@ hour long , with two broadcast together each Thursday . In the second week , the first episode drew 1 @.@ 88 million viewers , while the second drew 2 @.@ 13 million . The third week drew similar results , with 1 @.@ 89 million viewers watching the first episode and 2 @.@ 05 million watching the second . Sister Wives drew its strongest ratings during the fourth and final week of the first season , with 2 @.@ 67 million viewers for the first episode and 2 @.@ 74 million for the season finale . As a result of the 2 @.@ 7 million average viewership for the two episodes , TLC ranked first among all ad @-@ support cable channels in the 18 – 49 and 25 – 54 age groups . The series drew <unk> and triple @-@ digit ratings gains in all key demographics and ranked second in ad @-@ supported cable network shows during its time period . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 
 
 = You Only Live Twice ( film ) = 
 
 You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) is the fifth spy film in the James Bond series , and the fifth to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film 's screenplay was written by Roald Dahl , and loosely based on Ian Fleming 's 1964 novel of the same name . It is the first James Bond film to <unk> most of Fleming 's plot , using only a few characters and locations from the book as the background for an entirely new story . 
 In the film , Bond is dispatched to Japan after American and Soviet manned spacecraft disappear mysteriously in orbit . With each nation <unk> the other amidst the Cold War , Bond travels secretly to a remote Japanese island in order to find the <unk> and comes face to face with Ernst Stavro Blofeld , the head of SPECTRE . The film reveals the appearance of Blofeld , who was previously a partially unseen character . SPECTRE is <unk> the government of an unnamed Asian power , implied to be the People 's Republic of China , in order to provoke war between the <unk> . 
 During the filming in Japan , it was announced that Sean Connery would retire from the role of Bond . But after a hiatus , he returned in 1971 's Diamonds Are Forever and later 1983 's non @-@ <unk> Bond film Never Say Never Again . You Only Live Twice is the first Bond film to be directed by Lewis Gilbert , who later directed the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me and the 1979 film <unk> , both starring Roger Moore . 
 You Only Live Twice was a great success , receiving positive reviews and grossing over $ 111 million in worldwide box office . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 An American NASA spacecraft is <unk> from orbit by an unidentified spacecraft . The U.S. suspect it to be the work of the Soviets , but the British suspect Japanese involvement since the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Japan . To investigate , MI6 operative James Bond is sent to Tokyo after <unk> his own death in Hong Kong and being buried at sea from the HMS <unk> ( <unk> ) . 
 Upon his arrival , Bond is contacted by Aki , assistant to the Japanese secret service leader Tiger Tanaka while watching sumo . Aki introduces Bond to local MI6 operative <unk> Henderson . Henderson claims to have critical evidence about the rogue craft , but is killed before he can elaborate . Bond chases and kills the assailant , taking the assailant 's clothing as a disguise and escapes in the getaway car , which takes him to Osato Chemicals . Once there , Bond <unk> the driver and breaks into the office safe of president Mr. Osato . After stealing documents , Bond is pursued by armed security , but is rescued by Aki , who flees to a secluded subway station . Bond chases her , but falls down a trap door leading to Tanaka 's office . The stolen documents are examined and found to include a photograph of the cargo ship Ning @-@ Po with a <unk> message saying the tourist who took the photo was killed as a security precaution . 
 Bond goes to Osato Chemicals to meet Mr. Osato himself , <unk> as a potential new buyer . Osato <unk> Bond but , after their meeting , orders his secretary , Helga Brandt , to have him killed . Outside the building , assassins open fire on Bond before Aki rescues him again . Bond and Aki drive to Kobe , where the Ning @-@ Po is docked . They investigate the company 's dock facilities and discover that the ship was delivering elements for rocket fuel . They are discovered , but Bond <unk> the henchmen until Aki gets away ; however , Bond himself is captured and knocked out . He wakes , tied up in SPECTRE operative Helga Brandt 's cabin on the Ning @-@ Po . She <unk> Bond , but he thinks he has managed to <unk> his way to freedom . Brandt then flies Bond to Tokyo but , en route , she sets off a flare in the plane and <unk> out . Bond manages to land the plane . 
 After finding out where the Ning @-@ Po <unk> , Bond flies over the area in a heavily armed <unk> created by Q. Near a volcano , Bond is attacked by helicopters , which he defeats , confirming his suspicions that the enemy 's base is nearby . A Soviet spacecraft is then captured in orbit by another unidentified craft , <unk> tensions between Russia and the US . The mysterious spaceship lands in an extensive base hidden inside the volcano . It is revealed that the true mastermind behind this is Ernst Stavro Blofeld and SPECTRE . Blofeld seems to forgive Brandt for her failure to kill Bond , but as she leaves , he activates a mechanism that drops her into a pool of <unk> . Blofeld instructs Osato to kill Bond . 
 Bond trains with Tanaka 's ninjas , during which an attempted assassination kills Aki instead . Bond is disguised as an Oriental in a fake marriage to Tanaka 's student , Kissy Suzuki . Acting on a lead from Suzuki , the pair <unk> a cave and the volcano above it . <unk> that the mouth of the volcano is a disguised hatch to the secret rocket base , Bond slips in , while Kissy goes to alert Tanaka . Bond locates and frees the captured astronauts and , with their help , steals a <unk> in attempt to infiltrate the SPECTRE spacecraft " Bird One " . However , Blofeld spots Bond , and he is detained while Bird One is launched . 
 Bird One closes in on the American space capsule , and US forces prepare to launch a nuclear attack on the USSR . Meanwhile , the Japanese ninjas approach the base 's entrance , but are detected and fired upon . Bond manages to open the hatch , letting in the ninjas . During the ensuing battle , Bond fights his way to the control room and activates Bird One 's self @-@ destruct before it reaches the American craft . The Americans stand down their forces . 
 Blofeld activates the base 's self @-@ destruct system and escapes . Bond , Kissy , Tanaka , and the surviving ninjas leave before the base explodes . 
 
 = = Cast = = 
 
 Sean Connery as James Bond : An MI6 agent . 
 Akiko Wakabayashi as Aki : An agent with the Japanese <unk> who assists Bond . 
 Mie Hama as Kissy Suzuki : An <unk> diving girl who replaces Aki after her death . 
 Donald Pleasence as Ernst Stavro Blofeld : The <unk> head of the terrorist syndicate known as SPECTRE . He intends to ignite a global nuclear war . 
 <unk> Tamba as Tiger Tanaka : Head of Japanese secret service . 
 <unk> <unk> as Mr. Osato : A Japanese industrialist secretly affiliated to SPECTRE . 
 Karin Dor as Helga Brandt / No. 11 : Osato 's secretary and a SPECTRE assassin . 
 Bernard Lee as M : The head of MI6 . 
 Charles Gray as <unk> Henderson : British contact living in Japan . 
 Burt <unk> as <unk> 3 : one of Blofeld 's henchmen . 
 Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary . 
 Desmond Llewelyn as Q : Head of MI6 technical department . 
 <unk> <unk> as <unk> : Undercover MI6 agent in Hong Kong . 
 Ronald Rich as Hans : Blofeld 's personal bodyguard . 
 David <unk> as <unk> in <unk> : one of Osato 's henchmen , who kills Aki . 
 Peter <unk> as Car Driver : one of Osato 's henchmen , who fights Bond . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the intended next film , but the producers decided to adapt You Only Live Twice instead because <unk> would require searching for high and <unk> locations . Lewis Gilbert originally declined the offer to direct , but accepted after producer Albert R. Broccoli called him saying : " You can 't give up this job . It 's the largest audience in the world . " Peter R. Hunt , who edited the first five Bond films , believed that Gilbert had been contracted by the producers for other work but they found they had to use him . 
 Gilbert , producers Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , production designer Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan , spending three weeks searching for locations . SPECTRE ’ s shore fortress headquarters was changed to an extinct volcano after the team learned that the Japanese do not build castles by the sea . The group was due to return to the UK on a <unk> Boeing <unk> flight ( <unk> Flight 911 ) on 5 March 1966 , but cancelled after being told they had a chance to watch a ninja demonstration . That flight crashed 25 minutes after takeoff , killing all on board . In Tokyo , the crew also found Hunt , who decided to go on holiday after having his request to direct declined . Hunt was invited to direct the second unit for You Only Live Twice and accepted the job . 
 Unlike most James Bond films featuring various locations around the world , almost the entire film is set in one country and several minutes are devoted to an elaborate Japanese wedding . This is in keeping with Fleming 's original novel , which also devoted a number of pages to the discussion of Japanese culture . <unk> Studios provided soundstages , personnel , and the female Japanese stars to the producers . 
 
 = = = Writing = = = 
 
 The producers had Harold Jack Bloom come to Japan with them to write a screenplay . Bloom 's work was ultimately rejected , but since several of his ideas were used in the final script , Bloom was given the credit of " Additional Story Material " . Among the elements were the opening with Bond 's fake death and burial at sea , and the ninja attack . As the screenwriter of the previous Bond films Richard <unk> was unavailable , Roald Dahl , a close friend of Ian Fleming , was chosen to write the adaptation despite having no prior experience writing a screenplay except for the uncompleted The Bells of Hell Go <unk> @-@ a @-@ ling @-@ a @-@ ling . 
 Dahl said that the original novel was " Ian Fleming ’ s worst book , with no plot in it which would even make a movie " , and compared it to a <unk> , stating that he had to create a new plot " [ though ] I could retain only four or five of the original story 's ideas . " On creating the plot , Dahl said he " didn 't know what the hell Bond was going to do " despite having to deliver the first draft in six weeks , and decided to do a basic plot similar to Dr. No . Dahl was given a free <unk> on his script , except for the character of Bond and " the girl formula " , involving three women for Bond to <unk> : an ally and a <unk> who both get killed , and the main Bond girl . While the third involved a character from the book , Kissy Suzuki , Dahl had to create Aki and Helga Brandt to fulfil the rest . 
 Gilbert was mostly collaborative with Dahl 's work , as the writer declared : " He not only helped in script conferences , but had some good ideas and then left you alone , and when you produced the finished thing , he shot it . Other directors have such an ego that they want to rewrite it and put their own dialogue in , and it 's usually disastrous . What I admired so much about Lewis Gilbert was that he just took the screenplay and shot it . That 's the way to direct : You either trust your writer or you don 't . " 
 
 = = = Casting = = = 
 
 When the time came to begin You Only Live Twice , the producers were faced with the problem of a disenchanted star . Sean Connery had stated that he was tired of playing James Bond and all of the associated commitment ( time spent filming and <unk> each movie ) , together with finding it difficult to do other work , which would potentially lead to <unk> . Saltzman and Broccoli were able to persuade Connery by increasing his fee for the film , but geared up to look for a replacement . 
 Jan <unk> was originally cast by producer Harry Saltzman to play Blofeld . Upon his arrival at the <unk> set , both producer Albert R. Broccoli and director Lewis Gilbert felt that he was a poor choice , resembling a " poor , benevolent Santa Claus " . Nonetheless , in an attempt to make the casting work , Gilbert continued filming . After several days , both Gilbert and Broccoli determined that <unk> was not menacing enough , and recast Blofeld with Donald Pleasence in the role . Pleasence 's ideas for Blofeld 's appearance included a <unk> , a limp , a beard , and a lame hand , before he settled on the scar . He found it uncomfortable , though , because of the glue that attached it to his eye . 
 Many European models were tested for Helga Brandt including German actress Eva <unk> who passed on the film , with German actress Karin Dor being cast . Dor performed the stunt of diving into a pool to depict Helga 's demise herself , without the use of a double . <unk> , for the German version Dor was dubbed by somebody else . 
 Gilbert had chosen <unk> Tamba after working with him in The 7th Dawn . A number of actual martial arts experts were hired as the ninjas . The two Japanese female parts proved difficult to cast , due to most of the actresses tested having limited English . Akiko Wakabayashi and Mie Hama were eventually chosen and started taking English classes in the UK . Hama , initially cast in the role of Tanaka 's assistant , had difficulty with the language , so the producers switched her role with Wakabayashi , who had been cast as Kissy , a part with significantly less dialogue . Wakabayashi only requested that her character name , " <unk> " , be changed to " Aki " . 
 
 = = = Filming = = = 
 
 Filming of You Only Live Twice lasted from July 1966 to March 1967 . The film was shot primarily in Japan . <unk> Castle in <unk> was depicted as Tanaka 's ninja training camp . His private transportation hub was filmed at the Tokyo Metro 's Nakano @-@ <unk> Station . As of 2011 , many of the fixtures in the station are unchanged from the time of filming . 
 The Hotel New <unk> Tokyo served as the outside for Osato Chemicals and the hotel 's gardens were used for scenes of the ninja training . <unk> in <unk> served as the fishing village , the Kobe harbour was used for the dock fight and Mount <unk> @-@ <unk> in <unk> was used for the exteriors of SPECTRE 's headquarters . Large crowds were present in Japan to see the shooting . A Japanese fan began following Sean Connery with a camera , and the police were called several times to prevent invasions during shooting . 
 The heavily armed WA @-@ 116 <unk> " Little Nellie " was included after Ken Adam heard a radio interview with its inventor , RAF Wing Commander Ken Wallis . Little Nellie was named after music hall star Nellie Wallace , who has a similar surname to its inventor . Wallis <unk> his invention , which was equipped with various mock @-@ up <unk> by John <unk> ' special effects team , during production . 
 " Nellie 's " battle with helicopters proved to be difficult to film . The scenes were initially shot in Miyazaki , first with takes of the <unk> , with more than 85 take @-@ offs , 5 hours of flight and Wallis nearly crashing into the camera several times . A scene filming the helicopters from above created a major <unk> and cameraman John Jordan 's foot was severed by the craft 's <unk> . The concluding shots involved explosions , which the Japanese government did not allow in a national park . So , the crew moved to <unk> , Spain , which was found to resemble the Japanese landscape . 
 The sets of SPECTRE 's volcano base were constructed at a lot inside <unk> Studios , with a cost of $ 1 million and including operative heliport and <unk> . The 45 m ( 148 ft ) tall set could be seen from 5 kilometres ( 3 miles ) away , and attracted many people from the region . Locations outside Japan included using the Royal Navy frigate HMS <unk> , then in Gibraltar , for the sea burial , Hong Kong for the scene where Bond fakes his death , and Norway for the Soviet radar station . 
 Sean Connery 's then wife Diane <unk> did the swimming scenes for at least five Japanese actresses , including Mie Hama . Martial arts expert Donn F. <unk> provided martial arts training , and also doubled for Connery . Lewis Gilbert 's regular editor , <unk> <unk> , was originally hired to edit the film . However , after her initial , almost three @-@ hour cut received a terrible response from test audiences , Peter R. Hunt was asked to re @-@ edit the film . Hunt 's cut proved a much greater success , and he was awarded the director 's chair on the next film as a result . 
 
 = = = Music = = = 
 
 The soundtrack was the fourth of the series to be composed by John Barry . He tried to incorporate the " <unk> of the Oriental sound " with Japanese music @-@ inspired tracks . The theme song , " You Only Live Twice " , was composed by Barry and <unk> Leslie <unk> and sung by Nancy Sinatra after her father Frank Sinatra passed on the opportunity . Nancy Sinatra was reported to be very nervous while recording – first she wanted to leave the studio ; then she claimed to sometimes " sound like Minnie Mouse " . Barry declared that the final song uses 25 different takes . British singer Julie Rogers recorded an alternative song for the titles , but this was not used . 
 There are two versions of the song " You Only Live Twice " , sung by Nancy Sinatra , one directly from the movie soundtrack , and a second one for record release arranged by Billy Strange . The movie soundtrack song is widely recognised for its striking opening bars and oriental flavour , and was far more popular on radio . The record release made No. 44 on the Billboard charts in the USA , No. 11 in UK . Both versions of the title song are available on CD . 
 In 1992 , <unk> sampled the title song " You Only Live Twice " for his song " Trip II the Moon Part 2 " . In 1997 , Icelandic singer <unk> recorded a cover version . In 1998 , Robbie Williams used the distinctive string figure for his song " Millennium " , ( although it was re @-@ recorded , rather than sampled from the movie for cost reasons ) . Coldplay covered it when they toured in 2001 , and it was covered by <unk> Atlas for her 2005 compilation album The Best of <unk> Atlas . Shirley <unk> , who has three original Bond themes to her credit , has also covered the song . 
 A different title song was originally recorded by Julie Rogers , but eventually discarded . Only two lines from that version were kept in the final lyrics , and the orchestral part was changed to fit Nancy Sinatra 's vocal range . Rogers ' version only appeared in a James Bond 30th <unk> CD , with no singer credit . In the 1990s , an alternative example of a possible theme song ( also called " You Only Live Twice " and sung by Lorraine Chandler ) was discovered in the vaults of RCA Records . It became a very popular track with followers of the Northern Soul scene ( Chandler was well known for her high @-@ quality soul output on RCA ) and can be found on several RCA soul compilations . 
 
 = = Promotion = = 
 
 To promote the film , <unk> Productions produced a one @-@ hour colour television programme entitled Welcome to Japan , Mr. Bond first aired on 2 June 1967 in the United States on NBC . Bond regulars Lois Maxwell and Desmond Llewelyn appeared playing respectively " Miss Moneypenny " and " Q " . Kate O <unk> appears as Miss Moneypenny 's assistant . The programme shows clips from You Only Live Twice and the then four existing Bond <unk> and contained a storyline of Moneypenny trying to establish the identity of Bond 's bride . 
 
 = = Release and reception = = 
 
 You Only Live Twice premiered at the <unk> Leicester Square in London . It was the first premiere of a James Bond film that Queen Elizabeth II attended . The film grossed $ 43 million in the United States and over $ 111 million worldwide . 
 Critical response today is mostly positive , with Rotten Tomatoes giving a 72 % rating . But most reviews pointed out various flaws in the film . James <unk> said that the first half was good , but " during the second half , as the plot escalates beyond the bounds of <unk> , that the film starts to fragment " , criticising Blofeld 's appearance and stating " rockets that swallow up spacecraft are a bit too extravagant . " 
 Roger <unk> criticised the focus on <unk> , declaring that the James Bond formula " fails to work its magic " . John <unk> in his book James Bond in the Cinema compared the film to an episode of Thunderbirds with a reliance on <unk> but admitted it had pace and spectacle . Christopher <unk> considered the film one of James Bond 's most memorable adventures , but the plot " <unk> and quite confusing " . 
 Ali <unk> of BBC Films panned Dahl 's script displaying " a whole new world of <unk> and technology . " Leo Goldsmith lauded the volcano base as " the most impressive of Ken Adam 's sets for the franchise . " Danny <unk> wrote that You Only Live Twice " should have been about twenty minutes shorter " and described it as " not a bad Bond film , but it doesn ’ t compare to its predecessors – the formula had become a little stale . " 
 IGN ranked You Only Live Twice as the fourth best Bond film , and Entertainment Weekly as the second best , considering that it " pushes the series to the outer edge of coolness " . But Norman <unk> of <unk> chose it as the fifth worst , criticising the plot , action scenes and little <unk> for Blofeld . Literary critic Paul Simpson called the film one of the most colourful of the series and credited the prefecture of <unk> for adding " a good flavour " of Japanese influence on the film , but he panned the depiction of Blofeld as a " let @-@ down " , " small , bald and a <unk> scar . " Simon <unk> said that the film is " perfect " for parodies of the series . 
 
 
 = WASP @-@ 13b = 
 
 WASP @-@ 13b is an extrasolar planet that was discovered in 2008 in the orbit of the <unk> star WASP @-@ 13 . The planet has a mass of nearly half that of Jupiter , but a radius five @-@ <unk> the size of Jupiter . This low relative mass might be caused by a core that is of low mass or that is not present at all . 
 The planet orbits at approximately 5 % of the distance between the Sun and Earth every four days . The star was observed several times between 2006 and 2009 , at first through the SuperWASP program and later through focused follow @-@ up observations . Analysis of collected radial velocity measurements led to the discovery of WASP @-@ 13b , which was reported in a journal on April 7 , 2009 . A follow @-@ up study published in 2011 investigated the cause for inflated planets such as WASP @-@ 13b , and re @-@ examined ( and re @-@ constrained ) its mass , radius , density , and age . 
 
 = = Discovery = = 
 
 Between November 27 , 2006 , and April 1 , 2007 , <unk> images of the star WASP @-@ 13 by the SuperWASP @-@ North program based at <unk> de los <unk> Observatory in the Canary Islands led to the identification of WASP @-@ 13 as host to a potentially transiting object . <unk> follow @-@ up observations were taken on February 16 , 2008 using the James Gregory Telescope ( JGT ) in Scotland , which took <unk> exposures of the star , although the last twenty images taken were obscured by cloud cover and were discarded . Using HD <unk> as a reference star along with JGT measurements , the astronomers investigating the system were able to create a light curve for the transiting planet . 
 WASP @-@ 13 was observed between February 11 and 15 in 2008 by the SOPHIE <unk> spectrograph at the <unk> @-@ Provence Observatory in France , determining the radial velocity of the transiting body . Use of the FIES <unk> spectrograph at the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands gained other spectral measurements that yielded the characteristics of the star . Analysis of the SOPHIE and FIES data were used to <unk> some of the orbiting body 's characteristics . The discovery of the orbiting body 's mass using radial velocity measurements led to its confirmation as the planet WASP @-@ 13b . 
 The discovery of WASP @-@ 13b was reported in the journal <unk> and <unk> by the European Southern Observatory on May 19 , 2009 . The discovery paper was received by the journal on April 7 , 2009 . 
 Later , between 2009 and 2011 , another team of astronomers observed WASP @-@ 13b and WASP @-@ <unk> to find what caused some Hot Jupiters to have <unk> high radii . The <unk> photometric camera on the Liverpool Telescope was used to detect further transits . Two partial transits and two full transits were observed during this period , although the quality of both full transits was slightly compromised because of passing cloud cover . The collected observations , along with the JGT observations that were used to confirm the planet , were scaled to filter out errors such as background noise . The data was then used to re @-@ define WASP @-@ 13b 's parameters , including its age , mass , radius , and density . The study also noted that a limb darkening effect was present , a characteristic that may affect future atmospheric studies of the planet . 
 
 = = Host star = = 
 
 WASP @-@ 13 is a <unk> G @-@ type star located in the Lynx constellation . Measurements taken by FIES and SOPHIE did not <unk> the mass , radius , or age well ; however , a later 2011 study using the Liverpool Telescope better @-@ constrained those parameters . The star 's mass is estimated at 1 @.@ 09 times the mass of the Sun , its radius at 1 @.@ <unk> times that of the Sun , and its density at 0 @.@ 288 time 's the Sun 's density . These characteristics are re @-@ defined taking limb darkening into account . The star 's metallicity , which is measured by iron content , is placed roughly at [ Fe / H ] = 0 , similar to that of the Sun . Also , the star 's estimated effective temperature is <unk> K , slightly warmer than the Sun . 
 WASP @-@ 13 has an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 42 , making it invisible to the unaided eye as seen from Earth . 
 
 = = Characteristics = = 
 
 WASP @-@ 13b is a transiting planet with an estimated mass that is ( including limb darkening ) 0 @.@ <unk> times that of Jupiter and a radius that is 1 @.@ 389 times Jupiter 's radius . The planet is , in other words , less than half the mass of Jupiter , but slightly less than fourteen tenths its size . WASP @-@ 13b 's low mass can mostly likely be attributed to the presence of a low @-@ mass core , or to the total lack of a core , according to the discovery paper . WASP @-@ 13b , which orbits its host star at a distance of 0 @.@ <unk> AU , circles its star completely every 4 @.@ <unk> days . The 2011 study on the planet recognized WASP @-@ 13b as the fifth lowest @-@ density extrasolar planet known , behind Kepler @-@ <unk> ; WASP @-@ <unk> ; <unk> @-@ <unk> ; and <unk> @-@ <unk> . 
 WASP @-@ 13b has an orbital inclination of <unk> , which means that it orbits almost edge @-@ on as seen from Earth . 
 
 
 = U2 concert in Sarajevo = 
 
 On 23 September 1997 , the Irish rock band U2 held a concert at <unk> Stadium in Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina , as part of the group 's PopMart Tour . They were the first major artist to hold a concert in the city after the end of the Bosnian War . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 fans attended the show . 
 The band first became involved with Sarajevo in 1993 on their Zoo TV Tour ; approached by aid worker Bill Carter about bringing attention to the Siege of Sarajevo , the band conducted nightly satellite transmissions with Bosnians during their shows . These link @-@ ups were the subject of criticism from journalists for mixing entertainment with human tragedy . Although the war made it impractical for U2 to visit Sarajevo at the time , they vowed to eventually play a concert in the city . After the conflict ended in November 1995 , they made arrangements to visit Sarajevo , and with help from United Nations ambassadors and peacekeeping troops , they scheduled and played the concert in 1997 . 
 The band offered to hold a benefit concert or small show in Sarajevo , but it was requested that they stage a full PopMart concert . The performance consequently featured the tour 's extravagant stage , and the band played a set list typical of the tour . The show brought together people of different <unk> who had previously clashed during the war , and train service was temporarily resumed to allow <unk> to attend . Among the songs played was " Miss Sarajevo " , written by U2 and Brian Eno about a beauty pageant held during the war . Although the band were <unk> with their performance and lead vocalist Bono had vocal difficulties , the concert was well received and was credited with improving morale among Bosnians . The members of U2 consider the show to be among their proudest moments . The concert was lauded by Bosnians . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 
 = = = War in Sarajevo = = = 
 
 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was composed of six constituent republics : Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Croatia , Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia , and Slovenia . In 1991 , Croatia , and Slovenia <unk> from Yugoslavia . Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina — a republic with a mixed population consisting of <unk> , Serbs , and Croats — followed suit in March 1992 in a highly controversial referendum , creating tension in the ethnic communities . Bosnian Serb militias , whose strategic goal was to secede from Bosnia and Herzegovina and unite with Serbia , <unk> Sarajevo with a siege force of 18 @,@ 000 stationed in the surrounding hills , from which they assaulted the city with weapons that included artillery , mortars , tanks , anti @-@ aircraft guns , heavy machine @-@ guns , rocket launchers , and aircraft bombs . From 2 May 1992 until the end of the war in 1996 , the city was blockaded . The Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , numbering roughly 40 @,@ 000 inside the besieged city , was poorly equipped and unable to break the siege . Meanwhile , throughout the country , thousands of predominantly <unk> civilians were driven from their homes in a process of ethnic cleansing . In Sarajevo , women and children attempting to buy food were frequently <unk> by Bosnian Serb sniper fire . 
 
 = = = U2 's reaction = = = 
 
 In 1993 , U2 were in Europe for the " <unk> " leg of their Zoo TV Tour . Before their 3 July show in <unk> , Italy , the band received a <unk> from Radio <unk> <unk> I <unk> asking for an interview regarding the situation in Bosnia . The band agreed and met with an American aid worker named Bill Carter , who acted as the station 's foreign associate , due to Serbian travel restrictions . Carter described his experiences in Sarajevo helping Bosnians while surviving the dangerous living conditions . Lead vocalist Bono was <unk> to hear that those living in makeshift bomb shelters in the city played music , including U2 's , at loud volumes to drown out the sound of explosions . While in Sarajevo , Carter had seen a television interview on MTV in which Bono mentioned the theme of the <unk> tour leg was a unified Europe . Feeling that such an aim was empty if ignoring the Bosnians ' plight , Carter sought Bono 's help . He requested that U2 go to Sarajevo to bring attention to the war and break the " media fatigue " that had occurred from covering the conflict . 
 Bono agreed to Carter 's request without asking the rest of the band , and when informed of the idea , the other members gave only tacit approval . They briefly considered playing an impromptu concert in the city , with Bono suggesting that they perform in the bunker where Carter and his friends hid during the siege . He said , " even if all we get is some extra attention for Bosnia on MTV , that 's something " . The idea fell through when it was pointed out that the logistics of transporting their equipment into the city were impossible , as the only way into Sarajevo was on a United Nations plane . Manager Paul McGuinness realized that even if the band managed to organize a concert , it would endanger their lives and those of the audience and the Zoo TV crew . As he explained , " U2 's effort to discuss any humanitarian issue have sometimes been accompanied by a false instinct that U2 is also obliged to resolve that issue . Going to Sarajevo seems to me to fall into that category . I think it would endanger the people we go with , endanger the tour , and endanger the band . " Drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. feared that the move would look like a publicity stunt . 
 Instead , the group agreed to use the tour 's satellite dish to conduct live video transmissions from their concerts to Carter in Sarajevo . Carter returned to the city and assembled a video unit . The band purchased a satellite dish to be sent to Sarajevo and paid a £ 100 @,@ 000 fee to join the European Broadcasting Union ( <unk> ) . Once set up , the band began satellite link @-@ ups to Sarajevo on nearly a nightly basis , the first of which aired on 17 July 1993 in Bologna , Italy . To connect with the <unk> satellite , Carter and two co @-@ workers were forced to visit the Sarajevo television station at night and to film with as little light as possible to avoid the attention of <unk> and bombers . To reach the building , they had to traverse an area known as " <unk> <unk> " . This was done a total of 12 times over the course of a month . During the broadcasts , Carter discussed the deteriorating situation in the city , and Bosnians often spoke to U2 and their audience . These <unk> interviews starkly contrasted with the rest of the show ; concerts on the Zoo TV Tour were elaborately staged <unk> events that <unk> television and the audience 's over @-@ stimulation . Most of the shows were scripted , but the link @-@ ups to Sarajevo were not , leaving the group unsure who would speak or what they would say . U2 stopped the broadcasts in August 1993 after learning that the Siege of Sarajevo was being reported on the front of many British newspapers . Though this trend had begun before the band 's first Sarajevo transmission , Nathan Jackson suggested that U2 's actions had brought awareness of the situation to their fans and to the British public indirectly . 
 Reactions to the transmissions were mixed . Many fans felt the transmissions disrupted the flow of the concerts . Most of the British press was highly critical . One writer for NME wrote , " The Bosnian <unk> was beyond bad taste . It was insulting . " Bono thought that they were bringing the public 's attention to an important event , though he admitted that the link @-@ ups were the most difficult thing the band had done in their career . Guitarist The Edge said , " We don 't normally see that kind of cold hard news . We get a very <unk> , <unk> take on everything ... When you watch the television news , you are getting something palatable , whereas this was really quite <unk> most of the time . And for that reason I think it affected people very much , including us . " Mullen worried that the band were <unk> the Bosnians ' suffering for entertainment . During a transmission from the band 's concert at Wembley Stadium , three women in Sarajevo asked what the band intended to do to help before telling Bono , " We know you 're not going to do anything for us . You 're going to go back to a rock show . You 're going to forget that we even exist . And we 're all going to die . " During a transmission to a Glasgow concert , a Bosnian woman told the concert audience , " We would like to hear the music , too , but we hear only the screams of wounded and tortured people and raped women . " Some people were upset by the circumstances of Sarajevo and were motivated to join the War Child charity project , including U2 producer Brian Eno . Despite U2 's obligation to the tour and their inability to perform in Sarajevo during the war , they vowed to play the city someday . 
 The band contributed to Bosnian relief efforts to enhance humanitarian and public awareness of the issue , and Bono and Carter subsequently collaborated on the documentary Miss Sarajevo , which showcased the war @-@ torn city during Carter 's six months living there . In 1995 , U2 and Eno wrote the song " Miss Sarajevo " as a response to " the surreal acts of defiance that had taken place during the siege of Sarajevo " . One such act was a beauty pageant organized by Bosnian women who planned to fight the war with their " lipstick and heels " . During the pageant , all of the participants walked onto the stage carrying a banner that said , " Don 't let them kill us " . The winner of the pageant , 17 @-@ year @-@ old <unk> Nogić , later said the pageant " was a crazy thing to do during a war . But we tried to live a normal life . It was some kind of a defence mechanism we all had . " Years later , Bono said , " It was pure <unk> and it deserved to be celebrated in song . " Of the song 's meaning , he said , " Everywhere people had heard their call for help — but help never came . That was the feeling . I had tried to tackle subjects like this head @-@ on , but I 'd learnt a lesson . You have to try and make the same points , in a different , less direct , more <unk> way . " " Miss Sarajevo " was recorded with Luciano Pavarotti and released as the first single from U2 's side @-@ project with Eno entitled Original <unk> 1 ; the record was released under the pseudonym " <unk> " . 
 
 = = Scheduling and preparations = = 
 
 As the Bosnian War ended in 1995 and the Siege of Sarajevo in 1996 , the stability of the region began to improve . Realizing this , U2 began to plan a concert for Sarajevo that would take place on their 1997 PopMart Tour . Although they were the first major musical artist to perform in the city following the war , China Drum had played a concert in July 1996 . Music journalist Andrew Mueller described China Drum 's experience in a single van as a " logistical and administrative nightmare " . <unk> Sacirbey , the Bosnian Ambassador to the United Nations , helped U2 make arrangements , playing an informal role as promoter and organizer . McGuinness said , " We thought it was going to be quite difficult . But it 's been quite straightforward . People have just wanted to help . We 've <unk> a lot of equipment , <unk> and so on , from the military , and the local crew have been incredibly supportive . " 
 Scheduling the concert meant a financial loss of £ 500 @,@ 000 for the band , despite sponsorship from Coca @-@ Cola and <unk> . Ticket prices were set at just DM 8 ( £ 8 , US $ 18 ) , because of the 50 percent unemployment rate in the city . Bono offered for the group to perform a benefit concert or small show in Sarajevo , but the city requested they hold the full PopMart show . Bono said , " We offered to do a charity gig here , just turn up and do a scratch gig , but they wanted the whole fucking thing . They wanted the lemon ! " McGuinness added , " we felt it was important that we treat this as another city on the tour , to pay them that respect . To come here and not do the whole show would have been rude . " According to news releases following the concert , the total net income for the show was US $ 13 @,@ 500 ; however , tour promoter John <unk> noted that price did not include the costs of the production or transportation . 
 As late as July 1997 , U2 were pressured to accept an offer of approximately $ 4 million to perform in Basel , Switzerland on the date scheduled for the Sarajevo show . At the time , rumours about the region 's instability persisted . To ensure the Sarajevo show was not canceled , Sacirbey appeared at many of the band 's preceding shows to lobby on behalf of the city . For the stage to reach Sarajevo , the road crew had to drive the equipment and stage through war @-@ torn Bosnia . Although the trip was without incident , they had to pass through towns such as Mostar , which had been " obliterated " during the war . Stage and lighting designer Willie Williams commented that " when the truck drivers arrived you could see that they were changed men " . The only trouble in transporting the stage came when a border control agent prevented them from crossing the border for hours . The trucks reached Sarajevo two days prior to the concert , arriving to the cheers and applause of the city 's residents ; their arrival was the first concrete evidence that the band were keeping their promise to play there . McGuinness explained , " This is a city that 's been disappointed so many times there were a lot of people who weren 't prepared to believe the gig was going to take place until they saw the stage going up . " Until then , tickets had sold very slowly , but within 24 hours of the trucks ' arrival , another 8 @,@ 000 tickets were sold . Despite this , a day before the concert , 15 @,@ 000 tickets remained <unk> . Three @-@ hundred local residents were employed to help assemble the stage and promote the show . 
 Several hundred members of the international " <unk> Force " ( SFOR ) were tasked with upholding the Dayton Agreement for the concert . The band were overwhelmed by the sights they saw when arriving . During the war , <unk> Stadium was used as a morgue , and <unk> were present on either sides . Although the venue had escaped the worst of the shelling , the nearby Olympic Hall <unk> had been badly damaged during the war . Despite its condition , U2 used the building for their dressing rooms and offices . Following the concert , it was used to provide lodging for 3 @,@ 000 fans . The band 's hotel , a nearby Holiday Inn , had been shelled during the siege , and part of the building had been destroyed as a result . The walls in Mullen 's room were <unk> with mortar shrapnel , and sections of the floor were also missing . Prior to the show , Sacirbey took Mullen on a tour of the city , showing him the Sarajevo Roses embedded in the streets . 
 On the day of the concert , trains ran into Sarajevo for the first time since the start of the war . Two lines were opened , one from Mostar to Sarajevo and the other from <unk> to Sarajevo . Although the railways had been functional for the duration of the war , Muslim and Croat politicians could not decide who would operate them . As a result , the trains were only run on the date of the concert to bring fans to the city , and the day after to take them home again . <unk> requirements were temporarily suspended . An effort was made to include all of the country 's ethnic groups at the concert . Approximately 500 fans crossed the ethnic boundary lines between Bosnia 's Serb Republic and the <unk> @-@ Croat Federation . People from several of the other <unk> republics went to Sarajevo for the concert , with buses carrying fans from Zagreb , Croatia and <unk> , Slovenia . Security around the event was strict . SFOR soldiers searched for bombs with <unk> dogs , and the buildings around the stadium were lined with Irish troops and <unk> in case violence broke out . 
 
 = = Concert overview = = 
 
 The concert was held on 23 September 1997 , and approximately 45 @,@ 000 people attended . It was broadcast in Bosnia by local television networks , as well as globally by BBC . During the event , 10 @,@ 000 soldiers stood on the left side of the stadium to ensure no conflicts broke out . At <unk> , a decision was made to open the stadium gates to all , allowing approximately 10 @,@ 000 more fans who could not afford the concert or who had not purchased tickets in time to attend . In addition to the local and foreign fans , 6 @,@ 000 off @-@ duty SFOR soldiers attended the event in uniform . <unk> Nogić attended the concert and arrived in a <unk> with the band . The concert was broadcast live internationally on radio , and all proceeds from the radio sales were donated to the War Child project . 
 Three opening acts played before U2 , beginning with the Gazi <unk> @-@ <unk> choir , an Islamic choir from a local high school . Their performance was followed by two local bands , <unk> and <unk> , one of which was chosen personally by Sacirbey , and the other which was selected through a radio contest . Following the opening acts , musician <unk> B performed a DJ set before U2 took the stage . 
 The band 's set list was similar to that of most shows on the PopMart Tour , but with " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in place of The Edge 's karaoke segment and the addition of " Miss Sarajevo " in the second encore . The night was a celebration of the end of the war , with Bono setting the tone by shouting out " Viva Sarajevo ! <unk> the past , kiss the future ! " at the beginning of " Even Better Than the Real Thing " . Bono had struggled with his voice throughout the tour , and the morning of the concert he <unk> up " without a voice " . There was no intent to cancel , and the show went ahead as planned . Though Bono had few difficulties through the opening quartet of " <unk> " , " I Will Follow " , " Gone " , and " Even Better Than the Real Thing " , his voice gave out during " Last Night on Earth " . In 2006 , The Edge suggested that Bono 's vocal troubles had been caused by <unk> or by the stress of the previous few months of touring , though he later remarked that " it didn 't really matter that our lead singer was under the weather because every member of the audience seemed to join in on every song . There was a mass chorus for the whole concert . " 
 At various points during " Until the End of the World " and " New Year 's Day " , Bono <unk> for the audience to help him with the vocals , and by the eighth song of the night , " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , he was reduced to speaking the lyrics instead of singing them . The band continued with their standard set list by playing " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " , " Stand By Me " , " All I Want Is You " , and " <unk> at the Sun " . U2 considered playing " Desire " after " All I Want Is You " , but they chose not to perform the song . The Edge then performed a solo version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . The rendition was slower and quieter than the studio version . During the song , Bono went backstage for <unk> <unk> , which helped to improve his voice for a short time . Brian Eno was prepared to go on stage to replace Bono if he could not continue , or to sing alongside him . Bono ultimately returned to the stage alone for the next song , " Bullet the Blue Sky " , and the band continued with renditions of " Please " and " Where the Streets Have No Name " , which concluded the main set . 
 In the interlude before the first encore , U2 had a worried discussion over the introduction to " Miss Sarajevo " . The song had only been played once prior — at a benefit concert in 1995 with Bono , The Edge , Eno , and Pavarotti . They returned to the stage and played " <unk> " , " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " , " With or Without You " , and a rough version of " Miss Sarajevo " . Pavarotti was not at the concert to sing his part and so an antique <unk> was brought onto the stage in his place . Eno came on stage to sing backing vocals , and Bono invited Nogić on stage during the chorus . During the song , the video screen showed images from Carter 's Miss Sarajevo documentary , including footage of the girls taking part in the beauty contest and the banner reading " Please don 't let them kill us " . Bono apologized for the rocky performance at the end of the song , saying " Sarajevo , this song was written for you . I hope you like it , because we can 't fucking play it . " The concert concluded with a second encore of " <unk> Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , " <unk> Ways " , " One " , and an abbreviated cover of " <unk> Melody " . 
 After the band had walked <unk> , in a move described by NME as the most meaningful of the concert , the audience faced the troops in the stadium and broke into a spontaneous round of applause , which quickly turned into an ovation — an act which the soldiers mimicked in turn . 
 
 = = Reaction = = 
 
 The day after the concert in Sarajevo , a local newspaper carried an editorial which was <unk> , " Today was the day the siege of Sarajevo ended " . In reaction to the event , a Bosnian student told members of the international press , " I felt excluded from the world for so long . It 's not only about U2 . It 's the feeling of being part of the world . " A local resident said that the concert was " proof that we have peace here , that everything is OK " . Fans from outside the former Yugoslavia described Sarajevo as " an oasis of light " in the midst of destroyed and fire @-@ damaged buildings , and deserted villages . Despite the <unk> performance , the Associated Press said , " For two magical hours , the rock band U2 achieved what warriors , politicians and diplomats could not : They united Bosnia . " Andrew Mueller of The Independent wrote , " For the first time since the start of the war in 1992 , people more accustomed to seeing each other through the sights of a rifle were <unk> on the capital to listen to music together . It was a reminder of prewar Sarajevo , home to some of old Yugoslavia 's best rock bands . " Sacirbey stated that he was satisfied that the concert " was held to promote a sense of normalcy , peace and reconciliation in Sarajevo and not to raise money . " He also expressed thanks on behalf of President <unk> <unk> , who described the concert as a " landmark event " . 
 Mullen and The Edge both agreed that playing the Sarajevo concert had been the highlight of their careers ; Mullen said , " [ t ] here 's no doubt that that is an experience I will never forget for the rest of my life . And if I had to spend 20 years in the band just to play that show , [ ... ] I think it would have been worthwhile . " Bono described it as " one of the toughest and one of the sweetest nights of my life " , saying of the audience , " I think they wanted , more than anything , a return to normalcy . That 's what these people want , it 's what they deserve . " He also speculated that the loss of his voice had " allowed room for Sarajevo to take the gig away from us . They could see that things could go horribly wrong , they 'd gone to a lot of trouble to come here , and they were just going to make it happen . And they did . " After the completion of the PopMart Tour , he said , " it was amazing and <unk> to discover that on our most ' pop ' of tours some of the best shows were in political <unk> like Santiago , Sarajevo , Tel Aviv [ ... ] anywhere music meant more than entertainment " . Following the concert , President <unk> presented Bono with an honorary Bosnian passport , in recognition of his humanitarian efforts during the war . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 The peaceful nature of the U2 concert was fleeting , as violence flared up in the region the following year with the Kosovo War . NATO troops remained in Sarajevo until 2004 , while European Union peace @-@ keeping troops remain in the city . 
 Following the Sarajevo concert , The Edge 's solo performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was performed at the majority of shows for the remainder of the tour , and a recording of the song from the Sarajevo concert was released on the CD single for " If God Will <unk> His Angels " on 8 December 1997 ; The Edge later stated the band had " rediscovered " the song in Sarajevo after his solo performance . A short documentary about the concert , Missing Sarajevo , was included on the DVD release of U2 's 2002 video compilation , The Best of 1990 @-@ 2000 . 
 After U2 first performed " Miss Sarajevo " at the Sarajevo concert , it was not performed again until the second leg of the Vertigo Tour in 2005 . U2 did not return to perform in any country in the former Yugoslavia until August 2009 , when they performed two shows in Zagreb during the U2 360 ° Tour . During the Zagreb shows , Bono stated that his honorary Bosnian passport was one of his " most <unk> possessions " , which prompted the country 's Council of Ministers to announce that his passport was to be revoked , citing how country 's laws do not allow honorary <unk> to be conferred . 
 
 
 = Frank Slide = 
 
 The Frank Slide was a <unk> that buried part of the mining town of Frank , Alberta , Canada . The province of Alberta was not created until September 1905 , more than two years after the slide . The community was still part of the Northwest Territories when the incident occurred at 4 : 10 am on April 29 , 1903 . Over 82 million tonnes ( 90 million tons ) of limestone rock <unk> down Turtle Mountain within 100 seconds , <unk> the eastern edge of Frank , the Canadian Pacific Railway line and the coal mine . It was one of the largest landslides in Canadian history and remains the deadliest , as between 70 and 90 of the town 's residents were killed , most of whom remain buried in the rubble . Multiple factors led to the slide : Turtle Mountain 's formation left it in a constant state of instability . Coal mining operations may have weakened the mountain 's internal structure , as did a wet winter and cold snap on the night of the disaster . 
 The railway was repaired within three weeks and the mine was quickly reopened . The section of town closest to the mountain was relocated in 1911 amid fears that another slide was possible . The town 's population nearly doubled its pre @-@ slide population by 1906 , but dwindled after the mine closed permanently in 1917 . The community is now part of the Municipality of Crowsnest Pass in the Province of Alberta and has a population around 200 . The site of the disaster , which remains nearly unchanged since the slide , is now a popular tourist destination . It has been designated a Provincial Historic Site of Alberta and is home to an interpretive centre that receives over 100 @,@ 000 visitors annually . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 The town of Frank was founded in the southwestern corner of the District of Alberta , a <unk> of the Northwest Territories in 1901 . A location was chosen near the base of Turtle Mountain in the Crowsnest Pass , where coal had been discovered one year earlier . It was named after Henry Frank who , along with Samuel <unk> , owned the Canadian @-@ American Coal and Coke Company , which operated the mine that the town was created to support . The pair celebrated the founding of the town on September 10 , 1901 , with a gala opening that featured speeches from territorial leaders , sporting events , a dinner and tours of the mine and planned layout for the community . The Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) ran special trains that brought over 1 @,@ 400 people from neighbouring communities to celebrate the event . By April 1903 , the permanent population had reached 600 , and the town featured a two @-@ storey school and four hotels . 
 Turtle Mountain stands immediately south of Frank . It consists of an older limestone layer folded over on top of softer materials such as shale and sandstone . <unk> had left the mountain with a steep overhang of its limestone layer . It has long been unstable ; the Blackfoot and <unk> peoples called it " the mountain that moves " and refused to camp in its vicinity . In the weeks leading up to the disaster , miners occasionally felt <unk> from within the mountain , while the pressure created by the shifting rock sometimes caused the timbers supporting the mine shafts to crack and splinter . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 In the early morning hours of April 29 , 1903 , a freight train pulled out of the mine and was slowly making its way towards the <unk> when the crew heard a <unk> <unk> behind them . The engineer instinctively set the <unk> to full speed ahead and <unk> his train to safety across the bridge over the Crowsnest River . At 4 : 10 am , 30 million cubic metres ( 82 million tonnes ) of limestone rock broke off the peak of Turtle Mountain . The section that broke was 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) wide , 425 metres ( 1 @,@ 394 ft ) high and 150 metres ( 490 ft ) deep . Witnesses to the disaster claimed it took about 100 seconds for the slide to reach up the opposing hills , indicating the mass of rock traveled at a speed of about 112 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) . The sound was heard as far away as <unk> , over 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) north of Frank . 
 Initial reports on the disaster indicated that Frank had been " nearly wiped out " by the mountain 's collapse . It was thought the <unk> was triggered by an earthquake , volcanic eruption or explosion within the mine . The majority of the town survived , but the slide buried buildings on the eastern outskirts of Frank . Seven cottages were destroyed , as were several businesses , the cemetery , a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) stretch of road and railroad tracks , and all of the mine 's buildings . 
 Approximately 100 people lived in the path of destruction , located between the CPR tracks and the river . The death toll is uncertain ; estimates range between 70 and 90 . It is the deadliest landslide in Canadian history and was the largest until the Hope Slide in 1965 . It is possible that the toll may have been higher , since as many as 50 <unk> had been camped at the base of the mountain while looking for work . Some residents believed that they had left Frank shortly before the slide , though there is no way to be certain . Most of the victims remain <unk> beneath the rocks ; only 12 bodies were recovered in the immediate aftermath . The skeletons of six additional victims were unearthed in 1924 by crews building a new road through the slide . 
 Initial news reports stated that between 50 and 60 men were within the mountain and had been buried with no hope of survival . In reality , there were 20 miners working the night shift at the time of the disaster . Three had been outside the mine and were killed by the slide . The remaining 17 were underground . They discovered that the entrance was blocked and water from the river , which had been <unk> by the slide , was coming in via a secondary tunnel . They unsuccessfully tried to dig their way through the blocked entrance before one miner suggested he knew of a seam of coal that reached the surface . Working a narrow tunnel in pairs and <unk> , they dug through the coal for hours as the air around them became increasingly toxic . Only three men still had enough energy to continue digging when they broke through to the surface late in the afternoon . The opening was too dangerous to escape from due to falling rocks from above . Encouraged by their success , the miners cut a new shaft that broke through under an <unk> of rock that protected them from falling debris . Thirteen hours after they were buried , all 17 men emerged from the mountain . 
 The miners found that the row of cottages that served as their homes had been devastated and some of their families killed , seemingly at random . One found his family alive and safe in a makeshift hospital , but another emerged to discover his wife and four children had died . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old <unk> Clark , working a late shift that night in the town 's boarding house , had been given permission to stay overnight for the first time . She was the only member of her family to survive . Her father was working outside the mine when the slide hit , while her mother and six siblings were buried in their home . All 12 men living at the CPR work camp were killed , but 128 more who were scheduled to move into the camp the day before the slide had not arrived — the train that was supposed to take them there from <unk> , British Columbia , failed to pick them up . The Spokane <unk> , a passenger train heading west from <unk> , was saved by CPR <unk> Sid <unk> , one of two men who rushed across the rock @-@ <unk> ground to warn the train that the track had been buried under the slide . Through falling rocks and a dust cloud that impaired his visibility , <unk> ran for 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to warn the oncoming <unk> of the danger . The CPR gave him a letter of commendation and a $ 25 <unk> in recognition of his heroism . 
 
 = = = Aftermath = = = 
 
 Early on April 30 a special train from Fort <unk> arrived with police officers and doctors . Premier Frederick <unk> arrived at the disaster site on May 1 , where he met with engineers who had investigated the top of Turtle Mountain . Though new fissures had formed at the peak , they felt there was limited further risk to the town ; the CPR 's chief engineer was convinced that Frank was in imminent danger from another slide . <unk> with the latter , <unk> ordered the town evacuated , and the Geological Survey of Canada ( GSC ) sent two of its top geologists to investigate further . They reported that the slide had created two new peaks on the mountain and that the north peak , overlooking the town , was not in imminent danger of collapse . As a result , the evacuation order was lifted on May 10 and Frank 's citizens returned . The North @-@ West Mounted Police , reinforced by officers who arrived from <unk> , <unk> and Calgary , kept tight control of the town and ensured that no cases of looting occurred during the evacuation . 
 Clearing the Canadian Pacific Railway line was of paramount importance . Approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the main line had been buried under the slide , along with part of an auxiliary line . The CPR had the line cleared and rebuilt within three weeks . Intent on reopening the mine , workers opened passageways to the old mine works by May 30 . To their <unk> , they discovered that Charlie the horse , one of three who worked in the mine , had survived for over a month underground . The horse had <unk> by eating the bark off the timber supports and by drinking from pools of water . The horse died when his rescuers <unk> him on oats and brandy . 
 The town 's population not only recovered but grew ; the 1906 census of the Canadian <unk> listed the population at 1 @,@ 178 . A new study commissioned by the Dominion government determined that the cracks in the mountain continued to grow and that the risk of another slide remained . Consequently , parts of Frank closest to the mountain were dismantled or relocated to safer areas . 
 
 = = Causes = = 
 
 Several factors led to the Frank Slide . A study conducted by the GSC immediately following the slide concluded that the primary cause was the mountain 's unstable <unk> formation ; a layer of limestone rested on top of softer materials that , after years of erosion , resulted in a top @-@ heavy , steep cliff . <unk> laced the eastern face of the mountain while underground fissures allowed water to flow into the mountain 's core . Local Indigenous peoples of the area , the Blackfoot and <unk> , had oral traditions referring to the peak as " the mountain that moves . " <unk> noticed the mountain had become increasingly unstable in the months preceding the slide ; they felt small <unk> and the superintendent reported a " general <unk> " in the mountain at depths between 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) and 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . They found that coal broke from its seam ; it was said to have practically mined itself . 
 An unusually warm winter , with warm days and cold nights , was also a factor . Water in the mountain 's fissures froze and <unk> repeatedly , further weakening the mountain 's supports . Heavy snowfall in the region in March was followed by a warm April , causing the mountain <unk> to melt into the fissures . GSC geologists concluded that the weather conditions that night likely triggered the slide . The crew of the freight train that arrived at Frank shortly before the disaster said it was the coldest night of the winter , with overnight temperatures falling below − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) . Geologists speculated that the cold snap and rapid freezing resulted in expansion of the fissures , causing the limestone to break off and tumble down the mountain . 
 Though the GSC concluded that mining activities contributed to the slide , the facility 's owners disagreed . Their engineers claimed that the mine bore no responsibility . Later studies suggested that the mountain had been at a point of " equilibrium " ; even a small <unk> such as that caused by the mine 's existence would have helped trigger a slide . The mine was quickly re @-@ opened , even though rock continued to tumble down the mountain . Coal production at Frank peaked in 1910 , but the mine was permanently closed in 1917 after it became unprofitable . 
 The slide created two new peaks on the mountain ; the south peak stands 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) high and the north peak 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . Geologists believe that another slide is inevitable , though not imminent . The south peak is considered the most likely to fall ; it would likely create a slide about one @-@ sixth the size of the 1903 slide . The mountain , continuously monitored for changes in stability , has been studied on numerous occasions . The Alberta Geological Survey operates a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art monitoring system used by researchers around the world . Over 80 monitoring stations have been placed on the face of the mountain to provide an early warning system for area residents in case of another slide . 
 Geologists have debated about what caused the slide debris to travel the distance it did . The " air cushion " theory , an early hypothesis , postulated that a layer of air was trapped between the mass of rock and the mountain , which caused the rock to move a greater distance than would otherwise be expected . " Acoustic <unk> " is another theory , which suggests that large masses of material create seismic energy that reduces friction and causes the debris to flow down the mountain as though it is a fluid . Geologists created the term " debris avalanche " to describe the Frank Slide . 
 
 = = Legends = = 
 
 Numerous legends and <unk> were spawned in the aftermath of the slide . The entire town of Frank was claimed to have been buried , though much of the town itself was unscathed . The belief that a branch of the Union Bank of Canada had been buried with as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 persisted for many years . The bank — <unk> by the slide — remained in the same location until it was demolished in 1911 , after which the buried treasure legend arose . Crews building a new road through the pass in 1924 operated under police guard as it was believed they could <unk> the supposedly buried bank . 
 Several people , telling amazing stories to those who would listen , passed themselves off as the " sole survivor " in the years following the slide . The most common such tale is that of an infant girl said to have been the only survivor of the slide . Her real name unknown , the girl was called " Frankie Slide " . Several stories were told of her <unk> escape : she was found in a <unk> of hay , lying on rocks , under the collapsed roof of her house or in the arms of her dead mother . The legend was based primarily on the story of Marion <unk> , who was thrown from her home into a pile of hay when the slide enveloped her home . Her sisters also survived ; they were found unharmed under a collapsed ceiling <unk> . Her parents and four brothers died . <unk> the story was the survival of two @-@ year @-@ old Gladys Ennis , who was found outside her home in the mud . The last survivor of the slide , she died in 1995 . In total , 23 people in the path of the slide survived , in addition to the 17 miners who escaped from the tunnels under Turtle Mountain . A ballad by Ed <unk> featuring the story of Frankie Slide was popular in parts of Canada in the 1950s . The slide has formed the basis of other songs , including " How the Mountain <unk> Down " by <unk> ' Tom Connors , and more recently , " Frank , <unk> " by The Rural Alberta <unk> . The Frank Slide has been the subject of several books , both historical and fictional . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 Curious <unk> flocked to the site of the slide within the day of the disaster . It has remained a popular tourist destination , in part due to its proximity to the Crowsnest Highway . The province built a roadside turnout in 1941 to accommodate the traffic . Town <unk> unsuccessfully sought to have the site designated as a National Historic Site in 1958 . It was later designated a Provincial Historic Site of Alberta . The provincial government designated the slide area a restricted development zone in 1976 , which prevents alteration of the site . In 1978 , a memorial plaque was erected . The Frank Slide <unk> Centre , within sight of the mountain , was opened in 1985 . A museum and tourist stop document the Frank Slide and the region 's coal mining history . The site receives over 100 @,@ 000 tourist visits annually . 
 Though Frank recovered from the slide and achieved a peak population of 1 @,@ 000 shortly thereafter , the closure of the mine resulted in a longstanding decline in population . Frank ceased to be an independent community in 1979 when it was amalgamated into the Municipality of Crowsnest Pass along with the neighbouring communities of <unk> , Coleman , <unk> and Bellevue . Frank is now home to about 200 residents . 
 
 
 = Protein = 
 
 Proteins ( / <unk> / or / <unk> / ) are large biomolecules , or macromolecules , consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues . Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms , including <unk> metabolic reactions , DNA replication , responding to <unk> , and transporting molecules from one location to another . Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids , which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes , and which usually results in protein folding into a specific three @-@ dimensional structure that determines its activity . 
 A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide . A protein contains at least one long polypeptide . Short polypeptides , containing less than 20 @-@ 30 residues , are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides , or sometimes <unk> . The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues . The sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene , which is encoded in the genetic code . In general , the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids ; however , in certain organisms the genetic code can include <unk> and — in certain archaea — <unk> . Shortly after or even during synthesis , the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by post @-@ <unk> modification , which alters the physical and chemical properties , folding , stability , activity , and ultimately , the function of the proteins . Sometimes proteins have non @-@ peptide groups attached , which can be called prosthetic groups or <unk> . Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function , and they often associate to form stable protein complexes . 
 Once formed , proteins only exist for a certain period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cell 's machinery through the process of protein turnover . A protein 's lifespan is measured in terms of its half @-@ life and covers a wide range . They can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1 – 2 days in mammalian cells . <unk> and or <unk> proteins are degraded more rapidly either due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable . 
 Like other biological macromolecules such as <unk> and nucleic acids , proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells . Many proteins are enzymes that <unk> biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism . Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions , such as actin and <unk> in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton , which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape . Other proteins are important in cell signaling , immune responses , cell <unk> , and the cell cycle . In animals , proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized . <unk> breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism . 
 Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as <unk> , precipitation , electrophoresis , and chromatography ; the advent of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification . Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function include <unk> , site @-@ directed <unk> , X @-@ ray crystallography , nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L @-@ α @-@ amino acids . All <unk> amino acids possess common structural features , including an α @-@ carbon to which an amino group , a <unk> group , and a variable side chain are bonded . Only <unk> differs from this basic structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N @-@ end amine group , which forces the CO – <unk> <unk> <unk> into a fixed conformation . The side chains of the standard amino acids , detailed in the list of standard amino acids , have a great variety of chemical structures and properties ; it is the combined effect of all of the amino acid side chains in a protein that ultimately determines its three @-@ dimensional structure and its chemical reactivity . The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are linked by peptide bonds . Once linked in the protein chain , an individual amino acid is called a residue , and the linked series of carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen atoms are known as the main chain or protein backbone . 
 The peptide bond has two resonance forms that contribute some double @-@ bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis , so that the alpha <unk> are roughly <unk> . The other two dihedral angles in the peptide bond determine the local shape assumed by the protein backbone . The end of the protein with a free <unk> group is known as the C @-@ terminus or <unk> terminus , whereas the end with a free amino group is known as the N @-@ terminus or amino terminus . The words protein , polypeptide , and peptide are a little ambiguous and can overlap in meaning . Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable conformation , whereas peptide is generally reserved for a short amino acid <unk> often lacking a stable three @-@ dimensional structure . However , the boundary between the two is not well defined and usually lies near 20 – 30 residues . <unk> can refer to any single linear chain of amino acids , usually regardless of length , but often implies an absence of a defined conformation . 
 
 = = = <unk> in cells = = = 
 
 It has been estimated that average @-@ sized bacteria contain about 2 million proteins per cell ( e.g. E. coli and <unk> <unk> ) . Smaller bacteria , such as <unk> or <unk> contain fewer molecules , namely on the order of 50 @,@ 000 to 1 million . By contrast , eukaryotic cells are larger and thus contain much more protein . For instance , yeast cells were estimated to contain about 50 million proteins and human cells on the order of 1 to 3 billion . Note that bacterial <unk> encode about 10 times fewer proteins than humans ( e.g. small bacteria ~ 1 @,@ 000 , E. coli : ~ 4 @,@ 000 , yeast : ~ 6 @,@ 000 , human : ~ 20 @,@ 000 ) . 
 <unk> , the concentration of individual proteins ranges from a few molecules per cell to hundreds of thousands . In fact , about a third of all proteins is not produced in most cells or only induced under certain circumstances . For instance , of the 20 @,@ 000 or so proteins encoded by the human genome only 6 @,@ 000 are detected in <unk> cells . 
 
 = = Synthesis = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Proteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes . Each protein has its own unique amino acid sequence that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding this protein . The genetic code is a set of three @-@ nucleotide sets called codons and each three @-@ nucleotide combination <unk> an amino acid , for example <unk> ( <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> ) is the code for <unk> . Because DNA contains four <unk> , the total number of possible codons is 64 ; hence , there is some <unk> in the genetic code , with some amino acids specified by more than one codon . <unk> encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre @-@ messenger RNA ( mRNA ) by proteins such as RNA polymerase . Most organisms then process the pre @-@ mRNA ( also known as a primary transcript ) using various forms of Post @-@ transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA , which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome . In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is produced , or be bound by a ribosome after having moved away from the <unk> . In contrast , eukaryotes make mRNA in the cell nucleus and then <unk> it across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm , where protein synthesis then takes place . The rate of protein synthesis is higher in prokaryotes than eukaryotes and can reach up to 20 amino acids per second . 
 The process of <unk> a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation . The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three <unk> at a time by matching each codon to its base pairing <unk> located on a transfer RNA molecule , which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes . The enzyme <unk> tRNA <unk> " charges " the tRNA molecules with the correct amino acids . The growing polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain . Proteins are always <unk> from N @-@ terminus to C @-@ terminus . 
 The size of a synthesized protein can be measured by the number of amino acids it contains and by its total molecular mass , which is normally reported in units of <unk> ( synonymous with atomic mass units ) , or the derivative unit <unk> ( kDa ) . <unk> proteins are on average <unk> amino acids long and 53 kDa in mass . The largest known proteins are the <unk> , a component of the muscle <unk> , with a molecular mass of almost 3 @,@ 000 kDa and a total length of almost 27 @,@ 000 amino acids . 
 
 = = = Chemical synthesis = = = 
 
 Short proteins can also be synthesized chemically by a family of methods known as peptide synthesis , which rely on organic synthesis techniques such as chemical <unk> to produce peptides in high yield . Chemical synthesis allows for the introduction of non @-@ natural amino acids into polypeptide chains , such as attachment of fluorescent probes to amino acid side chains . These methods are useful in laboratory <unk> and cell biology , though generally not for commercial applications . Chemical synthesis is inefficient for polypeptides longer than about 300 amino acids , and the synthesized proteins may not readily assume their native tertiary structure . Most chemical synthesis methods proceed from C @-@ terminus to N @-@ terminus , opposite the biological reaction . 
 
 = = Structure = = 
 
 Most proteins fold into unique 3 @-@ dimensional structures . The shape into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation . Although many proteins can fold <unk> , simply through the chemical properties of their amino acids , others require the aid of molecular <unk> to fold into their native states . <unk> often refer to four distinct aspects of a protein 's structure : 
 Primary structure : the amino acid sequence . A protein is a <unk> . 
 Secondary structure : regularly repeating local structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds . The most common examples are the α @-@ helix , β @-@ sheet and turns . Because secondary structures are local , many regions of different secondary structure can be present in the same protein molecule . 
 Tertiary structure : the overall shape of a single protein molecule ; the spatial relationship of the secondary structures to one another . Tertiary structure is generally stabilized by <unk> interactions , most commonly the formation of a hydrophobic core , but also through salt bridges , hydrogen bonds , <unk> bonds , and even <unk> modifications . The term " tertiary structure " is often used as synonymous with the term fold . The tertiary structure is what controls the basic function of the protein . 
 <unk> structure : the structure formed by several protein molecules ( polypeptide chains ) , usually called protein subunits in this context , which function as a single protein complex . 
 Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules . In addition to these levels of structure , proteins may shift between several related structures while they perform their functions . In the context of these functional <unk> , these tertiary or <unk> structures are usually referred to as " conformations " , and transitions between them are called conformational changes . Such changes are often induced by the binding of a substrate molecule to an enzyme 's active site , or the physical region of the protein that <unk> in chemical catalysis . In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and the collision with other molecules . 
 Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes , which <unk> with typical tertiary structures : globular proteins , fibrous proteins , and membrane proteins . Almost all globular proteins are soluble and many are enzymes . <unk> proteins are often structural , such as <unk> , the major component of <unk> tissue , or keratin , the protein component of hair and nails . Membrane proteins often serve as receptors or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane . 
 A special case of <unk> hydrogen bonds within proteins , poorly shielded from water attack and hence promoting their own <unk> , are called <unk> . 
 
 = = = Structure determination = = = 
 
 <unk> the tertiary structure of a protein , or the <unk> structure of its complexes , can provide important clues about how the protein performs its function . Common experimental methods of structure determination include X @-@ ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy , both of which can produce information at atomic resolution . However , NMR experiments are able to provide information from which a subset of distances between pairs of atoms can be estimated , and the final possible conformations for a protein are determined by solving a distance geometry problem . Dual <unk> <unk> is a <unk> analytical method for measuring the overall protein conformation and conformational changes due to interactions or other stimulus . <unk> <unk> is another laboratory technique for determining internal β @-@ sheet / α @-@ helical composition of proteins . <unk> microscopy is used to produce lower @-@ resolution structural information about very large protein complexes , including assembled viruses ; a variant known as electron crystallography can also produce high @-@ resolution information in some cases , especially for two @-@ dimensional crystals of membrane proteins . <unk> structures are usually deposited in the Protein Data Bank ( PDB ) , a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained in the form of <unk> coordinates for each atom in the protein . 
 Many more gene sequences are known than protein structures . Further , the set of solved structures is biased toward proteins that can be easily subjected to the conditions required in X @-@ ray crystallography , one of the major structure determination methods . In particular , globular proteins are comparatively easy to <unk> in preparation for X @-@ ray crystallography . Membrane proteins , by contrast , are difficult to <unk> and are <unk> in the PDB . Structural genomics initiatives have attempted to remedy these deficiencies by systematically solving representative structures of major fold classes . Protein structure prediction methods attempt to provide a means of generating a plausible structure for proteins whose structures have not been experimentally determined . 
 
 = = Cellular functions = = 
 
 Proteins are the chief actors within the cell , said to be carrying out the duties specified by the information encoded in genes . With the exception of certain types of RNA , most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act . Proteins make up half the dry weight of an <unk> coli cell , whereas other macromolecules such as DNA and RNA make up only 3 % and 20 % , respectively . The set of proteins expressed in a particular cell or cell type is known as its <unk> . 
 The chief characteristic of proteins that also allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly . The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the binding site and is often a depression or " pocket " on the molecular surface . This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein , which defines the binding site pocket , and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids ' side chains . Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific ; for example , the ribonuclease inhibitor protein binds to human <unk> with a sub @-@ <unk> <unk> constant ( < 10 − 15 M ) but does not bind at all to its amphibian <unk> <unk> ( > 1 M ) . <unk> minor chemical changes such as the addition of a single methyl group to a binding partner can sometimes <unk> to nearly eliminate binding ; for example , the <unk> tRNA <unk> specific to the amino acid <unk> <unk> against the very similar side chain of the amino acid <unk> . 
 Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to small @-@ molecule substrates . When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule , they can <unk> to form fibrils ; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self @-@ associate to form rigid fibers . Protein – protein interactions also regulate enzymatic activity , control progression through the cell cycle , and allow the assembly of large protein complexes that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function . Proteins can also bind to , or even be integrated into , cell membranes . The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex signaling networks . <unk> , as interactions between proteins are <unk> , and depend heavily on the availability of different groups of partner proteins to form <unk> that are capable to carry out discrete sets of function , study of the interactions between specific proteins is a key to understand important aspects of cellular function , and ultimately the properties that distinguish particular cell types . 
 
 = = = Enzymes = = = 
 
 The best @-@ known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes , which <unk> chemical reactions . Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few chemical reactions . Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism , as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication , DNA repair , and transcription . Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical groups in a process known as <unk> modification . About 4 @,@ 000 reactions are known to be <unk> by enzymes . The rate acceleration conferred by enzymatic catalysis is often enormous — as much as <unk> @-@ fold increase in rate over the <unk> reaction in the case of <unk> <unk> ( 78 million years without the enzyme , 18 <unk> with the enzyme ) . 
 The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates . Although enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids , it is usually only a small fraction of the residues that come in contact with the substrate , and an even smaller fraction — three to four residues on average — that are directly involved in catalysis . The region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is known as the active site . 
 <unk> proteins are members of a class of proteins that <unk> the <unk> of a compound synthesized by other enzymes . 
 
 = = = Cell signaling and ligand binding = = = 
 
 Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction . Some proteins , such as insulin , are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues . Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell . Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an <unk> domain within the cell , which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell . 
 Antibodies are protein components of an adaptive immune system whose main function is to bind <unk> , or foreign substances in the body , and target them for destruction . Antibodies can be <unk> into the extracellular environment or anchored in the membranes of specialized B cells known as plasma cells . Whereas enzymes are limited in their binding affinity for their substrates by the necessity of conducting their reaction , antibodies have no such constraints . An antibody 's binding affinity to its target is extraordinarily high . 
 Many ligand transport proteins bind particular small biomolecules and transport them to other locations in the body of a multicellular organism . These proteins must have a high binding affinity when their ligand is present in high concentrations , but must also release the ligand when it is present at low concentrations in the target tissues . The canonical example of a ligand @-@ binding protein is <unk> , which transports oxygen from the lungs to other organs and tissues in all vertebrates and has close <unk> in every biological kingdom . <unk> are sugar @-@ binding proteins which are highly specific for their sugar <unk> . <unk> typically play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins . <unk> and hormones are highly specific binding proteins . 
 <unk> proteins can also serve as ligand transport proteins that alter the <unk> of the cell membrane to small molecules and ions . The membrane alone has a hydrophobic core through which polar or charged molecules cannot diffuse . Membrane proteins contain internal channels that allow such molecules to enter and exit the cell . Many ion channel proteins are specialized to select for only a particular ion ; for example , potassium and sodium channels often discriminate for only one of the two ions . 
 
 = = = Structural proteins = = = 
 
 Structural proteins confer <unk> and <unk> to otherwise @-@ fluid biological components . Most structural proteins are fibrous proteins ; for example , <unk> and <unk> are critical components of <unk> tissue such as cartilage , and keratin is found in hard or <unk> structures such as hair , nails , feathers , hooves , and some animal shells . Some globular proteins can also play structural functions , for example , actin and <unk> are globular and soluble as monomers , but <unk> to form long , stiff fibers that make up the cytoskeleton , which allows the cell to maintain its shape and size . 
 Other proteins that serve structural functions are motor proteins such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , which are capable of generating mechanical forces . These proteins are crucial for cellular <unk> of single <unk> organisms and the sperm of many multicellular organisms which reproduce sexually . They also generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles and play essential roles in intracellular transport . 
 
 = = Methods of study = = 
 
 The activities and structures of proteins may be examined in vitro , in vivo , and in silico . In vitro studies of purified proteins in controlled environments are useful for learning how a protein carries out its function : for example , enzyme <unk> studies explore the chemical mechanism of an enzyme 's catalytic activity and its relative affinity for various possible substrate molecules . By contrast , in vivo experiments can provide information about the physiological role of a protein in the context of a cell or even a whole organism . In silico studies use computational methods to study proteins . 
 
 = = = Protein purification = = = 
 
 To perform in vitro analysis , a protein must be purified away from other cellular components . This process usually begins with cell <unk> , in which a cell 's membrane is disrupted and its internal contents released into a solution known as a crude lysate . The resulting mixture can be purified using <unk> , which <unk> the various cellular components into fractions containing soluble proteins ; membrane <unk> and proteins ; cellular organelles , and nucleic acids . Precipitation by a method known as <unk> out can concentrate the proteins from this lysate . Various types of chromatography are then used to isolate the protein or proteins of interest based on properties such as molecular weight , net charge and binding affinity . The level of purification can be monitored using various types of gel electrophoresis if the desired protein 's molecular weight and <unk> point are known , by spectroscopy if the protein has distinguishable spectroscopic features , or by enzyme assays if the protein has enzymatic activity . Additionally , proteins can be isolated according their charge using <unk> . 
 For natural proteins , a series of purification steps may be necessary to obtain protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications . To <unk> this process , genetic engineering is often used to add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to <unk> without affecting their structure or activity . Here , a " tag " consisting of a specific amino acid sequence , often a series of <unk> residues ( a " His @-@ tag " ) , is attached to one terminus of the protein . As a result , when the lysate is passed over a chromatography column containing nickel , the <unk> residues <unk> the nickel and attach to the column while the <unk> components of the lysate pass unimpeded . A number of different <unk> have been developed to help researchers <unk> specific proteins from complex mixtures . 
 
 = = = Cellular localization = = = 
 
 The study of proteins in vivo is often concerned with the synthesis and localization of the protein within the cell . Although many intracellular proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and membrane @-@ bound or <unk> proteins in the <unk> <unk> , the specifics of how proteins are targeted to specific organelles or cellular structures is often unclear . A useful technique for assessing cellular localization uses genetic engineering to express in a cell a fusion protein or <unk> consisting of the natural protein of interest linked to a " reporter " such as green fluorescent protein ( <unk> ) . The fused protein 's position within the cell can be cleanly and efficiently visualized using microscopy , as shown in the figure opposite . 
 Other methods for <unk> the cellular location of proteins requires the use of known <unk> markers for regions such as the ER , the <unk> , <unk> or <unk> , mitochondria , <unk> , plasma membrane , etc . With the use of <unk> <unk> versions of these markers or of antibodies to known markers , it becomes much simpler to identify the localization of a protein of interest . For example , indirect <unk> will allow for fluorescence <unk> and demonstration of location . <unk> <unk> are used to label cellular compartments for a similar purpose . 
 Other possibilities exist , as well . For example , <unk> usually utilizes an antibody to one or more proteins of interest that are conjugated to enzymes yielding either <unk> or <unk> signals that can be compared between samples , allowing for localization information . Another applicable technique is <unk> in <unk> ( or other material ) <unk> using <unk> <unk> . While this technique does not prove <unk> of a compartment of known density and the protein of interest , it does increase the likelihood , and is more amenable to large @-@ scale studies . 
 Finally , the gold @-@ standard method of cellular localization is <unk> microscopy . This technique also uses an antibody to the protein of interest , along with classical electron microscopy techniques . The sample is prepared for normal electron microscopic examination , and then treated with an antibody to the protein of interest that is conjugated to an extremely electro @-@ dense material , usually gold . This allows for the localization of both <unk> details as well as the protein of interest . 
 Through another genetic engineering application known as site @-@ directed <unk> , researchers can alter the protein sequence and hence its structure , cellular localization , and <unk> to regulation . This technique even allows the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins , using modified <unk> , and may allow the rational design of new proteins with novel properties . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The total complement of proteins present at a time in a cell or cell type is known as its <unk> , and the study of such large @-@ scale data sets defines the field of proteomics , named by analogy to the related field of genomics . Key experimental techniques in proteomics include 2D electrophoresis , which allows the separation of a large number of proteins , mass spectrometry , which allows rapid high @-@ <unk> identification of proteins and sequencing of peptides ( most often after in @-@ gel <unk> ) , protein <unk> , which allow the detection of the relative levels of a large number of proteins present in a cell , and two @-@ hybrid screening , which allows the systematic exploration of protein – protein interactions . The total complement of biologically possible such interactions is known as the <unk> . A systematic attempt to determine the structures of proteins representing every possible fold is known as structural genomics . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 A vast array of computational methods have been developed to analyze the structure , function , and evolution of proteins . 
 The development of such tools has been driven by the large amount of <unk> and <unk> data available for a variety of organisms , including the human genome . It is simply impossible to study all proteins experimentally , hence only a few are subjected to laboratory experiments while computational tools are used to <unk> to similar proteins . Such <unk> proteins can be efficiently identified in distantly related organisms by sequence alignment . <unk> and gene sequences can be searched by a variety of tools for certain properties . <unk> <unk> tools can find restriction enzyme sites , open reading frames in nucleotide sequences , and predict secondary structures . <unk> trees can be constructed and evolutionary hypotheses developed using special software like <unk> regarding the ancestry of modern organisms and the genes they express . The field of <unk> is now indispensable for the analysis of genes and proteins . 
 
 = = = = Structure prediction and simulation = = = = 
 
 <unk> to the field of structural genomics , protein structure prediction seeks to develop efficient ways to provide plausible models for proteins whose structures have not yet been determined experimentally . The most successful type of structure prediction , known as <unk> modeling , relies on the existence of a " template " structure with sequence similarity to the protein being modeled ; structural genomics ' goal is to provide sufficient representation in solved structures to model most of those that remain . Although producing accurate models remains a challenge when only distantly related template structures are available , it has been suggested that sequence alignment is the bottleneck in this process , as quite accurate models can be produced if a " perfect " sequence alignment is known . Many structure prediction methods have served to inform the emerging field of protein engineering , in which novel protein folds have already been designed . A more complex computational problem is the prediction of <unk> interactions , such as in molecular <unk> and protein – protein interaction prediction . 
 The processes of protein folding and binding can be simulated using such technique as molecular mechanics , in particular , molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo , which increasingly take advantage of parallel and distributed computing ( <unk> <unk> home project ; molecular modeling on GPU ) . The folding of small α @-@ helical protein domains such as the <unk> headpiece and the HIV accessory protein have been successfully simulated in silico , and hybrid methods that combine standard molecular dynamics with quantum mechanics calculations have allowed exploration of the electronic states of <unk> . 
 
 = = = = Protein disorder and <unk> prediction = = = = 
 
 Many proteins ( in <unk> ~ 33 % ) contain large <unk> but biologically functional segments and can be classified as intrinsically disordered proteins . <unk> and <unk> protein disorder is , therefore , an important part of protein structure characterisation . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Most microorganisms and plants can <unk> all 20 standard amino acids , while animals ( including humans ) must obtain some of the amino acids from the diet . The amino acids that an organism cannot synthesize on its own are referred to as essential amino acids . Key enzymes that synthesize certain amino acids are not present in animals — such as <unk> , which <unk> the first step in the synthesis of <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> from <unk> . If amino acids are present in the environment , microorganisms can conserve energy by taking up the amino acids from their surroundings and <unk> their <unk> pathways . 
 In animals , amino acids are obtained through the consumption of foods containing protein . <unk> proteins are then broken down into amino acids through <unk> , which typically involves <unk> of the protein through exposure to acid and hydrolysis by enzymes called <unk> . Some ingested amino acids are used for protein <unk> , while others are converted to glucose through <unk> , or fed into the <unk> acid cycle . This use of protein as a fuel is particularly important under starvation conditions as it allows the body 's own proteins to be used to support life , particularly those found in muscle . <unk> acids are also an important dietary source of nitrogen . 
 
 = = History and etymology = = 
 
 Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine <unk> and others , distinguished by the molecules ' ability to <unk> or <unk> under treatments with heat or acid . Noted examples at the time included <unk> from egg whites , blood <unk> <unk> , <unk> , and wheat <unk> . 
 Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist <unk> Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist <unk> Jacob Berzelius in 1838 . Mulder carried out elemental analysis of common proteins and found that nearly all proteins had the same <unk> formula , <unk> . He came to the erroneous conclusion that they might be composed of a single type of ( very large ) molecule . The term " protein " to describe these molecules was proposed by Mulder 's associate Berzelius ; protein is derived from the Greek word <unk> ( <unk> ) , meaning " primary " , " in the lead " , or " standing in front " , + <unk> . Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the amino acid <unk> for which he found a ( nearly correct ) molecular weight of 131 Da . 
 Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von <unk> believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body , because it was generally believed that " flesh makes flesh . " Karl Heinrich <unk> extended known protein forms with the identification of <unk> acid . At the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station a detailed review of the vegetable proteins was compiled by Thomas Burr Osborne . Working with Lafayette <unk> and applying <unk> 's law of the minimum in feeding laboratory rats , the <unk> essential amino acids were established . The work was continued and communicated by William <unk> Rose . The understanding of proteins as polypeptides came through the work of Franz <unk> and Hermann Emil Fischer . The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926 , when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme <unk> was in fact a protein . 
 The difficulty in purifying proteins in large quantities made them very difficult for early protein <unk> to study . Hence , early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities , e.g. , those of blood , egg white , various toxins , and digestive / metabolic enzymes obtained from <unk> . In the 1950s , the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg of pure <unk> <unk> ribonuclease A and made it freely available to scientists ; this gesture helped ribonuclease A become a major target for biochemical study for the following decades . 
 Linus <unk> is credited with the successful prediction of regular protein secondary structures based on hydrogen bonding , an idea first put forth by William <unk> in 1933 . Later work by Walter <unk> on <unk> , based partly on previous studies by Kaj <unk> @-@ Lang , contributed an understanding of protein folding and structure mediated by hydrophobic interactions . 
 The first protein to be sequenced was insulin , by Frederick Sanger , in 1949 . Sanger correctly determined the amino acid sequence of insulin , thus conclusively demonstrating that proteins consisted of linear polymers of amino acids rather than branched chains , <unk> , or <unk> . He won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958 . 
 The first protein structures to be solved were <unk> and <unk> , by Max <unk> and Sir John <unk> <unk> , respectively , in 1958 . As of 2016 , the Protein Data Bank has over 115 @,@ 000 atomic @-@ resolution structures of proteins . In more recent times , <unk> @-@ electron microscopy of large <unk> assemblies and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains are two methods approaching atomic resolution . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> and projects = = = 
 
 The Protein Naming <unk> 
 Human Protein Atlas 
 <unk> <unk> Protein database 
 <unk> Protein Structure database 
 Human Protein Reference Database 
 Human <unk> 
 <unk> <unk> Home ( Stanford University ) 
 Comparative <unk> Database <unk> protein – chemical interactions , as well as gene / protein – disease relationships and chemical @-@ disease relationships . 
 <unk> Harvester A Meta search engine ( 29 <unk> ) for gene and protein information . 
 Protein <unk> in Europe ( see also <unk> , short articles and tutorials on interesting PDB structures ) 
 Research <unk> for Structural <unk> ( see also <unk> of the Month , presenting short accounts on selected proteins from the PDB ) 
 <unk> – Life in 3D : <unk> , <unk> 3D model with wiki <unk> for every known protein molecular structure . 
 <unk> the Universal Protein <unk> 
 <unk> – Exploring the universe of human proteins : human @-@ centric protein knowledge resource 
 Multi @-@ <unk> <unk> <unk> Database : <unk> human and model organism protein / gene knowledge and expression data 
 
 = = = <unk> and educational websites = = = 
 
 " An Introduction to Proteins " from <unk> ( Huntington 's Disease <unk> Project for Education at Stanford ) 
 Proteins : Biogenesis to <unk> – The Virtual Library of <unk> and Cell Biology 
 Alphabet of Protein Structures 
 
 = LiSA ( Japanese musician , born 1987 ) = 
 
 Risa Oribe ( <unk> <unk> , Oribe Risa , born June 24 , 1987 ) , better known by her stage name LiSA ( an acronym of Love is Same All ) , is a Japanese pop singer @-@ songwriter from <unk> , <unk> , signed to <unk> under Sony Music Artists . After aspiring to become a musician early in life , she started her musical career as the vocalist of the indie band Chucky . Following Chucky 's disbandment in 2005 , LiSA moved to Tokyo in order to pursue a solo career , making her major debut in 2010 singing songs for the anime television series Angel Beats ! as one of two vocalists for the fictional band Girls Dead Monster . In April 2011 , she made her solo debut with the release of her mini @-@ album Letters to U. She performed at <unk> Summer Live in August 2010 , Anime Expo in 2012 , and is a regular guest at Anime Festival Asia . 
 LiSA 's songs have been featured as theme music for various anime such as Fate / Zero and Sword Art Online . Her singles have regularly been in the top ten of the Oricon weekly charts , with " Crossing Field " being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan and " Oath Sign " being certified gold . She performed at the Nippon Budokan in 2014 and 2015 . In 2015 , she made her acting debut as <unk> Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film <unk> . 
 
 = = Career = = 
 
 
 = = = Early years and major debut = = = 
 
 Oribe 's musical experience began at the age of three when , upon her mother 's suggestions , she took private piano lessons . Although she was a shy student in kindergarten , she enjoyed her music lessons . In primary school , she was inspired to sing after seeing the band Speed on television . She later took dance and vocal lessons , which continued through her junior high school years . While in elementary , she participated in an audition held at the Nippon Budokan , and it was during this time she decided to become an artist . In junior high school , she formed a band which covered songs by <unk> <unk> , Love <unk> , and <unk> @-@ <unk> ' . 
 Oribe began her singing career in 2005 during her first year in high school when she formed the indie rock band Chucky , which mainly covered songs by other artists . During her second year , the band received advice from their peers that they should start making their own songs ; eventually the band 's reputation grew enough that they performed in Osaka and Nagoya in addition to <unk> . Although her grades in high school were good , she decided not to go to university , despite the recommendations of her teachers , in order to focus on her work with Chucky . Nevertheless , after graduation , due to varying schedules among the band 's members , it became difficult to continue performing . Following the band 's disbandment in July 2008 , she moved to Tokyo in order to continue her singing career . 
 After moving to Tokyo , Oribe formed the band Love is Same All with members from the indie band <unk> Out and began using the stage name LiSA , which is an acronym for Love is Same All . The band performs with LiSA during the latter 's solo live performances . In 2010 , she made her major debut singing songs for the anime series Angel Beats ! as one of two vocalists for the fictional in @-@ story band Girls Dead Monster . She was the vocalist for the character Yui , and the second vocalist , Marina , sang as the character <unk> <unk> . LiSA put out three singles and one album in 2010 under the name Girls Dead Monster on Key 's record label Key Sounds <unk> . The first single " Thousand <unk> " was released on May 12 ; the second single " Little <unk> " came out on June 9 ; and the third single " <unk> no <unk> ( Yui final ver . ) " ( <unk> <unk> Yui final ver . <unk> , " My Most <unk> Treasure ( Yui final ver . ) " ) was sold on December 8 . The album <unk> The Beats ! was released on June 30 . LiSA made her first appearance at <unk> Summer Live during the concert 's 2010 iteration on August 28 . 
 LiSA made her solo debut on April 20 , 2011 with the release of her mini @-@ album Letters to U by <unk> under Sony Music Artists . The songs on the album were composed by <unk> and major artists , and she composed the first song " Believe in Myself " ; she wrote the album 's lyrics . On November 12 , 2011 , She made her first appearance in Singapore at Anime Festival Asia , Southeast Asia 's largest anime and pop culture convention . She released her first solo single " Oath Sign " on November 23 , 2011 , which was used as the opening theme to the 2011 anime series Fate / Zero . The single peaked at No. 5 on the Oricon weekly charts and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . 
 
 = = = 2012 – present = = = 
 
 LiSA released her first full solo album Lover " s " mile on February 22 , 2012 ; the album peaked at No. 7 on the Oricon weekly charts . She attended the Anime Expo 2012 in Los Angeles as a guest of honor and performed her first concert in North America there on July 1 . After her success with " Oath Sign " , she was chosen to perform the first opening theme to the 2012 anime series Sword Art Online ; the single " Crossing Field " , her second single , was released on August 8 , 2012 ; the single peaked at No. 5 on Oricon and was later certified gold by the RIAJ . Her third single " Best Day , Best Way " , which peaked at No. 6 on Oricon , was released on April 3 , 2013 , and her fourth single " Träumerei " , which peaked at No. 15 on Oricon and was used as the opening theme to the 2013 anime series Day Break Illusion , was released on August 7 , 2013 . LiSA released her second solo album Landspace on October 30 , 2013 ; the album peaked at No. 2 on Oricon charts . A <unk> titled <unk> <unk> <unk> Hi da ( <unk> , " Another Great Day " ) that contains photos of her taken by <unk> <unk> ! magazine over three years was published on November 22 , 2013 . When asked if she would revisit the meaning of her acronym in the future in an interview with <unk> at Anime Festival Asia 2013 in Singapore , she suggested <unk> international Super Apple . 
 On January 3 , 2014 , LiSA held a sold @-@ out solo concert at the Nippon Budokan . Her fifth single " Rising Hope " , which is used as the opening theme to the 2014 anime series The <unk> at Magic High School , was released on May 7 , 2014 ; the single peaked at No. 4 on Oricon . She later covered the songs " <unk> Actor " ( <unk> ) and " <unk> <unk> " ( <unk> , " <unk> Evening " ) from the <unk> Project franchise for the sixth episode of the 2014 anime series <unk> Actors . She released her sixth single " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " on September 17 , 2014 , which peaked at No. 8 on Oricon , and her seventh single " <unk> " ( <unk> , lit . " Sign " ) on December 10 , 2014 , which peaked at No. 3 on the Oricon ; the title song is used as the third ending theme to the 2014 anime series Sword Art Online II , and the single also includes the song " No More Time Machine " , which was used as the second ending theme to Sword Art Online II . She held her second Nippon Budokan concert on January 10 and 11 , 2015 , tickets for which were sold out . She released her third solo album Launcher on March 4 , 2015 and her eighth single " Rally Go Round " on May 27 , 2015 ; the song is used as the opening theme to the second season of the anime television series <unk> . She was cast as <unk> Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film <unk> , which premiered in Japanese theaters on July 31 , 2015 . She released her ninth single " Empty <unk> " on September 30 , 2015 . In late 2015 , she performed " <unk> " , which is used as theme song of the 2015 video game Dengeki <unk> : Fighting <unk> <unk> . To commemorate her fifth year as a solo artist , LiSA released her Letters To U EP as a limited edition LP on March 23 , 2016 . LiSA released a mini @-@ album titled Lucky Hi Five ! on April 20 , 2016 . She will release the single " <unk> Freak Out " , which will be used as the opening theme to the 2016 anime television series <unk> Code , on August 24 , 2016 . 
 
 = = Musical style and influences = = 
 
 LiSA lists <unk> <unk> , Oasis , Green Day , <unk> , Ke $ ha , and Rihanna as among her musical influences , as well as her time in Chucky . LiSA wrote the lyrics for some of her songs in her Landspace and Launcher albums , as well as the lyrics for the singles " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " , " <unk> " , and " Rally Go Round " ; " Rally Go Round " was co @-@ written with songwriter Shin <unk> . 
 LiSA 's musical style is described by Dennis <unk> of J ! <unk> as a young woman with style , beautiful vocals , and the ability to take on various musical styles , may it be happy , upbeat rock music or " even something more darker . " She has used the phrase " <unk> <unk> ii hi da " ( <unk> , " Another Great Day " ) as a theme throughout her career ; the phrase is also the name of her personal blog . In an interview with HMV Japan , she mentioned that before her major debut , she tended to sing pop songs , and because of this , she felt uneasy when making " Oath Sign " , which had a heavy and dark style , although she was able to receive several favorable responses to the single , which allowed her to make her next single " Crossing Field " with confidence . As for " Crossing Field " , she says that feels that the song grows every time she sings it , in the same way that love is <unk> through dates or love letters . In " Best Day , Best Way " , she mentioned that the song 's theme is " what you did yesterday will lead to what happens today " , and that the lyrics are delivered as if they are her own words . She also shared her experience with the single 's B @-@ sides : " I 'm a Rock Star " , which according to her represents her fulfilling her dream of becoming a singer , and " <unk> <unk> " ( <unk> , " White <unk> " ) , which represents happy feelings . 
 In an interview with Oricon , LiSA explained her experiences with " Träumerei " , where she stated that because Day Break Illusion is an original anime , she wanted the song to be presented in the color of her own work , but even in the world of anime , her music would continue to have an atmosphere of rock , as opposed to the pop style she used in " Best Day , Best Way " . She mentioned that she sang that song in a way that she felt the conflicts that were present in the story and with the strength that was part of the show 's theme . With regards to the song 's music video , she wanted to have a video which would express in color emotions , such as the use of red to represent confrontations , black to represent the feeling of being lost , and green for frightening things . 
 In making the single " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " , she mentions in an interview with HMV Japan that the concept of the single is that it can be divided into two parts : pink and black . Pink is the color of " Bright Flight " , a song which is in a pop style and was written in a " cute " image in mind , while black is the color of " L. Miranic " , which is in a dark rock style and has the theme of a " bad woman " . LiSA mentioned that the name " L. Miranic " was chosen because the song is linked to criminals and that since " Miranic " is a name in some countries , adding her name to " Miranic " to make " LiSA @-@ Miranic " would mean that the criminal in the song is her . 
 Dennis <unk> of J ! <unk> reviewed LiSA 's album Landspace , where he describes the song " Crossing Field " as a song about " wanting to forget the weakness and <unk> of one past and being with someone you love who gives you the strength to become even stronger . " Meanwhile , he describes the song " Best Day , Best Way " as " a fun and happy track about believing in yourself and overcoming anything bad that have happened in the past and moving forward . " Finally , he describes " Träumerei " as " another inspirational song about one losing the rhythm in their heart and is now on the road of loneliness , but still the person wants to <unk> the sky with their own light , <unk> the darkness and have a fresh new start in life . " He concludes the review by saying that the album is full of upbeat and inspirational songs and showcases LiSA 's talents as a vocalist , and in contrast to many <unk> artists who are known for their cute and sweet vocals , LiSA is able to take on many musical styles . 
 
 = = Discography = = 
 
 The discography of LiSA includes three studio albums , one extended play , ten singles , and five video albums . 
 Studio albums 
 Lover " s " mile ( 2012 ) 
 Landspace ( 2013 ) 
 Launcher ( 2015 ) 
 
 
 = Aston Villa F.C. = 
 
 Aston Villa Football Club ( / <unk> <unk> / ; nicknamed Villa , The Villa , The <unk> , The Lions ) is a professional association football club based in Aston , Birmingham , that plays in the Championship , the second level of English football . Founded in 1874 , they have played at their current home ground , Villa Park , since 1897 . Aston Villa were the <unk> and founding members of the Football League in 1888 . They were also founding members of the Premier League in 1992 . In June 2016 , the club was sold by American businessman Randy Lerner to Recon Group , owned by Chinese businessman Dr Tony <unk> Xia . 
 Aston Villa are one of the oldest and most successful football clubs in the history of English football . Villa won the 1981 – 82 European Cup , and are thus one of five English clubs to win what is now the UEFA Champions League . They have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club , having won the First Division Championship seven times , the FA Cup seven times , the Football League Cup five times , and the European Cup and UEFA Super Cup double in 1982 . 
 They have a fierce local rivalry with Birmingham City . The Second City derby between Aston Villa and Birmingham City has been played since 1879 . The club 's traditional kit colours are claret shirts with sky blue sleeves , white shorts and sky blue socks . Their traditional badge is of a rampant lion , which was introduced by the club 's Scottish chairman William McGregor in honour of the Royal Standard of Scotland . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Aston Villa Football Club were formed in March 1874 , by members of the Villa Cross <unk> Chapel in <unk> which is now part of Birmingham . The four founders of Aston Villa were Jack Hughes , Frederick Matthews , Walter Price and William <unk> . Aston Villa 's first match was against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team . As a condition of the match , the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under rugby rules and the second half under football rules . After moving to the Wellington Road ground in 1876 , Villa soon established themselves as one of the best teams in the Midlands , winning their first honour , the Birmingham Senior Cup in 1880 , under the captaincy of Scotsman George Ramsay . 
 The club won their first FA Cup in 1887 with captain Archie Hunter becoming one of the game 's first household names . Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 with one of the club 's directors , William McGregor being the league 's founder . Aston Villa emerged as the most successful English club of the Victorian era , winning no fewer than five League titles and three FA Cups by the end of Queen Victoria 's reign . In 1897 , the year Villa won The Double , they moved into their present home , the Aston Lower Grounds . Supporters coined the name " Villa Park " ; no official declaration listed the ground as Villa Park . 
 Aston Villa won their sixth FA Cup in 1920 , soon after though the club began a slow decline that led to Villa , at the time one of the most famous and successful clubs in world football , being relegated in 1936 for the first time to the Second Division . This was largely the result of a <unk> defensive record : they conceded 110 goals in 42 games , 7 of them coming from Arsenal 's Ted Drake in an infamous 1 – 7 defeat at Villa Park . Like all English clubs , Villa lost seven seasons to the Second World War , and that conflict brought several careers to a premature end . The team was rebuilt under the guidance of former player Alex <unk> for the remainder of the 1940s . Aston Villa 's first trophy for 37 years came in the 1956 – 57 season when another former Villa player , Eric Houghton led the club to a then record seventh FA Cup Final win , defeating the ' <unk> <unk> ' of Manchester United in the final . The team struggled in the league though and were relegated two seasons later , due in large part to <unk> . However , under the stewardship of manager Joe Mercer Villa returned to the top @-@ flight in 1960 as Second Division Champions . The following season Aston Villa became the first team to win the Football League Cup . 
 Mercer 's forced retirement from the club in 1964 signalled a period of deep turmoil . The most successful club in England was struggling to keep pace with changes in the modern game , with Villa being relegated for the third time , under manager Dick Taylor in 1967 . The following season the fans called for the board to resign as Villa finished 16th in the Second Division . With mounting debts and Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two , the board sacked Tommy Cummings ( the manager brought in to replace Taylor ) , and within weeks the entire board resigned under overwhelming pressure from fans . After much speculation , control of the club was bought by London financier Pat Matthews , who also brought in Doug Ellis as chairman . However , new ownership could not prevent Villa being relegated to the Third Division for the first time at the end of the 1969 – 70 season . However , Villa gradually began to recover under the management of former club captain Vic Crowe . In the 1971 – 72 season they returned to the Second Division as Champions with a record 70 points . In 1974 , Ron Saunders was appointed manager . His brand of no @-@ nonsense man @-@ management proved effective , with the club winning the League Cup the following season and , at the end of season 1974 – 75 , he had taken them back into the First Division and into Europe . 
 Villa were back among the elite as Saunders continued to mould a winning team . This culminated in a seventh top @-@ flight league title in 1980 – 81 . To the surprise of commentators and fans , Saunders quit halfway through the 1981 – 82 season , after falling out with the chairman , with Villa in the quarter final of the European Cup . He was replaced by his <unk> @-@ spoken assistant manager Tony Barton who guided the club to a 1 – 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam courtesy of a Peter <unk> goal . The following season Villa were crowned European Super Cup winners , beating Barcelona in the final . This marked a pinnacle though and Villa 's fortunes declined sharply for most of the 1980s , culminating in relegation in 1987 . This was followed by promotion the following year under Graham Taylor and a runners @-@ up position in the First Division in the 1989 – 90 season . 
 Villa were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992 , and finished runners @-@ up to Manchester United in the inaugural season . For the rest of the <unk> however Villa went through three different managers and their league positions were inconsistent , although they did win two League Cups and regularly achieved UEFA Cup qualification . Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 but lost 1 – 0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium . Again Villa 's league position continued to <unk> under several different managers and things came to a head in the summer of 2006 when David O 'Leary left in <unk> . After 23 years as chairman and single biggest shareholder ( approximately 38 % ) , Doug Ellis finally decided to sell his stake in Aston Villa due to ill @-@ health . After much speculation it was announced the club was to be bought by American businessman Randy Lerner , owner of NFL franchise the Cleveland Browns . 
 The arrival of a new owner in Lerner and of manager Martin O 'Neill marked the start of a new period of optimism at Villa Park and sweeping changes occurred throughout the club including a new badge , a new kit sponsor and team changes in the summer of 2007 . The first Cup final of the Lerner era came in 2010 when Villa were beaten 2 – 1 in the League Cup Final . Villa made a second trip to Wembley in that season losing 3 – 0 to Chelsea in the FA Cup semifinal . Just five days before the opening day of the 2010 – 11 season , O 'Neill resigned as manager with immediate effect . The club appointed Gérard Houllier as a replacement in September 2010 , but he stepped down on 1 June 2011 due to ill @-@ health . Houllier was replaced by Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish , despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment ; this was the first time that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham to Villa . McLeish 's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 – 12 season after Villa finished in 16th place , only just above the relegation zone . On 2 July 2012 , Aston Villa confirmed the appointment of former Norwich City manager Paul Lambert as the replacement for McLeish . On 28 February 2012 , the club announced a financial loss of £ 53 @.@ 9 million . Lerner put the club up for sale on 12 May 2014 , with an estimated value of £ 200 million . With Lerner still on board , in the 2014 – 15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games , the lowest in Premier League history , and Lambert was sacked on 11 February 2015 . Tim Sherwood succeeded him , and saved Aston Villa from relegation while also leading them to the 2015 FA Cup Final , but he was sacked in the 2015 – 16 season , as was his successor <unk> <unk> . Eric Black took temporary charge of the team , but was not able to prevent Villa from being relegated for the first time since 1987 . On 2 June 2016 , Roberto Di <unk> was announced as the club 's new manager . 
 
 = = <unk> and badge = = 
 
 The club colours are a claret shirt with sky blue sleeves , white shorts with claret and blue trim , and sky blue socks with claret and white trim . They were the original <unk> of the claret and blue . Villa 's colours at the outset generally comprised plain shirts ( white , grey or a shade of blue ) , with either white or black shorts . For a few years after that ( 1877 – 79 ) the team wore several different kits from all white , blue and black , red and blue to plain green . By 1880 , black jerseys with a red lion embroidered on the chest were introduced by William McGregor . This remained the first choice strip for six years . On Monday , 8 November 1886 , an entry in the club 's official minute book states : 
 ( i ) Proposed and seconded that the colours be chocolate and sky blue shirts and that we order two dozen . 
 ( ii ) Proposed and seconded that Mr McGregor be requested to supply them at the lowest quotation . 
 The chocolate colour later became claret . Nobody is quite sure why claret and blue became the club 's adopted colours . Several other English football teams adopted their colours ; clubs that wear claret and blue include West Ham United and Burnley . 
 A new badge was revealed in May 2007 , for the 2007 – 08 season and beyond . The new badge includes a star to represent the European Cup win in 1982 , and has a light blue background behind Villa 's ' lion rampant ' . The traditional motto " <unk> " remains in the badge , and the name Aston Villa has been shortened to <unk> , FC having been omitted from the previous badge . The lion is now unified as opposed to fragmented lions of the past . Randy Lerner petitioned fans to help with the design of the new badge . 
 On 6 April 2016 , the club confirmed that it will be using a new badge from the 2016 – 17 season after consulting fan groups for suggestions . The lion in the new badge will have claws added to it and the word " <unk> " will be removed to increase the size of the lion and club initials in the badge . 
 
 = = = Kit sponsorship = = = 
 
 Aston Villa <unk> commercial kit sponsorship for the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons ; instead advertising the charity Acorns Children 's Hospice , the first deal of its kind in Premier league history . The partnership continued until 2010 when a commercial sponsor replaced Acorns , with the hospice becoming the club 's Official Charity Partner . In 2014 – 15 , the Acorns name returned to Aston Villa 's home and away shirts , but only for children 's shirts re @-@ <unk> the club 's support for the children 's charity . 
 Since 2015 Villa 's shirt sponsors have been <unk> . Previous commercial sponsors have been <unk> ( 1982 – 83 ) , <unk> ( 1983 – 93 ) , <unk> ( 1993 – 95 ) , <unk> Computer ( 1995 – 98 ) , <unk> ( 1998 – 2000 ) , <unk> ( 2000 – 02 ) , Rover ( 2002 – 04 ) , <unk> <unk> ( 2004 – 06 ) , <unk> ( 2006 – 08 ) , <unk> ( 2010 – 11 ) , <unk> <unk> ( 2011 – 13 ) , <unk> ( 2013 – 2015 ) , and <unk> <unk> ( 2015 – ) . Since 2016 , kit has been manufactured by Under Armour . Previous manufacturers have been <unk> ( 1972 – 81 , 1990 – 93 ) , le <unk> <unk> ( 1981 – 83 ) , Henson ( 1983 – 87 ) , Hummel ( 1987 – 90 , 2004 – 07 ) , <unk> ( 1993 – 95 ) , <unk> ( 1995 – 2000 ) , <unk> ( 2000 – 04 ) , Nike ( 2007 – 12 ) and <unk> ( 2012 @-@ 16 ) . 
 
 = = Stadium = = 
 
 Aston Villa 's current home venue is Villa Park , which is a UEFA 5 @-@ star rated stadium , having previously played at Aston Park ( 1874 – 1876 ) and Wellington Road ( 1876 – 1897 ) . Villa Park is the largest football stadium in the English Midlands , and the eighth largest stadium in England . It has hosted 16 England internationals at senior level , the first in 1899 , and the most recent in 2005 . Thus , it was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries . Villa Park is the most used stadium in FA Cup semi @-@ final history , having hosted 55 semi @-@ finals . The club have planning permission to extend the North Stand ; this will involve the ' filling in ' of the corners to either side of the North Stand . If completed , the capacity of Villa Park will be increased to approximately 51 @,@ 000 . 
 The current training ground is located at Bodymoor Heath near <unk> in north Warwickshire , the site for which was purchased by former chairman Doug Ellis in the early 1970s from a local farmer . Although Bodymoor Heath was state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art in the 1970s , by the late 1990s the facilities had started to look dated . In November 2005 , Ellis and Aston Villa <unk> announced a state of the art GB £ 13 million redevelopment of Bodymoor in two phases . However , work on Bodymoor was suspended by Ellis due to financial problems , and was left in an unfinished state until new owner Randy Lerner made it one of his priorities to make the site one of the best in world football . The new training ground was officially unveiled on 6 May 2007 , by then manager Martin O 'Neill , then team captain Gareth Barry and 1982 European Cup winning team captain Dennis Mortimer , with the Aston Villa squad moving in for the 2007 – 08 season . 
 It was announced on 6 August 2014 , that Villa Park would appear in the FIFA video game from FIFA 15 onwards , with all other Premier League stadiums also fully licensed from this game onwards . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 The first shares in the club were issued towards the end of the 19th century as a result of legislation that was intended to <unk> the growing numbers of professional teams and players in the Association Football leagues . FA teams were required to distribute shares to investors as a way of facilitating trading among the teams without <unk> the FA itself . This trading continued for much of the 20th century until Ellis started buying up many of the shares in the 1960s . He was chairman and substantial shareholder of " Aston Villa F.C. " from 1968 to 1975 and the majority shareholder from 1982 to 2006 . The club were floated on the London Stock Exchange ( <unk> ) in 1996 , and the share price fluctuated in the ten years after the flotation . In 2006 it was announced that several <unk> and individuals were considering bids for Aston Villa . 
 On 14 August 2006 , it was confirmed that Randy Lerner , then owner of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns , had reached an agreement of £ 62 @.@ 6 million with Aston Villa for a takeover of the club . A statement released on 25 August to the <unk> announced that Lerner had secured 59 @.@ 69 % of Villa shares , making him the majority shareholder . He also appointed himself Chairman of the club . In Ellis 's last year in charge Villa lost £ <unk> before tax , compared with a £ <unk> profit the previous year , and income had fallen from £ <unk> to £ <unk> . Lerner took full control on 18 September , as he had 89 @.@ 69 % of the shares . On 19 September 2006 , Ellis and his board resigned to be replaced with a new board headed by Lerner . Lerner installed Charles <unk> as a non @-@ executive director and Ellis was awarded the honorary position of Chairman <unk> . 
 Lerner put the club up for sale in May 2014 , <unk> it at an estimated £ 200 million . 
 On 18 May 2016 , Randy Lerner agreed the sale of Aston Villa to Recon Group , owned by Chinese businessman Xia <unk> . The sale was completed on 14 June 2016 for a reported £ 76 million after being approved by the Football League , with the club becoming part of Recon Group 's Sport , <unk> and Tourism division . Recon Group were selected to take over Aston Villa following a selection process by the club . 
 
 = = Social responsibility = = 
 
 Aston Villa have a unique relationship with the Acorns Children 's Hospice charity that is groundbreaking in English football . In a first for the Premier League , Aston Villa donated the front of the shirt on their kit , usually reserved for high @-@ paying <unk> , to Acorns Hospice so that the charity would gain significant additional visibility and greater fund raising capabilities . Outside of the shirt sponsorship the club have paid for hospice care for the charity as well as regularly providing player visits to hospice locations . 
 In September 2010 , Aston Villa launched an initiative at Villa Park called Villa Midlands Food ( <unk> ) where the club will spend two years training students with Aston Villa <unk> and Events in association with Birmingham City Council . The club will open a restaurant in the Trinity Road Stand staffed with 12 students recruited from within a ten @-@ mile ( 16 km ) radius of Villa Park with the majority of the food served in the restaurant sourced locally . 
 
 = = Supporters and rivalries = = 
 
 Aston Villa have a large fanbase and draw support from all over the Midlands and beyond , with supporters ' clubs all across the world . Former Villa chief executive Richard Fitzgerald has stated that the ethnicity of the supporters is currently 98 % white . When Randy Lerner 's regime took over at Villa Park , they aimed to improve their support from ethnic minorities . A number of organisations have been set up to support the local community including Aston Pride . A Villa in the Community programme has also been set up to encourage support among young people in the region . The new owners have also initiated several surveys aimed at gaining the opinions of Villa fans and to involve them in the decision making process . Meetings also occur every three months where supporters are invited by ballot and are invited to ask questions to the Board . In 2011 , the club supported a supporter @-@ based initiative for an official anthem to boost the atmosphere at Villa Park . The song " The Bells Are Ringing " is to be played before games . 
 Like many English football clubs Aston Villa have had several <unk> firms associated with them : Villa Youth , <unk> , Villa Hardcore and the C @-@ Crew , the last mentioned being very active during the 1970s and 1980s . As can be seen across the whole of English football , the <unk> groups have now been marginalised . In 2004 , several Villa firms were involved in a fight with <unk> fans outside Villa Park in which a steward died . The main groupings of supporters can now be found in a number of domestic and international supporters ' clubs . This includes the Official Aston Villa Supporters Club which also has many smaller regional and international sections . There were several independent supporters clubs during the reign of Doug Ellis but most of these disbanded after his retirement . The supporter group My Old Man Said formed to stand up for Villa supporter 's rights , as a direct result of Villa supporters ' protest against the club 's appointment of Alex McLeish . The club 's supporters also publish <unk> such as Heroes and <unk> and The Holy Trinity . 
 Aston Villa 's arch @-@ rivals are Birmingham City , with games between the two clubs known as the Second City Derby . Historically though , West Bromwich Albion have arguably been Villa 's greatest rivals , a view highlighted in a fan survey , conducted in 2003 . The two teams contested three FA Cup finals in the late 19th century . Villa also enjoy less heated local rivalries with Wolverhampton Wanderers and Coventry City . Through the relegation of West Brom and Birmingham City , to the Football League Championship , in the 2005 – 06 season , at the start of 2006 – 07 Premiership season , Villa were the only Midlands club in that League . The nearest opposing team Villa faced during that season was Sheffield United , who played 62 miles ( 100 km ) away in South Yorkshire . For the 2010 – 11 season , West Bromwich Albion were promoted and joined Aston Villa , Wolverhampton Wanderers , and Birmingham City in the Premier League . This marked the first time that the " West Midlands ' Big Four " clubs have been in the Premier League at the same time , and the first time together in the top flight since the 1983 – 84 season . Birmingham were relegated at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , ending this period . 
 
 = = Statistics = = 
 
 As of the end of the 2014 – 15 season , Aston Villa have spent 104 seasons in the top tier of English football ; the only club to have spent longer in the top flight are Everton , with 112 seasons , making Aston Villa versus Everton the most @-@ played fixture in English top @-@ flight football . Aston Villa were in an elite group of seven clubs that has played in every Premier League season , the other six being Tottenham Hotspur , Chelsea , Everton , Liverpool , Manchester United and Arsenal since its establishment in 1992 – 93 until they were relegated in 2016 . They are seventh in the All @-@ time FA Premier League table , and have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club with 21 wins . 
 Aston Villa currently hold the record number of league goals scored by any team in the English top flight ; 128 goals were scored in the 1930 – 31 season , one more than Arsenal who won the league that season for the very first time , with Villa runners @-@ up . Villa legend Archie Hunter became the first player to score in every round of the FA Cup in Villa 's victorious 1887 campaign . Villa 's longest unbeaten home run in the FA Cup spanned 13 years and 19 games , from 1888 to 1901 . 
 Aston Villa are one of five English teams to have won the European Cup . They did so on 26 May 1982 in Rotterdam , beating Bayern Munich 1 – 0 thanks to Peter <unk> 's goal . 
 
 = = Club honours = = 
 
 Aston Villa have won European and domestic league honours . The club 's last major honour was in 1996 when they won the League Cup . 
 
 = = = Domestic = = = 
 
 League titles 
 First Division 7 : 1893 – 94 , 1895 – 96 , 1896 – 97 , 1898 – 99 , 1899 – 1900 , 1909 – 10 , 1980 – 81 
 Second Division 2 : 1937 – 38 , 1959 – 60 
 Third Division 1 : 1971 – 72 
 Cups 
 FA Cup 7 : 
 1886 – 87 , 1894 – 95 , 1896 – 97 , 1904 – 05 , 1912 – 13 , 1919 – 20 , 1956 – 57 
 League Cup 5 : 
 1960 – 61 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96 
 FA Charity Shield 1 : 
 1981 
 Football League War Cup 1 : 
 1944 ( shared ) 
 
 = = = European = = = 
 
 European Cup 1 : 
 1981 – 82 
 European Super Cup 1 : 
 1982 
 Intertoto Cup 2 : 
 2001 , 2008 
 
 = = = Other sports = = = 
 
 English Baseball Championship 
 1890 
 
 = = Players = = 
 
 
 = = = First @-@ team squad = = = 
 
 As of 21 June 2016 . 
 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . 
 
 = = = Out on loan = = = 
 
 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . 
 
 = = = <unk> squad = = = 
 
 As of 21 June 2016 . 
 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . 
 
 = = = Notable players = = = 
 
 There have been many players who can be called notable throughout Aston Villa 's history . These can be classified and recorded in several forms . The <unk> of Fame and PFA Players of the Year are noted below . As of 2014 , Aston Villa , jointly with Tottenham Hotspur , hold the record for providing the most England internationals with 73 . Aston Villa have had several players who were one @-@ club men . In 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football , The Football League released a list entitled the Football League 100 Legends that consisted of " 100 legendary football players . " There were seven players included on the list who had formerly played for Villa : Danny <unk> , Trevor Ford , Archie Hunter , Sam Hardy , Paul McGrath , Peter Schmeichel and <unk> <unk> . 
 Three Aston Villa players have won the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award . At the end of every English football season , the members of the Professional <unk> ' Association ( PFA ) vote on which of its members has played the best football in the previous year . In 1977 Andy Gray won the award . In 1990 it was awarded to David Platt , whilst Paul McGrath won it in 1993 . The PFA Young Player of the Year , which is awarded to players under the age of 23 , has been awarded to four players from Aston Villa : Andy Gray in 1977 ; Gary Shaw in 1981 ; Ashley Young in 2009 and James <unk> in 2010 . The National Football Museum in Preston , Lancashire administers the English Football Hall of Fame which currently contains two Villa teams , two Villa players and one manager . The 1890s team and 1982 team were inducted into the Hall of Fame in July 2009 . Joe Mercer was inducted into the Hall of Fame at the same time for his career as a manager including his time at Aston Villa . The only two Villa players in the Hall of Fame are Danny <unk> and Peter Schmeichel . 
 In 2006 , Aston Villa announced the creation of an " Aston Villa Hall of Fame . " This was voted for by fans and the inaugural induction saw 12 former players , managers and directors named . In May 2013 it was announced that former Villa and Bulgaria captain , <unk> <unk> , would be the 13th addition to the Hall of Fame . 
 
 = = Management = = 
 
 
 = = = Current technical staff = = = 
 
 As of 4 June 2016 
 
 = = = Board of Directors = = = 
 
 As of 15 June 2016 
 
 = = = Notable managers = = = 
 
 The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge or have been notable for Villa in the context of the League , for example <unk> <unk> who holds a League record . 
 
 = = In popular culture = = 
 
 A number of television programmes have included references to Aston Villa over the past few decades . In the sitcom <unk> , the character Lennie <unk> is a Villa supporter . When filming began on Dad 's Army , Villa fan Ian <unk> was allowed to choose Frank Pike 's scarf from an array in the BBC wardrobe ; he chose a claret and blue one — Aston Villa 's colours . The character <unk> in the BBC sitcom Gavin & <unk> was revealed as an Aston Villa fan in an episode screened in December 2009 . In the BBC series " Yes Minister " / " Yes Prime Minister " , the Minister Jim <unk> 's local team was Aston Villa , as was the Member of Parliament for Birmingham East . 
 Aston Villa have also featured on several occasions in prose . Stanley Woolley , a character in Derek Robinson 's Booker shortlisted novel <unk> Squadron is an Aston Villa fan and names a pre @-@ war starting eleven Villa side . Together with The Oval , Villa Park is referenced by the poet Philip <unk> in his poem about the First World War , <unk> . Aston Villa are also mentioned in Harold <unk> 's play The <unk> <unk> . 
 
 
 = Pattycake ( gorilla ) = 
 
 Pattycake , also known as Patty Cake ( September 3 , 1972 – March 31 , 2013 ) was a female western lowland gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla ) born to Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo in New York City . She was the first baby gorilla successfully born in captivity in New York . Months after her much publicized birth , Pattycake 's arm was broken when it got stuck in her cage as her mother grabbed her away from her father . The incident was <unk> <unk> in the media as a domestic dispute between Lulu and Kongo , but in reality experts thought it was a simple accident . 
 Her injury was treated at the Bronx Zoo while a custody dispute between the two zoos broke out in public and elicited a range of opinions from experts who believed Pattycake should be returned to her mother . <unk> media coverage and public interest brought Pattycake to the attention of a wide audience , with stories focusing on her recovery , her eventual reunion with her parents , and the conditions of zoo animals in Central Park . An ambitious proposal for renovating the Central Park Zoo arose in the wake of the controversy while the zoo received record attendance rates . 
 Pattycake was the " child star " of New York City in the early 1970s , and her fame was compared to Shirley Temple . At a time when New York City was facing many problems , she distracted the public from their growing <unk> and became a welcome relief for New Yorkers and their children who loved to visit her . After spending the first decade of her life at the Central Park Zoo , Pattycake moved permanently to the Bronx Zoo in 1982 . She was the mother of ten baby gorillas , including twins born in 1995 . Pattycake spent her later life as an independent but caring troop <unk> in the Bronx Zoo 's Congo Gorilla Forest exhibit . After suffering from <unk> and cardiac problems for some time , Pattycake succumbed to heart disease in 2013 . 
 
 = = Birth = = 
 
 " Pattycake " was born on September 3 , 1972 , to western lowland gorilla parents Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo . Lulu and Kongo first arrived at the zoo on May 11 , 1966 . At the time , it was thought that Lulu wasn 't mature enough to conceive , so when Lulu gave birth to Pattycake at the age of 8 , it came as a surprise . Up until the time Lulu gave birth , it had been very difficult to get captive gorilla mothers to raise their young in zoos because the babies would either be rejected by the mother or they would be taken away by the handlers . Pattycake was the first gorilla successfully born in captivity in New York . 
 At the time of her birth , it was unknown if she was a male or female , as it was considered too dangerous to approach her and her parents . Her handlers assumed she was a male and originally named her " Sonny Jim " . When it was established that Pattycake was a female , a contest was held by the New York Daily News to find her a name . " Patty Cake " , the winning entry , was submitted by New York <unk> John O 'Connor , who named the gorilla after his wife and a proposed daughter . " It just so happens that we have three boys and I told my wife that if we ever have a girl , we should name her Patty , which happens to be her name . I thought we 'd let the baby gorilla use the name in the meantime , " O 'Connor told reporters . 
 Pattycake 's birth caught the attention of the city and brought crowds of thousands of New Yorkers to the Central Park Zoo . Reporter N. R. <unk> called her a child star whose " <unk> face served as a bit of a respite at a time when the city found itself grappling with high crime rates and an intensifying financial crisis . " Six months after Pattycake was born , the director of the zoo estimated that based on the crowds , she might draw an additional 500 @,@ 000 visitors by the time of her first birthday . 
 
 = = <unk> dispute = = 
 
 At the age of five months , Pattycake was sharing the Lion House with Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo . On March 20 , 1973 , an accident occurred that was attributed more to <unk> than to parenting skills . Although no staff were on hand to see it directly , according to visitors , while little Pattycake was reaching out to her father through the bars of her cage , her right arm became stuck somehow when her mother Lulu pulled her away , breaking her right arm . Zoo handlers had to subdue Lulu with a tranquilizer dart to remove Pattycake and treat her injury . While experts considered the incident an accident , the media <unk> the event . <unk> Veronica Nelson , who worked with Patty Cake , recalled that 
 The news media would have liked to have it a dramatic bloody mess — a struggle between mom and pop for the custody of the child . It was nothing like that . It was a simple accident . Kongo was in one part of the double cage , Lulu in another , and between them was a partition of narrow bars . Lulu had Patty Cake in her arms and when Patty reached in between the narrow bars to touch her father , Lulu suddenly pulled her away . But Patty 's arm got caught in the narrow bars and broke . It was a freak accident . No one ever realized that those bars were narrow enough to catch that tiny arm . 
 Pattycake was brought to New York Medical College for surgery and she was given a cast for her arm . Due to concerns that Lulu would try to remove Pattycake 's cast , she was separated from her mother and moved to the Bronx Zoo for <unk> . Pattycake was treated by veterinarian Emil <unk> who later replaced her cast with a sling . After an examination , the staff discovered that Pattycake had intestinal parasites and determined she was <unk> . They also believed that as a result of the incident , Lulu wasn 't capable as a mother . 
 A custody dispute began between the two zoos , with the Bronx Zoo arguing that she would be better cared for in their facilities . Time magazine noted that it was the " custody battle of the decade " in the " <unk> world " , comparing Patty Cake 's popularity and fame to that of child star Shirley Temple . <unk> biologist Ronald <unk> of the <unk> National <unk> Research Center was brought in to <unk> the dispute and published a report that favored returning Pattycake to her mother and the Central Park Zoo . In his report <unk> noted that " the recommendation is based on the judgment that an infant gorilla is more likely to develop into a socially competent and <unk> adequate animal if it is raised in the company of its parents as opposed to being raised with a group of peers . " 
 After three months <unk> from her injuries , Pattycake was returned to her mother on June 15 , 1973 . The entire incident was documented by artist Susan Green in her book <unk> Gorilla : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1978 ) . 
 
 = = Central Park Zoo conditions = = 
 
 By the 1970s , animal welfare organizations began to voice their increasing concern with the treatment of zoo animals and the conditions of their enclosures at the Central Park Zoo , the oldest zoo in the U.S. The <unk> Society of the United States , the Friends of the Zoo , and the Society for Animal Rights decried the prison @-@ like conditions of the <unk> and called for changes . The New York Zoological Society , which was responsible for creating realistic habitat enclosures at the Bronx Zoo , also began calling for changes and for Pattycake to be moved to another zoo . A renovation plan for the Central Park Zoo was approved in 1981 , with plans made to move the gorillas to larger spaces in other zoos . The New York Times reported that " the <unk> of these animals in inadequate spaces has long enraged animal lovers . " When the zoo was finally closed for renovations in 1982 , Pattycake was moved to the Bronx Zoo . 
 
 = = Bronx Zoo = = 
 
 Pattycake moved permanently to the Bronx Zoo on December 20 , 1982 . For a few years , she lived in a cage with <unk> , a <unk> . In June 1999 , Pattycake moved into the Wildlife Conservation Society 's $ 43 million Congo Gorilla Forest exhibit . The exhibit includes a Great Gorilla Forest viewing area that separates gorillas and visitors with a glass window . Two troops of gorillas inhabited the 6 @.@ 5 acre exhibit , with a dozen gorillas in Pattycake 's troop alone , including <unk> , Pattycake , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Fran , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Barbara , and M <unk> . The general curator of the Bronx Zoo , James Doherty , described Pattycake as " independent " with " few close friends " in the Congo Gorilla Forest . " It may have something to do with the fact that she didn 't live with her parents that long , and lived with that <unk> for a few years , " Doherty said . 
 
 = = Breeding and offspring = = 
 
 Pattycake gave birth to her first baby , <unk> , a male gorilla , on January 20 , 1985 . <unk> was sired by <unk> . Pattycake and <unk> had a second baby on March 23 , 1986 , but it died soon after birth . With Barney , Pattycake gave birth to three babies : a female named Paki , on May 26 , 1989 , followed by Patrick on April 19 , 1990 , and <unk> on December 14 , 1991 . Paki gave birth to Pattycake 's only <unk> , <unk> , in 1998 . 
 In October 1991 , a <unk> named Timmy ( 1959 – 2011 ) was taken away from Kate , his infertile companion at the Cleveland <unk> Zoo , in the hopes of breeding lowland gorillas and introducing new genes into the captive gorilla gene pool . This forced separation led to protests from animal rights activists who expressed concerns about the potential consequences of emotional trauma on the two gorillas . The Association of <unk> and <unk> Species Survival Plan sent Timmy to the Bronx Zoo where he joined Pattycake and other females . 
 On July 11 , 1993 , Pattycake and Timmy gave birth to <unk> , a male gorilla . The pair also gave birth to twin males , <unk> and <unk> , on August 8 , 1994 . It was the sixth time western lowland gorillas had given birth to twins in captivity . The twins were raised in a separate habitat by surrogate mothers . After seven years , <unk> and <unk> , along with another gorilla named Dan , left for a zoo in Nebraska in February 2001 . On February 4 , 2001 , Pattycake and <unk> gave birth to <unk> , a female . Her last and tenth baby gorilla , a male , was delivered on April 15 , 2002 . <unk> , it died four days later . 
 
 = = Later life = = 
 
 Kongo , Pattycake 's father , died in 1998 . In 2002 , the Pattycake Fund was established to raise $ 250 @,@ 000 to stop illegal poaching of African gorillas . The fundraising coincided with Pattycake 's 30th birthday , commemorated with a two @-@ day celebration at the Bronx Zoo . A special cake was made for her from <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and berries . 
 Timmy , along with two female gorillas , <unk> and Paki , left the Bronx Zoo for the Louisville Zoo in May 2004 . 
 Pattycake tried her hand at painting while participating with the Wildlife Conservation Society ( <unk> ) animal <unk> program at the Bronx Zoo . A sample of her work was published in the 2010 <unk> Annual Report . 
 Pattycake 's mother Lulu died in early 2011 . 
 Pattycake suffered from chronic heart disease and <unk> as she aged . She was one of 338 captive zoo gorillas within North America when she died in her sleep at the age of 40 . According to the Wildlife Conservation Society , Pattycake exceeded the median life span of 37 years for female zoo gorillas . 
 
 = = Cultural depictions = = 
 
 In honor of Pattycake , the Rev. Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick ( Brother Kirk ) joined Pete Seeger and the Sesame Street kids chorus for the song " Patty Cake Gorilla " , released on the album Pete Seeger and Brother Kirk <unk> Sesame Street ( 1974 ) . A picture book called Patty Cake ( 1974 ) , featuring New York Times photographer Neal <unk> and others , was written by Elizabeth Moody . Pearl Wolf wrote Gorilla Baby : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1974 ) , a picture book for children . Artist Susan Green published her direct , personal observations about the custody dispute ( along with her drawings ) in the book <unk> Gorilla : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1978 ) . 
 
 
 = Lactarius indigo = 
 
 Lactarius indigo , commonly known as the indigo milk cap , the indigo ( or blue ) <unk> , or the blue milk mushroom , is a species of agaric fungus in the family <unk> . A widely distributed species , it grows naturally in eastern North America , East Asia , and Central America ; it has also been reported in southern France . L. indigo grows on the ground in both deciduous and coniferous forests , where it forms mycorrhizal associations with a broad range of trees . The fruit body color ranges from dark blue in fresh specimens to pale blue @-@ gray in older ones . The milk , or latex , that <unk> when the mushroom tissue is cut or broken — a feature common to all members of the Lactarius genus — is also indigo blue , but slowly turns green upon exposure to air . The cap has a diameter of 5 to 15 cm ( 2 to 6 in ) , and the stem is 2 to 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 3 in ) tall and 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . It is an edible mushroom , and is sold in rural markets in China , Guatemala , and Mexico . 
 
 = = Taxonomy and nomenclature = = 
 
 Originally described in 1822 as Agaricus indigo by American mycologist Lewis David de <unk> , the species was later transferred to the genus Lactarius in 1838 by the <unk> Elias Magnus Fries . German botanist Otto <unk> called it <unk> indigo in his 1891 treatise <unk> <unk> <unk> , but the suggested name change was not adopted by others . Hesler and Smith in their 1960 study of North American species of Lactarius defined L. indigo as the type species of <unk> <unk> , a group characterized by blue latex and a sticky , blue cap . In 1979 , they revised their opinions on the organization of subdivisions in the genus Lactarius , and instead placed L. indigo in subgenus Lactarius based on the color of latex , and the subsequent color changes observed after exposure to air . As they explained : 
 The gradual development of blue to violet <unk> as one progresses from species to species is an interesting phenomenon <unk> further study . The climax is reached in L. indigo which is blue throughout . L. <unk> and its variety <unk> , L. <unk> , and L. <unk> may be considered as <unk> along the road to L. indigo . 
 The specific epithet indigo is derived from the Latin word meaning " indigo blue " . Its names in the English vernacular include the " indigo milk cap " , the " indigo Lactarius " , the " blue milk mushroom " , and the " blue Lactarius " . In central Mexico , it is known as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> ; it is also called <unk> ( meaning " blue " ) in Veracruz and Puebla . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 Like many other mushrooms , L. indigo develops from a <unk> , or <unk> , that forms within the underground mycelium , a mass of threadlike fungal cells called hyphae that make up the bulk of the organism . Under appropriate environmental conditions of temperature , humidity , and nutrient availability , the visible reproductive structures ( fruit bodies ) are formed . The cap of the fruit body , measuring between 5 and 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , is initially convex and later develops a central depression ; in age it becomes even more deeply depressed , becoming somewhat funnel @-@ shaped as the edge of the cap <unk> upward . The margin of the cap is rolled <unk> when young , but <unk> and <unk> as it matures . The cap surface is indigo blue when fresh , but fades to a paler <unk> or silvery @-@ blue , sometimes with greenish <unk> . It is often <unk> : marked with concentric lines that form alternating pale and darker zones , and the cap may have dark blue spots , especially towards the edge . Young caps are sticky to the touch . 
 The flesh is <unk> to bluish in color , slowly turning greenish after being exposed to air ; its taste is mild to slightly acrid . The flesh of the entire mushroom is brittle , and the stem , if bent sufficiently , will snap open cleanly . The latex <unk> from injured tissue is indigo blue , and stains the wounded tissue greenish ; like the flesh , the latex has a mild taste . Lactarius indigo is noted for not producing as much latex as other Lactarius species , and older specimens in particular may be too dried out to produce any latex . 
 The gills of the mushroom range from <unk> ( squarely attached to the stem ) to slightly <unk> ( running down the length of the stem ) , and crowded close together . Their color is an indigo blue , becoming paler with age or staining green with damage . The stem is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and the same diameter throughout or sometimes narrowed at base . Its color is indigo blue to <unk> or grayish blue . The interior of the stem is solid and firm initially , but develops a hollow with age . Like the cap , it is initially sticky or <unk> to the touch when young , but soon <unk> out . Its attachment to the cap is usually in a central position , although it may also be off @-@ center . Fruit bodies of L. indigo have no distinguishable odor . 
 L. indigo var. <unk> ( the " smaller indigo milk cap " ) is a smaller variant of the mushroom , with a cap diameter between 3 and 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 8 in ) , and a stem 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick . It is often seen in Virginia . Hesler and Smith , who first described the variant based on specimens found in Brazoria County , Texas , described its typical habitat as " along [ the ] sides of a muddy ditch under grasses and weeds , [ with ] <unk> pine nearby " . 
 
 = = = Microscopic features = = = 
 
 When viewed in mass , as in a spore print , the spores appear cream to yellow colored . <unk> with a light microscope , the spores are translucent ( hyaline ) , elliptical to nearly spherical in shape , with amyloid warts , and have dimensions of 7 – 9 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . <unk> electron microscopy reveals <unk> on the spore surface . The hymenium is the spore @-@ producing tissue layer of the fruit body , and consists of hyphae that extend into the gills and terminate as end cells . Various cell types can be observed in the hymenium , and the cells have microscopic characteristics that may be used to help identify or distinguish species in cases where the <unk> characters may be ambiguous . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are four @-@ spored and measure 37 – 45 µm long by 8 – 10 µm wide at the <unk> point . <unk> are terminal cells of hyphae in the hymenium which do not produce spores , and function in aiding spore dispersal , and maintaining favorable humidity around developing spores . The <unk> are cystidia that are found on the face of a gill ; they are 40 – 56 by 6 @.@ 4 – 8 µm , roughly spindle @-@ shaped , and have a <unk> apex . The cheilocystidia — located on the edge of a gill — are abundant , and are 40 @.@ 0 – 45 @.@ 6 by 5 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 2 µm . 
 
 = = = Similar species = = = 
 
 The characteristic blue color of the fruiting body and the latex make this species easily recognizable . Other Lactarius species with some blue color include the " silver @-@ blue <unk> " ( L. <unk> ) , found in eastern North America , which has a grayish @-@ blue cap when young , but it has reddish @-@ brown to purple @-@ brown latex and gills . L. <unk> has a yellowish to <unk> yellow @-@ brown to bluish @-@ gray cap and yellowish to brown latex . L. <unk> has blue @-@ colored flesh in the cap and orange to red @-@ orange flesh in the base of the stem . Although the blue <unk> of L. indigo is thought to be rare in the genus Lactarius , in 2007 five new species were reported from <unk> Malaysia with <unk> latex or flesh , including L. <unk> , L. <unk> , L. <unk> , and two species still unnamed . 
 
 = = Edibility = = 
 
 Although L. indigo is a well @-@ known edible species , opinions vary on its <unk> . For example , American mycologist David Arora considers it a " superior edible " , while a field guide on Kansas fungi rates it as " mediocre in quality " . It may have a slightly bitter , or <unk> taste , and has a coarse , <unk> texture . The firm flesh is best prepared by cutting the mushroom in thin <unk> . The blue color disappears with cooking , and the mushroom becomes grayish . Because of the <unk> texture of the flesh , it does not lend itself well to drying . Specimens producing copious quantities of milk may be used to add color to <unk> . 
 In Mexico , individuals harvest the wild mushrooms for sale at farmers ' markets , typically from June to November ; they are considered a " second class " species for consumption . L. indigo is also sold in <unk> markets from May to October . It is one of 13 Lactarius species sold at rural markets in <unk> in southwestern China . 
 
 = = = Chemical composition = = = 
 
 A chemical analysis of Mexican specimens has shown L. indigo to contain moisture at 951 mg / g of mushroom , fat at 4 @.@ 3 mg / g , protein at 13 @.@ 4 mg / g , and dietary <unk> at 18 @.@ 7 mg / g , much higher in comparison to the common button mushroom , which contains 6 @.@ 6 mg / g . Compared to three other wild edible mushroom species also tested in the study ( Amanita <unk> , Boletus <unk> , and <unk> <unk> ) , L. indigo contained the highest saturated fatty acids content , including <unk> acid with 32 @.@ 1 mg / g — slightly over half of the total free fatty acid content . 
 The blue color of L. indigo is due to ( 7 @-@ <unk> @-@ 4 @-@ <unk> @-@ 1 @-@ <unk> ) methyl <unk> , an organic derivative of <unk> . It is unique to this species , but similar to a compound found in L. <unk> . 
 
 = = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = = 
 
 L. indigo is distributed throughout southern and eastern North America but is most common along the Gulf Coast , Mexico , and Guatemala . Its frequency of appearance in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States has been described as " occasional to locally common " . Mycologist David Arora notes that in the United States , the species is found with ponderosa pine in Arizona , but is absent in California 's ponderosa pine forests . It has also been collected from China , India , Guatemala , and Costa Rica ( in forests dominated by oak ) . In Europe , it has so far only been found in southern France . A study on the seasonal appearance of fruiting bodies in the subtropical forests of <unk> , Mexico , confirmed that <unk> production coincided with the rainy season between June and September . 
 L. indigo is a mycorrhizal fungus , and as such , establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ( " hosts " ) , in which the fungi exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host . The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species , forming so @-@ called ectomycorrhizae — an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host , as the fungus produces enzymes that <unk> organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree . 
 Reflecting their close relationships with trees , the fruit bodies of L. indigo are typically found growing on the ground , scattered or in groups , in both deciduous and coniferous forests . They are also commonly found in floodplain areas that have been recently submerged . In Mexico , associations have been noted with Mexican alder , American <unk> , American <unk> , and <unk> <unk> , while in Guatemala the mushroom associates with smooth @-@ bark Mexican pine and other pine and oak species . In Costa Rica , the species forms associations with several native oaks of the Quercus genus . Under controlled laboratory conditions , L. indigo was shown to be able to form ectomycorrhizal associations with the <unk> pine species Mexican white pine , <unk> 's pine , Mexican yellow pine , smooth @-@ bark Mexican pine , and the Eurasian pines Aleppo pine , European black pine , maritime pine , and Scots pine . 
 
 = = = Cited literature = = = 
 
 Arora D. ( 1986 ) . Mushrooms <unk> : A <unk> Guide to the <unk> Fungi . Berkeley , California : Ten Speed Press . ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ 169 @-@ 4 . 
 Hesler <unk> , Smith AH ( 1979 ) . North American Species of Lactarius . Ann Arbor , Michigan : The University of Michigan Press . ISBN 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ 2 . 
 
 
 = You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow = 
 
 " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " is the fifth season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series Desperate Housewives , and the 88th episode overall . It originally aired on September 28 , 2008 , in the United States on ABC ( American Broadcasting Company ) . The episode was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " , as well as all subsequent episodes , takes place five years after the events of the fourth season finale following Cherry 's decision to revamp the series with a time jump . 
 In the episode , Edie ( Nicollette Sheridan ) returns to Wisteria Lane after a five @-@ year absence with her new husband , Dave ( Neal McDonough ) . While Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) hesitates to make a romantic commitment to Jackson ( Gale Harold ) , Lynette ( <unk> <unk> ) struggles with her <unk> teenage children and her husband 's <unk> crisis . Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) deals with her daughters ' weight problems and Bree ( Marcia Cross ) faces the ramifications of her success . 
 " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " received mostly positive reviews from television critics , most of whom agreed that the time jump refreshed the show . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew over 18 million viewers , making it the most @-@ watched show of the night and the second most @-@ watched program of the week across all networks . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 
 = = = Background = = = 
 
 Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents living on Wisteria Lane . In recent episodes , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike <unk> ( James Denton ) celebrate the birth of their son . Bree <unk> ( Marcia Cross ) chooses to raise her grandson while her daughter , Danielle ( Joy Lauren ) , attends college . She also issues an ultimatum , telling her husband , Orson ( Kyle <unk> ) , that she will leave him if he does not turn himself into the police after committing a hit @-@ and @-@ run . Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) struggles with Carlos ' ( Ricardo Antonio <unk> ) permanent blindness . Also , Edie <unk> ( Nicollette Sheridan ) leaves Wisteria Lane after the other residents <unk> her for her <unk> . 
 
 = = = Episode = = = 
 
 " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " takes place five years after the aforementioned events . Important plot information that takes place during the time jump is revealed in flashbacks . Orson has completed his prison sentence and the success of Bree 's catering company has provided her the opportunity to write her own cookbook . Her business partner , Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , <unk> how Bree 's success has changed her and intentionally <unk> Bree 's television interview , further straining their friendship . A flashback reveals that Danielle married a lawyer and <unk> took her son away from Bree . Meanwhile , Lynette is frustrated with Tom 's ( Doug <unk> ) relaxed approach to parenting their rebellious teenage sons , Porter and Preston ( Charlie Carver and Max Carver , respectively ) . She encourages him to employ more disciplinary actions . 
 During the time jump , Susan and Mike were involved in a car crash that killed a mother and her child . As a result , the couple divorced and now share custody of their son , <unk> ( Mason Vale Cotton ) . Susan engages in a sexual relationship with her house painter , Jackson <unk> ( Gale Harold ) , but keeps their romance a secret from her friends and family . Jackson seeks a more substantial relationship , but Susan is weary of such a commitment following her divorce . Elsewhere , Gabrielle has been raising two overweight daughters , Juanita ( Madison De La Garza ) and Celia ( <unk> Baltodano ) , and has also lost her own figure as well . Gabrielle tricks Juanita into exercising by driving away and making Juanita chase after her car . 
 After five years of absence , Edie returns to Wisteria Lane with her mysterious husband , Dave ( Neal McDonough ) , who seems to have a calming effect on his ill @-@ tempered wife . Later , Dave receives a phone call from Dr. Samuel Heller ( Stephen <unk> ) , who reminds him that monthly check @-@ ins are a condition of his release . After the conversation , Dr. Heller reviews a taped therapy session in which Dave threatens to get revenge on the man who destroyed his life . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " was written by series creator and executive producer Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . Filming for the episode was scheduled to begin on July 7 , 2008 . The episode is the first to fully employ the five @-@ year jump , which was introduced in the final two minutes of the fourth season finale . While developing the fifth season , Cherry began <unk> ways to revamp the series . He stated : " The soap tends to build up , and I wanted to get back to where we were that very first season , where it 's just the problems of some ordinary women and they were small and relatable . " Cherry credits the producers of Lost for the idea of the time jump . The writers hoped the time jump would also help them avoid repeating mistakes they made during the show 's poorly received second season , during which they relied heavily on storylines from the previous season . Cherry said that the time jump would be permanent , with executive producer Bob Daily clarifying that some brief flashback scenes would be used to enhance the storytelling and provide context for current plot lines . Cherry had originally wanted to do a ten @-@ year jump , mostly to age the young characters into their teenage years in order to open up more storyline possibilities . 
 The writers ensured that although they were changing the storyline circumstances , the characters remained the same with minimal changes to their personalities . According to series writer Matt Berry , the time jump allowed the writers to work with the characters " without most of the baggage they ’ d accumulated in the earlier years , and put them into starting places so we could move them forward and build in new story arcs . " For this reason , the writers treated the season premiere as a pilot , in which , according to Daily , they " could give the women a new drive . " Daily identified the Susan character as having undergone the greatest change , stating that she has given up on looking for a " fairy @-@ tale romance " and is emotionally distant in her new relationship . He also stated that the character of Gabrielle has dealt with the biggest change in terms of her circumstances , as she continues to deal with her husband 's blindness and their financial problems . Actress Eva Longoria had to gain weight and wear additional body padding for her character 's new storyline . Dana Delany stated that her character , Katherine , who was portrayed as an <unk> in the previous season , is more relaxed following the time jump . However , Delany clarified that while Katherine is now friends with the other characters , she and Bree would become <unk> as a result of their business partnership . Nicollette Sheridan , commented that Edie , who played an integral role in the season 's mystery story arch , is " a lot more conscientious about things [ this season ] , without losing her comedic edge . " 
 Several casting changes were made as a result of the five @-@ year jump . Neal McDonough 's involvement was announced in July 2008 . McDonough did not audition for the role of Dave Williams , but was offered it after meeting with Cherry . Gale Harold continued appearing as Jackson , Susan 's new love interest , after appearing briefly in the <unk> segment at the end of the fourth season . The roles of the <unk> children were recast in order to reflect their new ages following the time jump . Charlie and Max Carver replaced Brent and Shane <unk> as Preston and Porter , respectively . The <unk> twins appeared in a flashback in this episode . Joshua Logan Moore was cast as Parker , a role previously played by <unk> <unk> , and Kendall Applegate joined the cast as Penny , who had previously been portrayed by several <unk> actresses . Despite their casting announcements alongside the Carver twins , Moore and Applegate did not appear in " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " . The <unk> segment at the end of the fourth season also introduced <unk> Say and <unk> Baltodano as Gabrielle 's daughters , Juanita and Celia , respectively . Only Baltodano continued portraying her role for the fifth season ; Say was replaced by Madison De La Garza during the summer hiatus . 
 Andrea Bowen , who starred as Susan 's daughter , Julie , departed from the cast , as her character left for college at the end of the fourth season . Teri Hatcher expressed disappointment in the producers ' decision , but Cherry stated that Bowen would return in the future . Joy Lauren , who portrayed Bree 's daughter , Danielle , and <unk> <unk> , who played Katherine 's daughter , Dylan , also left the main cast , although the former appeared in the season premiere as a guest star . Because the fourth season ended leaving Mike 's whereabouts unknown , James Denton 's return to the series was questioned during hiatus . Denton stated in May 2008 that producers would not make a decision on his character until mid @-@ June and that he was preparing to find work in case his contract was terminated . It was later confirmed that he would return to the series . 
 The Wisteria Lane set , which is located on the Colonial Street <unk> set at Universal Studios , underwent changes for the time jump . Production designer P. Erik Carlson explained , " [ former production designer Thomas A. Walsh ] had already created a fairly <unk> world , and we wanted to <unk> and enhance it a little bit more , mostly through the use of color . We didn ’ t want it to feel ridiculously futuristic or viewers would be jarred by the contrast . " Bree 's garage was remodeled into a testing kitchen as result of the character 's catering business . Additionally , all houses were <unk> with bolder colors , with the exception of Gabrielle 's home , in order to reflect the Solis ' financial situation . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Ratings = = = 
 
 According to Nielsen ratings , " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " was watched by 18 @.@ 684 million viewers and held an 11 @.@ 4 rating / 17 share on its original American broadcast on September 28 , 2008 . The episode was watched in 13 @.@ 105 million total households . It was number one in its timeslot , beating Sunday Night Football on NBC , Cold Case on CBS , and Family Guy and American Dad ! on Fox . The episode was the most @-@ watched program of the night in both total viewers and the young adult demographic . It was the second @-@ most watched program of the week across all networks by viewers 18 to 49 years old , behind Grey 's Anatomy , and the second @-@ most watched program in total viewership , behind Dancing with the Stars . The episode also performed better than any original broadcast of the series since January 2008 . It outperformed the fourth season finale by two million total viewers and showed a 17 percent increase in viewers 18 to 49 years old . At the time , the episode was the least @-@ watched season premiere of the series , falling half a million viewers from the fourth season premiere , " Now You Know " , a year earlier . However , " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " outperformed " Now You Know " in the demographic of women between 18 and 34 years of age with an 8 @.@ 3 rating / 20 share in that demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode premiered on Channel 4 on October 22 , 2008 . It was watched by 2 @.@ 39 million viewers , becoming the sixth most @-@ watched program of the week on the channel . 
 
 = = = Critical reception = = = 
 
 The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . <unk> <unk> of Entertainment Weekly called the five @-@ year jump " a stroke of genius , effectively increasing our insight into these ladies ' world by <unk> . " He called the Gabrielle storyline a true depiction of motherhood and applauded the scene in which Carlos and Gabrielle discuss her low self @-@ esteem . He complimented the Bree storyline , particularly the argument scene between Bree and Katherine . He enjoyed the Dave storyline , but expressed disappointment that Edie 's reappearance was the only scene that involved all of the leading women . Additionally , <unk> was not intrigued by Lynette 's storyline and deemed it " more of the same " for the character . He criticized Susan 's storyline , calling it annoying . He also dismissed the writers ' ploy to give viewers the impression that Mike had died for almost the entire episode . TV Guide 's Matt Roush gave the episode an ' A ' , stating , " Moving the story ahead five years didn 't so much reinvent the show as it <unk> and refreshed the <unk> mix of domestic comedy and <unk> intrigue that we 've always enjoyed . " He highlighted the comedic Gabrielle storyline while <unk> the additions of McDonough and Harold to the cast . 
 In his review of the first two episodes of the season , Brian Lowry of Variety said that while " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " is satisfactory and establishes the five @-@ year jump effectively , the second episode is better , calling it " a knock @-@ out . " Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker commended the time jump as a reflection of both the characters ' and series ' ambitions , rating the episode a ' B + ' . Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe gave the episode a mixed review . She said that the time leap proved to be successful , as the show had been " <unk> " for several seasons and concluded that , " so far , at least , this season promises to be less about plot than personality . That doesn 't mean the show is perfect - it never was - but it 's better , and that 's a big relief . " The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen was positive in his review , noting that the writers handled the five @-@ year leap well , especially in regards to Lynette 's storyline . He complimented the episode 's comedy and expressed his hope that the time jump would allow the writers to focus on humor rather than overly @-@ dramatic storylines . 
 
 
 = Fear of Flying ( The Simpsons ) = 
 
 " Fear of Flying " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 18 , 1994 . In the episode , Homer is banned from Moe 's Tavern and struggles to find a new bar . When he destroys a plane after being mistaken for a pilot at a pilots @-@ only bar , the airline <unk> the Simpsons ' silence with free tickets . The family discovers that Marge is afraid of flying . 
 The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland , and written by David Sacks . It features numerous guest stars , including Anne Bancroft as Dr. Zweig . Additionally , Ted <unk> , Woody <unk> , Rhea <unk> , John Ratzenberger , and George <unk> appear as their characters from Cheers . It received positive reception from television critics , and acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 6 . The authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented positively on the episode , as did reviews from DVD Verdict and DVD Movie Guide . 
 
 = = Plot = = 
 
 After pulling a harmless prank on Moe , Homer is banned from His Tavern , ironically after Moe laughed off life @-@ threatening ones that Lenny , Carl and Barney pulled on him . Looking for another place to drink ( including the Cheers bar ) , Homer eventually settles for an airline pilots ' bar , but is mistaken for a pilot ( despite <unk> that he 's not really a pilot ) and is put in the cockpit of an airplane , which he promptly wrecks after raising the stationary plane 's landing gear . In exchange for his silence of the mistake they 've made , the airline gives the Simpson family free tickets to anywhere they desire in the continental United States . However , the idea of plane travel fills Marge with anxiety as she has a fear of flying , and after numerous failed attempts to get out of the trip , she eventually has a panic attack on the plane , following which the trip is postponed . 
 Marge does not want to talk to anybody about her fear , and Lisa worries that Marge 's decision to keep her feelings <unk> up will cause them to " come out in other ways " . When Marge begins to show signs of her lingering flight @-@ related trauma by insisting the cat and the dog are living in sin , cooking giant <unk> , and <unk> the roof in the middle of the night , Lisa convinces Marge to undergo treatment with therapist Dr. Zweig . Homer , however , grows increasingly paranoid about Marge 's therapy , believing that Zweig will blame Marge 's trauma on him , and encourage her to leave him . 
 Zweig <unk> the roots of Marge 's fear : the moment she realized her father was not a pilot , but an apron @-@ wearing flight attendant , a job that was mostly reserved for women at the time . Her shame is eased when Zweig assures her that male flight attendants are now very common and that her father could be considered a pioneer . Marge also brings up memories of her grandmother poking her in the eye as a baby while playing airplane , a toy plane catching fire , and having a plane fire at her and her mother , but Zweig just ignores them . Before the therapist begins to question Marge 's marriage , Homer immediately takes Marge away and Marge manages to thank Zweig for helping her . Marge is finally cured of her fears , but when she and Homer attempt to fly on a plane again , the plane crashes into a lake . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 " Fear of Flying " was directed by Mark Kirkland , and written by David Sacks . The story of the episode came about when Sacks came into the writers ' room with an idea for an episode where Marge goes to a therapist " for one reason or another " . Sacks and the other writers then structured the rest of the plot around that storyline . Anne Bancroft was called in to voice Zweig . Before Bancroft recorded her part , the animators based Zweig 's design on a <unk> track from cast member <unk> <unk> as the therapist . After Bancroft had recorded her part , Zweig was redesigned to fit with Bancroft 's voice . They added split glasses and a streak of silver in her hair to give her a more mature look . 
 After Homer was kicked out of Moe 's Tavern , it was originally planned for a cat to come to Homer , and then have it enter the bar . The result is the <unk> loving the cat , and depressing Homer even more . According to David Silverman , the fact that it looked depressing was the reason why it was deleted , and replaced with a more humorous approach with him chasing a <unk> . 
 The staff was able to get the central cast of the American sitcom Cheers , with the exception of <unk> Grammer , to reunite and guest star in the episode . The staff could not arrange the script to allow time in the episode for Grammer , who already had a recurring role on The Simpsons as Sideshow Bob , to voice <unk> Crane . Ted <unk> guest starred as Sam , Woody <unk> as Woody , Rhea <unk> as Carla , John Ratzenberger as Cliff , and George <unk> as <unk> . 
 
 = = Cultural references = = 
 
 Homer enters the Cheers bar in a scene which is a parody of a typical episode of the comedy series Cheers . All of the speaking characters are voiced by the actors who played them in Cheers . Ironically , <unk> Crane remains silent despite being played by Simpsons veteran <unk> Grammer , the voice of Sideshow Bob . Marge 's dream sees her in the role of Mrs. Robinson from Lost in Space , while Homer plays Dr. Smith . The scene where Marge and Jacqueline <unk> duck down when a biplane shoots at them in a <unk> is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock 's film North by Northwest . 
 Homer 's Mount <unk> caricature resembles <unk> <unk> , the mascot of The New Yorker . Homer 's line about getting out of Springfield is lifted from It 's a <unk> Life , while Homer 's all @-@ time favorite song is revealed to be " It 's <unk> Men " by The Weather Girls . When Abe Simpson is left behind on the plane , his slapping his hands on his face and <unk> is a reference to Home Alone . This is the second time Home Alone has been parodied on The Simpsons . The first was " Homer Alone " , a reference to the title . 
 As Homer is looking for a place to drink , he tries a lesbian bar , the She She Lounge . However , he soon realizes that " this lesbian bar doesn 't have a fire exit " . He then leaves , saying " <unk> your <unk> , ladies ! " . This is a reference to a famous Greenwich Village gay bar , the <unk> Inn . This mafia @-@ owned and <unk> bar " had no rear exit , so if there had been a fire on a weekend night , hundreds of customers would have had to escape through a single narrow passage leading to the front door . " The films Homer rents are Hero , Fearless , and Alive , the latter of which Marge watches . All of them involve plane crashes . 
 When Marge leaves Dr. Zweig 's office , she says , " Whenever the wind whistles through the leaves , I 'll think , Lowenstein , Lowenstein … " . This is a reference to The Prince of Tides ; the <unk> is Dr. Lowenstein . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 In its original American broadcast , " Fear of Flying " finished 48th ( tied with Dateline NBC ) in the ratings for the week of December 12 to December 18 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 6 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week , beaten only by Beverly Hills , <unk> , and Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . In July 2007 , Simon <unk> of The Times listed the Cheers cast 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . 
 Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said it was " a good Marge @-@ centric episode with plenty of clever set pieces – the tributes to Cheers and Lost in Space are fantastic " , and noted that " Marge 's father looks suspiciously like Moe " . Ryan Keefer at DVD Verdict said that " with the cast of Cheers appearing ( except for Grammer , ironically ) and a funny spoof of North by Northwest , the episode is much better than you would expect " , and gave it a B + . 
 Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD that it was " another show I didn ’ t recall fondly but that works exceedingly well . I hadn ’ t realized how many quotes I ’ ve stolen from this one : the name ' Guy <unk> ' , the dog with the <unk> tail , ' a burden coupled with a <unk> ' . The show makes little sense in regard to continuity since Marge has flown during prior shows , but it ’ s consistently very funny and entertaining . " The Phoenix named Anne Bancroft one of the twenty best guest stars to appear on the show . 
 
 = = Merchandise = = 
 
 The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled : The Simpsons Go To Hollywood . Other episodes included in the collection set were " <unk> Moe 's " , " <unk> <unk> <unk> " , and " Homer to the Max " . " Fear of Flying " was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the same set . It was included in The Simpsons season 6 DVD set , which was released on August 16 , 2005 , as The Simpsons – The Complete Sixth Season . 
 
 
 = Harold Innis = 
 
 Harold Adams Innis ( / <unk> / ; November 5 , 1894 – November 8 , 1952 ) was a Canadian professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on media , communication theory , and Canadian economic history . Despite his dense and difficult prose , Innis was one of Canada 's most original thinkers . He helped develop the staples thesis , which holds that Canada 's culture , political history , and economy have been decisively influenced by the exploitation and export of a series of " staples " such as fur , fishing , lumber , wheat , mined metals , and coal . The staple thesis dominated economic history in Canada 1930s @-@ 1960s , and is still used by some . 
 Innis 's writings on communication explore the role of media in shaping the culture and development of civilizations . He argued , for example , that a balance between oral and written forms of communication contributed to the flourishing of Greek civilization in the 5th century BC . He warned , however , that Western civilization is now <unk> by powerful , advertising @-@ driven media obsessed by " present @-@ mindedness " and the " continuous , systematic , ruthless destruction of elements of permanence essential to cultural activity " . His intellectual bond with Eric A. Havelock formed the foundations of the “ Toronto School of Communication ” which provided a source of inspiration for future members of the school : Marshall McLuhan and Edmund Snow Carpenter . 
 Innis laid the basis for scholarship that looked at the social sciences from a distinctly Canadian point of view . As the head of the University of Toronto 's political economy department , he worked to build up a cadre of Canadian scholars so that universities would not continue to rely as heavily on British or American @-@ trained professors unfamiliar with Canada 's history and culture . He was successful in establishing sources of financing for Canadian scholarly research . 
 As the Cold War grew <unk> after 1947 , Innis grew increasingly hostile to the United States . He warned repeatedly that Canada was becoming a <unk> colony to its much more powerful southern neighbor . " We are indeed fighting for our lives , " he warned , pointing especially to the " <unk> influence of American advertising .... We can only survive by taking persistent action at strategic points against American imperialism in all its attractive <unk> . " His anti @-@ Americanism influenced some younger scholars , including Donald Creighton . 
 Innis also tried to defend universities from political and economic pressures . He believed that independent universities , as centres of critical thought , were essential to the survival of Western civilization . His intellectual disciple and university colleague , Marshall McLuhan , lamented Innis 's premature death as a disastrous loss for human understanding . McLuhan wrote : " I am pleased to think of my own book The <unk> Galaxy as a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences , first of writing then of printing . " 
 
 = = Rural roots = = 
 
 
 = = = Early life = = = 
 
 Harold Adams Innis was born in 1894 on a small livestock and dairy farm near the community of Otterville in southwestern Ontario 's Oxford County . As a boy he loved the rhythms and routines of farm life and he never <unk> his rural origins . His mother , Mary Adams Innis , had named him ' Herald ' , hoping he would become a minister in the strict evangelical Baptist faith that she and her husband William shared . At the time , the Baptist Church was an important part of life in rural areas . It gave isolated families a sense of community and embodied the values of <unk> and independence . Its far @-@ flung congregations were not ruled by a centralized , bureaucratic authority . Innis became an agnostic in later life , but never lost his interest in religion . According to his friend and biographer Donald Creighton , Innis 's character was moulded by the Church : 
 The strict sense of values and the feeling of devotion to a cause , which became so characteristic of him in later life , were derived , in part at least , from the instruction imparted so <unk> and <unk> inside the severely unadorned walls of the Baptist Church at Otterville . 
 Innis attended the one @-@ room schoolhouse in Otterville and the community 's high school . He travelled 20 miles ( 32 km ) by train to Woodstock , Ontario , to complete his secondary education at a Baptist @-@ run college . He intended to become a public @-@ school teacher and passed the entrance examinations for teacher training , but decided to take a year off to earn the money he would need to support himself at an Ontario teachers ' college . At age 18 , therefore , he returned to the one @-@ room schoolhouse at Otterville to teach for one term until the local school board could recruit a fully qualified teacher . The experience made him realize that the life of a teacher in a small , rural school was not for him . 
 
 = = = University studies = = = 
 
 In October 1913 , Innis started classes at McMaster University ( then in Toronto ) . McMaster was a natural choice for him because it was a Baptist university and many students who attended Woodstock College went there . McMaster 's liberal arts professors encouraged critical thinking and debate . Innis was especially influenced by James Ten <unk> , the university 's one @-@ man philosophy department . Ten <unk> posed an essay question that Innis pondered for the rest of his life : " Why do we attend to the things to which we attend ? " 
 Before his final undergraduate year at McMaster , Innis spent a summer teaching at the Northern Star School in the frontier farming community of <unk> near <unk> , Alberta . The experience gave him a sense of the <unk> of Canada . He also learned about Western grievances over high interest rates and steep transportation costs . In his final undergraduate year , Innis focused on history and economics . He kept in mind a remark made by history lecturer <unk> Wallace that the economic interpretation of history was not the only possible one , but that it went the deepest . 
 
 = = = First World War service = = = 
 
 After graduating from McMaster , Innis felt that his Christian principles compelled him to enlist in the Canadian Expeditionary Force . He was sent to France in the fall of 1916 to fight in the First World War . <unk> warfare with its " mud and lice and rats " had a devastating effect on him . 
 Innis 's role as an artillery <unk> gave him firsthand experience of life ( and death ) on the front lines as he participated in the successful Canadian attack on <unk> Ridge . <unk> , or <unk> , watched where each artillery shell landed , then sent back aiming corrections so that the next shells could hit their targets more accurately . On July 7 , 1917 , Innis received a serious shrapnel wound in his right thigh that required eight months of hospital treatment in England . 
 Innis 's war was over . His biographer , John Watson , notes the physical wound took seven years to heal , but the psychological damage lasted a lifetime . Innis suffered recurring bouts of depression and nervous exhaustion because of his military service . 
 Watson also notes that the Great War influenced Innis 's intellectual outlook . It strengthened his Canadian nationalism ; sharpened his opinion of what he thought were the destructive effects of technology , including the communications media that were used so effectively to " sell " the war ; and led him , for the first time , to doubt his Baptist faith . 
 
 = = <unk> studies = = 
 
 
 = = = McMaster and Chicago = = = 
 
 Harold Innis completed a Master of Arts at McMaster , graduating in April 1918 . His thesis , called The <unk> Soldier , " was a detailed description of the public policy measures that were necessary , not only to provide a supportive milieu to help veterans get over the effects of the war , but also to move on with national reconstruction " . 
 Innis did his <unk> work at the University of Chicago and was awarded his PhD in August 1920 . His two years at Chicago had a profound influence on his later work . His interest in economics deepened and he decided to become a professional economist . The economics faculty at Chicago questioned abstract and <unk> neoclassical theories , then in vogue , arguing that general rules for economic policy should be derived from specific case studies . 
 Innis was influenced by the university 's two eminent communications scholars , George Herbert Mead and Robert E. Park . Although he did not attend any of these famous professors ' classes , Innis did absorb their idea that communication involved much more than the transmission of information . James W. Carey writes that Mead and Park " characterized communication as the entire process whereby a culture is brought into existence , maintained in time , and <unk> into institutions " . 
 While at Chicago , Innis was exposed to the ideas of <unk> Veblen , the <unk> thinker who drew on his deep knowledge of philosophy and economics to write scathing critiques of contemporary thought and culture . Veblen had left Chicago years before , but his ideas were still strongly felt there . Years later , in an essay on Veblen , Innis praised him for <unk> war against " standardized static economics " . 
 Innis got his first taste of university teaching at Chicago , where he delivered several introductory economics courses . One of his students was Mary <unk> , the woman he would marry in May 1921 when he was 26 and she 22 . Together they had four children , Donald ( 1924 ) , Mary ( 1927 ) , Hugh ( 1930 ) and Ann ( 1933 ) . Mary <unk> Innis was herself a notable economist and writer . Her book , An Economic History of Canada , was published in 1935 . Her novel , Stand on a Rainbow appeared in 1943 . Her other books include Mrs. <unk> 's <unk> ( 1965 ) , The <unk> Spirit : Canadian Women and Their Times ( 1966 ) and <unk> the Years ( 1949 ) , a history of the Young Women 's Christian Association . She also edited Harold Innis 's posthumous Essays in Canadian Economic History ( 1956 ) and a 1972 reissue of his Empire and Communications . 
 
 = = = History of the CPR = = = 
 
 Harold Innis wrote his PhD thesis on the history of the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The completion of Canada 's first <unk> railway in 1885 had been a defining moment in Canadian history . Innis 's thesis , eventually published as a book in 1923 , can be seen as an early attempt to document the railway 's significance from an economic historian 's point of view . It uses <unk> statistics to <unk> its arguments . Innis maintains that the difficult and expensive construction project was sustained by fears of American <unk> of the Canadian West . 
 Innis argues that " the history of the Canadian Pacific Railroad is primarily the history of the spread of Western civilization over the northern half of the North American continent " . As Robert Babe notes , the railway brought <unk> , transporting coal and building supplies to manufacturing sites . It was also a kind of communications medium that contributed to the spread of European civilization . Babe writes that , for Innis , the CPR 's equipment " comprised a massive , energy @-@ consuming , fast @-@ moving , powerful , capital @-@ intensive ' sign ' dropped into the very midst of indigenous peoples , whose entire way of life was disrupted , and eventually shattered as a result . 
 Communications scholar Arthur <unk> argues that Innis 's study of the Canadian Pacific Railway was only the first in which he attempted to demonstrate that " technology is not something external to Canadian being ; but on the contrary , is the necessary condition and lasting consequence of Canadian existence " . It also reflected Innis 's lifelong interest in the exercise of economic and political power . His CPR history ends , for example , with a recounting of Western grievances against economic policies , such as high freight rates and the steep import tariffs designed to protect fledgling Canadian manufacturers . <unk> complained that this National Policy <unk> money from Prairie farmers into the pockets of the Eastern business establishment . " Western Canada " , Innis wrote , " has paid for the development of Canadian nationality , and it would appear that it must continue to pay . The <unk> of Eastern Canada shows little sign of abatement . " 
 
 = = Staples thesis = = 
 
 Harold Innis is considered the leading founder of a Canadian school of economic thought known as the staples theory . It holds that Canada 's culture , political history and economy have been decisively shaped by the exploitation and export of a series of " staples " such as fur , fish , wood , wheat , mined metals and fossil fuels . Innis theorized that this reliance on exporting natural resources made Canada dependent on more <unk> advanced countries and resulted in periodic disruptions to economic life as the international demand for staples rose and fell ; as the staple itself became increasingly scarce ; and , as technological change resulted in shifts from one staple to others . Innis pointed out , for example , that as furs became scarce and trade in that staple declined , it became necessary to develop and export other staples such as wheat , <unk> and especially lumber . The export of these new staples was made possible through improved transportation networks that included first canals , and later , railways . 
 
 = = = " Dirt " research = = = 
 
 In 1920 , Innis joined the department of political economy at the University of Toronto . He was assigned to teach courses in commerce , economic history and economic theory . He decided to focus his scholarly research on Canadian economic history , a hugely neglected subject , and he settled on the fur trade as his first area of study . <unk> had brought French and English traders to Canada , motivating them to travel west along the continent 's <unk> lake and river systems to the Pacific coast . Innis realized that he would not only need to search out archival documents to understand the history of the fur trade , but would also have to travel the country himself gathering masses of firsthand information and accumulating what he called " dirt " experience . 
 Thus , Innis travelled extensively beginning in the summer of 1924 when he and a friend <unk> an 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) canvas @-@ covered <unk> hundreds of miles down the Peace River to Lake <unk> ; then down the Slave River to Great Slave Lake . They completed their journey down the Mackenzie , Canada 's longest river , to the Arctic Ocean on a small Hudson 's Bay Company <unk> . During his travels , Innis supplemented his fur research by gathering information on other staple products such as lumber , pulp and paper , minerals , grain and fish . He travelled so extensively that by the early 1940s , he had visited every part of Canada except for the Western Arctic and the east side of Hudson Bay . 
 Everywhere Innis went his methods were the same : he interviewed people connected with the production of staple products and listened to their stories . 
 
 = = = Fur trade in Canada = = = 
 
 Harold Innis 's interest in the relationship between empires and colonies was developed in his classic study , The Fur Trade in Canada : An Introduction to Canadian Economic History ( 1930 ) . The book chronicles the trade in beaver fur from the early 16th century to the 1920s . Instead of focusing on the " heroic " European adventurers who explored the Canadian wilderness as conventional histories had done , Innis documents how the interplay of geography , technology and economic forces shaped both the fur trade and Canada 's political and economic destiny . He concludes that the fur trade largely determined Canada 's boundaries adding that the country " emerged not in spite of geography but because of it " . 
 The Fur Trade in Canada also describes the cultural interactions among three groups of people : the Europeans in fashionable metropolitan centres who regarded beaver hats as luxury items ; the European colonial settlers who saw beaver fur as a staple that could be exported to pay for essential manufactured goods from the home country , and First Nations peoples who traded furs for industrial goods such as metal pots , knives , guns and liquor . Innis describes the central role First Nations peoples played in the development of the fur trade . Without their skilled hunting techniques , knowledge of the territory and advanced tools such as <unk> , <unk> and birch @-@ bark canoes , the fur trade would not have existed . However , dependence on European technologies disrupted First Nations societies . " The new technology with its radical innovations " , Innis writes , " brought about such a rapid shift in the prevailing Indian culture as to lead to wholesale destruction of the peoples concerned by warfare and disease . " Historian Carl Berger argues that by placing First Nations culture at the centre of his analysis of the fur trade , Innis " was the first to explain adequately the disintegration of native society under the thrust of European capitalism . " 
 Unlike many historians who see Canadian history as beginning with the arrival of Europeans , Innis emphasizes the cultural and economic contributions of First Nations peoples . " We have not yet realized , " he writes , " that the Indian and his culture was fundamental to the growth of Canadian institutions . " 
 The Fur Trade in Canada concludes by arguing that Canadian economic history can best be understood by examining how one staple product gave way to another — furs to timber , for example , and the later importance of wheat and minerals . <unk> on staples made Canada economically dependent on more <unk> advanced countries and the " cyclonic " shifts from one staple to another caused frequent disruptions in the country 's economic life . 
 
 = = = Cod fishery = = = 
 
 After the publication of his book on the fur trade , Innis turned to a study of an earlier staple — the <unk> fished for centuries off the eastern coasts of North America , especially the Grand Banks of Newfoundland . The result was The Cod Fisheries : The History of an International Economy published in 1940 , 10 years after the fur trade study . Innis tells the detailed history of competing empires in the exploitation of a <unk> natural resource — a history that ranges over 500 years . While his study of the fur trade focused on the continental interior with its <unk> rivers and lakes , The Cod Fisheries looks outward at global trade and empire , showing the far @-@ reaching effects of one staple product both on imperial centres and on marginal colonies such as Newfoundland , Nova Scotia and New England . 
 
 = = Communications theories = = 
 
 Harold Innis 's study of the effects of interconnected lakes and rivers on Canadian development and European empire sparked his interest in the complex economic and cultural relationships between transportation systems and communications . During the 1940s , Innis also began studying pulp and paper , an industry of central importance to the Canadian economy . This research provided an additional crossover point from his work on staple products to his communications studies . Biographer Paul <unk> writes that Innis " followed pulp and paper through its subsequent stages : newspapers and journalism , books and advertising . In other words , from looking at a natural resource @-@ based industry he turned his attention to a cultural industry in which information , and ultimately knowledge , was a commodity that circulated , had value , and empowered those who controlled it . " 
 One of Innis 's primary contributions to communications studies was to apply the dimensions of time and space to various media . He divided media into time @-@ binding and space @-@ binding types . Time @-@ binding media are durable . They include clay or stone tablets . Space @-@ binding media are more <unk> . They include modern media such as radio , television , and mass circulation newspapers . 
 Innis examined the rise and fall of ancient empires as a way of tracing the effects of communications media . He looked at media that led to the growth of an empire ; those that sustained it during its periods of success , and then , the communications changes that <unk> an empire 's collapse . He tried to show that media ' biases ' toward time or space affected the complex interrelationships needed to sustain an empire . These interrelationships included the partnership between the knowledge ( and ideas ) necessary to create and maintain an empire , and the power ( or force ) required to expand and defend it . For Innis , the interplay between knowledge and power was always a crucial factor in understanding empire . 
 Innis argued that a balance between the spoken word and writing contributed to the flourishing of ancient Greece in the time of <unk> . This balance between the time @-@ biased medium of speech and the space @-@ biased medium of writing was eventually upset , Innis argued , as the oral tradition gave way to the dominance of writing . The torch of empire then passed from Greece to Rome . 
 Harold Innis 's analysis of the effects of communications on the rise and fall of empires led him to warn <unk> that Western civilization was now facing its own profound crisis . The development of powerful communications media such as mass @-@ circulation newspapers had shifted the balance decisively in favour of space and power , over time , continuity and knowledge . The balance required for cultural survival had been upset by what Innis saw as " mechanized " communications media used to transmit information quickly over long distances . These media had contributed to an obsession with " present @-@ mindedness " <unk> out concerns about past or future . Innis wrote , 
 The overwhelming pressure of mechanization evident in the newspaper and the magazine , has led to the creation of vast <unk> of communication . Their entrenched positions involve a continuous , systematic , ruthless destruction of elements of permanence essential to cultural activity . 
 Western civilization could only be saved , Innis argued , by recovering the balance between space and time . For him , that meant <unk> the oral tradition within universities while freeing institutions of higher learning from political and commercial pressures . In his essay , A <unk> for Time , he suggested that genuine dialogue within universities could produce the critical thinking necessary to restore the balance between power and knowledge . Then , universities could muster the courage to attack the <unk> that always <unk> civilization . 
 Although Innis remains appreciated and respected for the grand and unique nature of his later efforts regarding communications theories , he was not without critics . Particularly , the fragmentary and mosaic writing style exemplified in Empire and Communications has been criticized as ambiguous , aggressively non @-@ linear , and lacking connections between levels of analysis . Biographers have suggested that this style may have been a result of Innis ' illness late in his career . 
 
 = = Academic and public career = = 
 
 
 = = = Influence in the 1930s = = = 
 
 Aside from his work on The Cod Fisheries , Innis wrote extensively in the 1930s about other staple products such as minerals and wheat as well as Canada 's immense economic problems in the Great Depression . During the summers of 1932 and 1933 , he travelled to the West to see the effects of the Depression for himself . The next year , in an essay entitled , The Canadian Economy and the Depression , Innis outlined the plight of " a country susceptible to the slightest ground @-@ swell of international disturbance " , yet beset by regional differences that made it difficult to <unk> effective solutions . He described a Prairie economy dependent on the export of wheat , yet afflicted by severe drought , on the one hand , and the increased political power of Canada 's growing cities , sheltered from direct reliance on the staples trade , on the other . The result was political conflict and a breakdown in federal – provincial relations . " We lack vital information on which to base prospective policies to meet this situation " , Innis warned , because of " the weak position of the social sciences in Canada " . 
 Innis 's reputation as a " public intellectual " was growing steadily and , in 1934 , Premier Angus L. Macdonald invited him to serve on a Royal Commission to examine Nova Scotia 's economic problems . The next year , he helped establish The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science . In 1936 , he was appointed a full University of Toronto professor and a year later , became the head of the university 's Department of Political Economy . 
 Innis was appointed president of the Canadian Political Science Association in 1938 . His inaugural address , entitled The <unk> Powers of the Price System , must have <unk> his listeners as he ranged over centuries of economic history jumping abruptly from one topic to the next linking monetary developments to patterns of trade and settlement . The address was an ambitious attempt to show the disruptive effects of new technologies culminating in the modern shift from an industrial system based on coal and iron to the newest sources of industrial power , electricity , oil and steel . Innis also tried to show the commercial effects of mass circulation newspapers , made possible by expanded <unk> production , and of the new medium of radio , which " threatens to <unk> the walls imposed by tariffs and to reach across boundaries frequently denied to other media of communication " . Both media , Innis argued , stimulated the demand for consumer goods and both promoted nationalism . 
 Innis was also a central participant in an international project that produced 25 scholarly volumes between 1936 and 1945 . It was a series called The Relations of Canada and the United States overseen by James T. <unk> , director of the Carnegie <unk> for International Peace . Innis edited and wrote <unk> for the volumes contributed by Canadian scholars . His own study of the <unk> fisheries also appeared as part of the series . His work with <unk> enabled Innis to gain access to Carnegie money to further Canadian academic research . As John Watson points out , " the project offered one of the few sources of research funds in rather lean times " . 
 
 = = = Politics and The Great Depression = = = 
 
 The era of the " Dirty <unk> " with its mass unemployment , poverty and despair gave rise to new Canadian political movements . In Alberta , for example , the radio <unk> William " Bible Bill " <unk> led his populist Social Credit party to victory in 1935 . Three years earlier in Calgary , Alberta , social reformers had founded a new political party , the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation or <unk> . It advocated democratic socialism and a mixed economy with public ownership of key industries . Frank Underhill , one of Innis 's colleagues at the University of Toronto was a founding member of the <unk> . Innis and Underhill had both been members of an earlier group at the university that declared itself " dissatisfied with the policies of the two major [ political ] parties in Canada " and that aimed at " forming a definite body of progressive opinion " . In 1931 , Innis presented a paper to the group on " Economic Conditions in Canada " , but he later <unk> from participating in party politics , denouncing <unk> like Underhill as " hot <unk> " . 
 Innis maintained that scholars had no place in active politics and that instead , they should devote themselves , first to research on public problems , and then to the production of knowledge based on critical thought . He saw the university , with its emphasis on dialogue , open @-@ mindedness and skepticism , as an institution that could foster such thinking and research . " The university could provide an environment " , he wrote , " as free as possible from the biases of the various institutions that form the state , so that its intellectuals could continue to seek out and explore other perspectives . " 
 Although sympathetic to the plight of western farmers and urban , unemployed workers , Innis did not embrace socialism . Eric Havelock , a left @-@ leaning colleague explained many years later that Innis <unk> political " solutions " imported from elsewhere , especially those based on Marxist analysis with its emphasis on class conflict . He worried , too , that as Canada 's ties with Britain weakened , the country would fall under the spell of American ideas instead of developing its own based on Canada 's unique circumstances . Havelock added : 
 He has been called the radical conservative of his day — not a bad designation of a complex mind , clear sighted , cautious , perhaps at bottom pessimistic in areas where thinkers we would label ' progressive ' felt less difficulty in taking a stand ; never content to select only one or two elements in a complicated equation in order to build a quick @-@ order policy or program ; far ranging enough in <unk> to take in the whole sum of the factors , and comprehend their often contradictory effects . 
 
 = = = Late career and death = = = 
 
 In the 1940s , Harold Innis reached the height of his influence in both academic circles and Canadian society . In 1941 , he helped establish the American @-@ based Economic History Association and its Journal of Economic History . He later became the association 's second president . Innis played a central role in founding two important sources for the funding of academic research : the Canadian Social Science Research Council ( 1940 ) and the Humanities Research Council of Canada ( 1944 ) . 
 In 1944 , the University of New Brunswick awarded Innis an honorary degree , as did his <unk> <unk> , McMaster University . <unk> <unk> , the University of Manitoba and the University of Glasgow would also confer honorary degrees in 1947 – 48 . 
 In 1945 , Innis spent nearly a month in the Soviet Union where he had been invited to attend the <unk> anniversary celebrations marking the founding of the country 's Academy of Sciences . Later , in his essay Reflections on Russia , he <unk> about the differences between the Soviet " producer " economy and the West 's " consumer " ethos : 
 [ A ] n economy which emphasizes consumer 's goods is characterized by communication industries largely dependent on advertising and by constant efforts to reach the largest number of readers or listeners ; an economy emphasizing producer 's goods is characterized by communications industries largely dependent on government support . As a result of this contrast , a common public opinion in Russia and the West is hard to achieve . 
 Innis 's trip to Moscow and Leningrad came shortly before U.S. – Soviet rivalry led to the hostility of the Cold War . Innis lamented this rise in international tensions . He saw the Soviet Empire as a stabilizing counterbalance to the American Empire 's emphasis on commercialism , the individual and constant change . For Innis , Russia was a society within the Western tradition , not an alien civilization . He <unk> the nuclear arms race , seeing it as the triumph of force over knowledge , a modern form of the medieval Inquisition . " The Middle Ages burned its heretics " , he wrote , " and the modern age threatens them with atom bombs . " 
 In 1946 , Innis was elected president of the Royal Society of Canada , the country 's senior body of scientists and scholars . That same year , he served on the Manitoba Royal Commission on Adult Education and published Political Economy in the Modern State , a collection of his speeches and essays that reflected both his staples research and his new work in communications . In 1947 , Innis was appointed the University of Toronto 's dean of graduate studies . In 1948 , he delivered lectures at the University of London and Nottingham University . He also gave the prestigious Beit lectures at Oxford , later published in his book Empire and Communications . In 1949 , Innis was appointed as a commissioner on the federal government 's Royal Commission on Transportation , a position that involved extensive travel at a time when his health was starting to fail . The last decade of his career during which he worked on his communications studies was an unhappy time for Innis . He was <unk> isolated because his colleagues in economics could not <unk> how this new work related to his pioneering research in staples theory . Biographer John Watson writes that " the almost complete lack of positive response to the communications works , contributed to his sense of <unk> and depression " . 
 Innis died of prostate cancer in 1952 a few days after his <unk> birthday . In commemoration , Innis College at the University of Toronto and Innis Library at McMaster University were named in his honour . 
 Following his premature death , Innis ' significance increasingly deepened as scholars in several academic disciplines continued to build upon his writings . Marshall <unk> 's general media theory that proposes two sub @-@ theories were inspired by Innis . Douglas C. North expanded on of Innis ' " vent for surplus " theory of economic development by applying it to regional development in the United States and <unk> countries . In addition , James W. Carey adopted Innis as a " reference point in his conception of two models of communication " . 
 
 = = Innis and McLuhan = = 
 
 Marshall McLuhan was a colleague of Innis 's at the University of Toronto . As a young English professor , McLuhan was flattered when he learned that Innis had put his book The Mechanical Bride on the reading list of the fourth @-@ year economics course . McLuhan built on Innis 's idea that in studying the effects of communications media , technological form <unk> more than content . Biographer Paul <unk> writes that Innis 's concept of the " bias " of a particular medium of communication can be seen as a " less flamboyant precursor to McLuhan 's legendary phrase ' the medium is the message . ' " Innis , for example , tried to show how printed media such as books or newspapers were " biased " toward control over space and secular power , while engraved media such as stone or clay tablets were " biased " in favour of continuity in time and metaphysical or religious knowledge . McLuhan focused on what may be called a medium 's " sensory bias " arguing , for example , that books and newspapers appealed to the rationality of the eye , while radio played to the <unk> of the ear . The differences in the <unk> and <unk> approaches were summarized by the late James W. Carey : 
 Both McLuhan and Innis assume the <unk> of communication technology ; where they differ is in the principal kinds of effects they see deriving from this technology . Whereas Innis sees communication technology principally affecting social organization and culture , McLuhan sees its principal effect on sensory organization and thought . McLuhan has much to say about perception and thought but little to say about institutions ; Innis says much about institutions and little about perception and thought . 
 Biographer John Watson notes that Innis 's work was profoundly political while McLuhan 's was not . He writes that " the mechanization of knowledge , not the relative sensual bias of media , is the key to Innis 's work . This also <unk> the <unk> of Innis 's position vis @-@ a @-@ vis that of McLuhan . " Watson adds that Innis believed very different media could produce similar effects . " For Innis , the yellow press of the United States and the Nazi loudspeaker had the same form of negative effect : they reduced men from thinking beings to mere automatons in a chain of command . " Watson argues that while McLuhan separated media according to their sensory bias , Innis examined a different set of interrelationships , the " dialectic of power and knowledge " in specific historical circumstances . For Watson , Innis 's work is therefore more flexible and less <unk> than McLuhan 's . 
 As scholars and teachers , Innis and McLuhan shared a similar dilemma since both argued that book culture tended to produce fixed points of view and <unk> of thought ; yet both produced many books . In his introduction to the 1964 reprint of The <unk> of Communication , McLuhan <unk> at Innis 's technique of juxtaposing " his insights in a mosaic structure of seemingly unrelated and <unk> sentences and aphorisms " . McLuhan argued that although this made reading Innis 's dense prose difficult — " a pattern of insights that are not packaged for the consumer palate " — Innis 's method <unk> " the natural form of conversation or dialogue rather than of written discourse " . Best of all , it yielded " insight " and " pattern recognition " rather than the " classified knowledge " so <unk> by print @-@ trained scholars . " How exciting it was to encounter a writer whose every phrase invited prolonged meditation and exploration " , McLuhan added . McLuhan 's own books with their reliance on aphorisms , puns , <unk> , " probes " and oddly juxtaposed observations also employ this mosaic technique . 
 Innis 's theories of political economy , media and society remain highly relevant : he had a profound influence on critical media theory and communications and , in conjunction with McLuhan , offered groundbreaking Canadian perspectives on the function of communication technologies as key agents in social and historical change . Together , their works advanced a theory of history in which communication is central to social change and transformation . 
 
 
 = Hurricane Lorenzo ( 2007 ) = 
 
 Hurricane Lorenzo was a rapidly developing tropical cyclone that struck the Mexican state of Veracruz in late September 2007 . The twelfth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical wave . After <unk> for two days without development , the storm began a steady westward track as its structure became better organized . In an 18 ‑ hour period , Lorenzo 's winds increased from 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , or from a tropical depression to a hurricane . On September 28 it struck near Tecolutla , Veracruz , a month after Hurricane Dean affected the same area , before it quickly dissipated over land . 
 The most significantly affected area was Veracruz , where damage reached over $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 USD ) . Most of it came from road damage in the state 's northern portion , although there were also hundreds of damaged houses . Between Veracruz and neighboring Hidalgo , there were 123 @,@ 320 people affected across 112 municipalities . Overall there were six deaths in the country , one in Veracruz and five in Puebla . In the latter state , a family of three perished in a landslide . 
 
 = = Meteorological history = = 
 
 The origins of Hurricane Lorenzo were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on September 11 . After moving across the tropical Atlantic Ocean , it <unk> much of the Caribbean Sea before developing an area of thunderstorms on September 21 . The system developed a low pressure area on September 23 after the northern portion of the wave broke off and crossed the Yucatán Peninsula . Initially , a Hurricane Hunters flight was scheduled to investigate the system , although the low became disorganized over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico due to high wind shear . However , the wind shear decreased , and late on September 25 , another Hurricane Hunters flight indicated the development of a closed low @-@ level circulation . Based on that observation , along with sufficient persistence of the thunderstorms , the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen about 190 mi ( 305 km ) east of Tampico , Tamaulipas . 
 Upon developing , the depression was located in an area of weak steering currents , resulting in an erratic movement generally to the south . In its formative stages , the depression executed a small loop . As it did so , it moved into an area of very warm waters and decreasing wind shear . The depression 's convection gradually organized , although the winds were slower to increase . An anticyclone became established over the system , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Lorenzo at around 1200 UTC on September 27 . At the time , it was located about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of Tuxpan , Veracruz , moving steadily westward under the influence of a building ridge to its east . As it approached the coast , Lorenzo rapidly intensified unexpectedly , and within 12 hours of attaining tropical storm status it strengthened into a hurricane . 
 Hurricane Lorenzo quickly developed a closed eyewall , which was observed on radar and provided a peak intensity estimate of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 28 . The cyclone maintained vigorous and <unk> convection across the center , although the structure deteriorated slightly before Lorenzo crossed the coast near Tecolutla , Veracruz at <unk> UTC that day , with winds estimated around 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . After making landfall , the hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical depression intensity . <unk> inland , the circulation became difficult to locate as the convection diminished to rainbands along the coast . Within 19 hours after moving ashore , the circulation of Lorenzo dissipated , therefore ending its duration as a tropical cyclone . 
 
 = = Preparations and impact = = 
 
 About 26 hours before landfall , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch from <unk> Sola to La Cruz in Veracruz . About 14 hours before landfall , a tropical storm warning was put into place from <unk> Sola to Cabo Rojo , which in turn was upgraded to a hurricane warning six hours later . Mexico 's Civilian Protection officials declared a " red alert " for much of the state of Veracruz . Along the coast of Veracruz , officials canceled school classes . Officials opened 315 shelters in Veracruz , along with six in neighboring Hidalgo , which housed 45 @,@ 164 people during the storm . The government of Veracruz provided buses for people to transport from their houses to the shelters . Ports in Tecolutla , Tuxpan and Nautla were forced to close . Lorenzo 's formation caused gas prices to rise due to its potential to disrupt oil facilities in the Gulf of Mexico . 
 Hurricane Lorenzo made landfall in Veracruz , the same region of east @-@ central Mexico as Hurricane Dean did one month prior . The hurricane primarily affected small fishing villages along the coast , where strong winds knocked down power lines , leaving about 85 @,@ 000 people without electricity . To prevent the danger of fallen wires , officials shut off the power grid in several municipalities in northern Veracruz . The winds also destroyed the roofs of several houses in Nautla . In addition to the high winds , Lorenzo dropped heavy rainfall along the coast and further inland , peaking at 12 @.@ 83 in ( 326 mm ) in El <unk> , Veracruz . The rains caused flash flooding and mudslides that killed at least four people , including a family of three in Puebla state . <unk> also closed portions of three highways . In some locations , <unk> reached about 1 foot ( 300 mm ) in depth . The combination of winds and rains damaged 169 houses in Puebla , while in Hidalgo , the San Lorenzo River overflowed its banks and forced the evacuation of over 200 people . <unk> rivers in Veracruz forced about 25 @,@ 000 people to leave their houses . Along the <unk> River , more than 1 @,@ 000 houses were flooded , resulting in local police officials to assist in <unk> . Damage in Veracruz was estimated at $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 USD ) , much of it from road damage in the northern portion of the state . 
 Overall , the hurricane affected 123 @,@ 320 people across Veracruz and Hidalgo , prompting the declaration of a state of emergency in 112 municipalities . The declaration allowed the usage of emergency resources for the affected people . There were a total of six deaths in the country , five of which in Puebla . By about three days after the storm , all schools were reopened . The Mexican government distributed food , water , and construction materials for the areas most affected in Veracruz . Following the storm , about 500 power workers were dispatched in Veracruz to restore electricity in the affected areas . 
 
 
 = Cadmium = 
 
 Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number 48 . This soft , bluish @-@ white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 , zinc and mercury . Like zinc , it demonstrates oxidation state + 2 in most of its compounds , and like mercury , it has a lower melting point than other transition metals . Cadmium and its <unk> are not always considered transition metals , in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states . The average concentration of cadmium in Earth 's crust is between 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 5 parts per million ( ppm ) . It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann , both in Germany , as an impurity in zinc carbonate . 
 Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a <unk> of zinc production . Cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion @-@ resistant plating on steel , and cadmium compounds are used as red , orange and yellow pigments , to colour glass , and to stabilize plastic . Cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is toxic ( it is specifically listed in the European <unk> of <unk> <unk> ) and nickel @-@ cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel @-@ metal hydride and lithium @-@ ion batteries . One of its few new uses is cadmium telluride solar panels . 
 Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms , a cadmium @-@ dependent carbonic <unk> has been found in marine diatoms . 
 
 = = Characteristics = = 
 
 
 = = = Physical properties = = = 
 
 Cadmium is a soft , malleable , <unk> , bluish @-@ white divalent metal . It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds . Unlike most other metals , cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals . As a bulk metal , cadmium is <unk> in water and is not flammable ; however , in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes . 
 
 = = = Chemical properties = = = 
 
 Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of + 2 , it also exists in the + 1 state . Cadmium and its <unk> are not always considered transition metals , in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states . Cadmium burns in air to form brown <unk> cadmium oxide ( <unk> ) ; the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated , similar to zinc oxide . <unk> acid , sulfuric acid , and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride ( <unk> ) , cadmium sulfate ( <unk> ) , or cadmium nitrate ( Cd ( <unk> ) 2 ) . The oxidation state + 1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride , forming the <unk> + cation , which is similar to the <unk> + cation in mercury ( I ) chloride . 
 Cd + <unk> + 2 <unk> → <unk> ( <unk> ) 2 
 The structures of many cadmium complexes with <unk> , amino acids , and <unk> have been determined . 
 
 = = = Isotopes = = = 
 
 Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes . Two of them are radioactive , and three are expected to decay but have not done so under laboratory conditions . The two natural radioactive isotopes are <unk> ( beta decay , half @-@ life is 7 @.@ 7 × 1015 years ) and <unk> ( two @-@ neutrino double beta decay , half @-@ life is 2 @.@ 9 × <unk> years ) . The other three are <unk> , <unk> ( both double electron capture ) , and <unk> ( double beta decay ) ; only lower limits on these half @-@ lives have been determined . At least three isotopes – <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> – are stable . Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally , the most long @-@ lived are <unk> with a half @-@ life of 462 @.@ 6 days , and <unk> with a half @-@ life of 53 @.@ 46 hours . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives of less than 2 @.@ 5 hours , and the majority have half @-@ lives of less than 5 minutes . Cadmium has 8 known meta states , with the most stable being <unk> ( t1 / 2 
 = 14 @.@ 1 years ) , <unk> ( t1 / 2 = 
 44 @.@ 6 days ) , and <unk> ( t1 / 2 = 3 @.@ 36 hours ) . 
 The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94 @.@ 950 u ( <unk> ) to 131 @.@ <unk> u ( <unk> ) . For isotopes lighter than 112 u , the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 ( silver ) . <unk> isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 ( indium ) . 
 One isotope of cadmium , <unk> , absorbs neutrons with high selectivity : With very high probability , neutrons with energy below the cadmium cut @-@ off will be absorbed ; those higher than the cut @-@ off will be transmitted . The cadmium cut @-@ off is about 0 @.@ 5 <unk> , and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons , distinct from intermediate and fast neutrons . 
 Cadmium is created via the long s @-@ process in low @-@ medium mass stars with masses of 0 @.@ 6 to 10 solar masses , taking thousands of years . In that process , a silver atom captures a neutron and then undergoes beta decay . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 Cadmium ( Latin <unk> , Greek <unk> meaning " calamine " , a cadmium @-@ bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character <unk> , <unk> , the founder of Thebes ) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl Samuel <unk> Hermann , both in Germany , as an impurity in zinc carbonate . Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate ( calamine ) , and , for 100 years , Germany remained the only important producer of the metal . The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine , because it was found in this zinc compound . Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not . He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reducing the sulfide . The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s , but the lack of cadmium limited this application . 
 Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations , the British <unk> <unk> from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat " enlarged joints , <unk> glands , and <unk> " . 
 In 1907 , the International Astronomical Union defined the international <unk> in terms of a red cadmium spectral line ( 1 wavelength = <unk> @.@ <unk> <unk> ) . This was adopted by the 7th General Conference on <unk> and Measures in 1927 . In 1960 , the definitions of both the metre and <unk> were changed to use krypton . 
 After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s , the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion ; in 1944 , 62 % and in 1956 , 59 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for plating . In 1956 , 24 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red , orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and <unk> of cadmium . 
 The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the <unk> cadmium <unk> and cadmium <unk> on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s . The demand for cadmium in pigments , coatings , stabilizers , and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s ; in 2006 , only 7 % of to total cadmium consumption was used for plating , and only 10 % was used for pigments . At the same time , these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel @-@ cadmium batteries , which accounted for 81 % of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006 . 
 
 = = Occurrence = = 
 
 Cadmium makes up about 0 @.@ 1 mg kg − 1 ( ppm ) of Earth 's crust . Typical background concentrations in other environmental media are : atmosphere < 5 <unk> m − 3 ; soil < 2 mg kg − 1 ; vegetation < 0 @.@ 5 mg kg − 1 ; freshwater < 1 <unk> L − 1 ; seawater < 50 <unk> L − 1 ; sediment < 2 mg kg − 1 . Compared with the more abundant 65 ppm zinc , cadmium is rare . No significant deposits of cadmium @-@ containing ores are known . <unk> ( CdS ) , the only cadmium mineral of importance , is nearly always associated with <unk> ( <unk> ) . This association is caused by <unk> similarity between zinc and cadmium , with no geological process likely to separate them . Thus , cadmium is produced mainly as a <unk> from mining , <unk> , and refining <unk> ores of zinc , and , to a lesser degree , lead and copper . Small amounts of cadmium , about 10 % of consumption , are produced from secondary sources , mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap . Production in the United States began in 1907 , but not until after World War I did cadmium come into wide use . 
 <unk> cadmium can be found is the <unk> River basin in Siberia . 
 Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium , resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg / kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils . Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium , which ends up mostly in <unk> dust . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001 , China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one @-@ sixth of the world 's production , closely followed by South Korea and Japan . 
 Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores , and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc . Some zinc ores concentrates from <unk> zinc ores contain up to 1 @.@ 4 % of cadmium . In the 1970s , the output of cadmium was 6 @.@ 5 pounds per ton of zinc . Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen , converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide . Zinc metal is produced either by <unk> the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid . Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is <unk> , or cadmium sulfate is precipitated from the electrolysis solution . 
 
 = = Applications = = 
 
 Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries , pigments , coatings , and electroplating . 
 
 = = = Batteries = = = 
 
 In 2009 , 86 % of cadmium was used in batteries , predominantly in <unk> nickel @-@ cadmium batteries . <unk> @-@ cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1 @.@ 2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide <unk> and a negative cadmium <unk> plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte ( potassium hydroxide ) . The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0 @.@ 01 % , with some exceptions , and reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0 @.@ 002 % . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 Cadmium electroplating , consuming 6 % of the global production , is used in the aircraft industry reduce corrosion of steel components . This coating is <unk> by <unk> salts . A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high @-@ strength <unk> from the electroplating process . Therefore , steel parts heat @-@ treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa ( 200 <unk> ) should be coated by an alternative method ( such as special low @-@ embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition ) . 
 <unk> embrittlement from cadmium @-@ plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools ( and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination ) in the A @-@ 12 / SR @-@ 71 , U @-@ 2 , and subsequent aircraft programs that use <unk> . 
 
 = = = Nuclear fission = = = 
 
 Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors , acting as a very effective " neutron poison " to control neutron flux in nuclear fission . When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor , cadmium absorbs neutrons preventing them from creating additional fission events , thus controlling the amount of reactivity . The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80 % silver , 15 % indium , and 5 % cadmium . 
 
 = = = Compounds = = = 
 
 Cadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television <unk> ray tubes . Cadmium sulfide ( CdS ) is used as a <unk> surface coating for <unk> drums . 
 Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments , with CdS as a yellow pigment being the most common . Cadmium selenide is a red pigment , commonly called cadmium red . To painters who work with the pigment , cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable <unk> , <unk> , and reds — so much so that during production , these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and <unk> or blended into watercolors , <unk> , <unk> , and other paint and pigment <unk> . Because these pigments are potentially toxic , users should use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1 % . 
 In PVC , cadmium was used as heat , light , and <unk> stabilizers . Currently , cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium @-@ zinc , calcium @-@ zinc and <unk> @-@ tin stabilizers . Cadmium is used in many kinds of <unk> and bearing alloys , because a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance . It is also found in some of the lowest @-@ melting alloys , such as Wood 's metal . 
 
 = = = Laboratory uses = = = 
 
 <unk> – cadmium lasers are a common source of blue @-@ ultraviolet laser light . They operate at either 325 or 422 nm in fluorescence <unk> and various laboratory experiments . Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under <unk> <unk> ( He @-@ Cd laser , for example ) . The color of this luminescence can be green , yellow or red depending on the particle size . <unk> solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope . 
 Cadmium is a component of some compound <unk> , such as cadmium sulfide , cadmium selenide , and cadmium telluride , used for light detection and solar cells . <unk> is sensitive to infrared light and can be used as an infrared detector , motion detector , or switch in remote control devices . 
 In molecular biology , cadmium is used to block voltage @-@ dependent calcium channels from <unk> calcium ions , as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate <unk> @-@ dependent degradation of <unk> @-@ <unk> . 
 
 = = = Cadmium @-@ selective sensors = = = 
 
 Cadmium @-@ selective sensors based on the <unk> <unk> have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells . 
 
 = = Biological role = = 
 
 Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms , but a cadmium @-@ dependent carbonic <unk> has been found in some marine diatoms . The diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and cadmium performs the function normally carried out by zinc in other <unk> . This was discovered with X @-@ ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy ( <unk> ) . 
 The highest concentration of cadmium is absorbed in the <unk> of humans , and up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence . 
 Cadmium can be used to block calcium channels in chicken neurons . Analytical methods for the determination of cadmium in biological samples have been reviewed . 
 
 = = Environment = = 
 
 The <unk> of cadmium and its release to the environment has been the subject of review , as has the <unk> of cadmium in the environment . 
 Environmental concentrations can exceed adverse @-@ effect @-@ <unk> in cadmium @-@ polluted ecosystems ( e.g. in some parts of Europe ) and <unk> cadmium can accumulate in invertebrates , earthworms , <unk> , marine mammals , plants , and some algal species ; effects in animals include kidney disorders , <unk> of enzymes , disruption of calcium metabolism , and changes in cell membrane <unk> ; excess Cd uptake in plants can affect growth and metabolic processes such as <unk> and <unk> . 
 
 = = Safety = = 
 
 The <unk> aspects of cadmium toxicity have been reviewed . 
 The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes , or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds . Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal <unk> fever but may progress to chemical <unk> , pulmonary <unk> , and death . 
 Cadmium is also an environmental hazard . Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion , phosphate fertilizers , natural sources , iron and steel production , cement production and related activities , <unk> metals production , and municipal solid waste <unk> . Bread , root crops , and vegetables also contribute to the cadmium in modern populations . 
 There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long @-@ term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water , and research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing . In the decades leading up to World War II , mining operations contaminated the <unk> River in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals . As a consequence , cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines . Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed itai @-@ itai disease and renal abnormalities , including <unk> and <unk> . 
 The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post @-@ <unk> women with low iron and other mineral body stores . Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels . Thus , although cadmium is a major factor in the itai @-@ itai disease in Japan , most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors . Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union 's <unk> on <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) directive , which <unk> hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment but allows for certain exemptions and <unk> from the scope of the law . The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans . Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer , there is still a substantial controversy about the <unk> of cadmium in low environmental exposure . Recent data from <unk> studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet associates to higher risk of <unk> , breast and prostate cancer as well as to <unk> in humans . A recent study has demonstrated that <unk> tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females . 
 Cadmium exposure is a risk factor associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease , early <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> diseases . Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations , a necessary molecular mechanism has not been identified . One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an <unk> <unk> and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different <unk> signaling pathways . For example , cadmium can bind to the estrogen receptor alpha , and affect signal transduction along the estrogen and <unk> signaling pathways at low doses . 
 Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population . An estimated 10 % of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking . Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut , and as much as 50 % of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed . On average , cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 times 5 times greater and in the kidney , 2 – 3 times greater than non @-@ smokers . Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke , there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking . 
 In a non @-@ smoking population , food is the greatest source of exposure . High quantities of cadmium can be found in crustaceans , <unk> , <unk> , and algae products . However , grains , vegetables , and <unk> roots and <unk> are consumed in much greater quantity in the US , and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure . Most plants bio @-@ accumulate metal toxins like Cd , and when <unk> to form organic fertilizers yield a product which can often contain high amounts ( e.g. , over 0 @.@ 5 mg ) of metal toxins for every <unk> of <unk> . <unk> made from animal dung ( e.g. , cow dung ) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of Cd . The Cd added to the soil from fertilizers ( rock <unk> or organic fertilizers ) become bio @-@ available and toxic only if the soil <unk> is low ( i.e. , acidic soils ) . Zinc is chemically similar to cadmium and some evidence indicates the presence of <unk> ions reduces cadmium toxicity . 
 Zinc , <unk> , <unk> , and Fe ions , and <unk> with <unk> C are used to treat Cd intoxication , though it is not easily reversed . 
 
 = = = Regulations = = = 
 
 Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health , the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the <unk> Regulation . 
 The <unk> Panel on <unk> in the Food Chain specifies that 2 @.@ 5 <unk> / kg body weight is a <unk> weekly intake for humans . The Joint <unk> / WHO Expert Committee on Food <unk> has declared 7 <unk> / kg <unk> to be the provisional <unk> weekly intake level . 
 The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( <unk> ) has set the permissible exposure limit ( <unk> ) for cadmium at a time @-@ weighted average ( TWA ) of 0 @.@ <unk> ppm . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( <unk> ) has not set a recommended exposure limit ( <unk> ) and has designated cadmium as a known human <unk> . The <unk> ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) level for cadmium is 9 mg / m3 . 
 
 = = = Product recalls = = = 
 
 In May 2006 , a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C. ' s old stadium , Highbury in London , England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium . Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children 's jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety Commission investigation . The U.S. <unk> issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by Claire 's and Wal @-@ Mart stores . 
 In June 2010 , McDonald 's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional " <unk> Forever After 3D " <unk> <unk> <unk> because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the <unk> . The glasses were manufactured by <unk> International , of <unk> , <unk> , USA . 
 
 
 = First Battle of Maryang San = 
 
 The First Battle of Maryang San ( 3 – 8 October 1951 ) , also known as the Defensive Battle of <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , was fought during the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and British — and the Chinese communist People 's Volunteer Army . The fighting occurred during a limited UN offensive by US I Corps , codenamed Operation Commando . This offensive ultimately pushed the Chinese back from the Imjin River to the Jamestown Line and destroyed elements of four Chinese armies following heavy fighting . The much smaller battle at Maryang San took place over a five @-@ day period , and saw the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) <unk> a numerically superior Chinese force from the tactically important Kowang @-@ San ( Hill 355 ) and Maryang San ( Hill 317 ) features , in conjunction with other units of the 1st Commonwealth Division . 
 Using tactics first developed against the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War , the Australians gained the advantage of the high ground and assaulted the Chinese positions from unexpected directions . They then repelled repeated Chinese counterattacks aimed at re @-@ capturing Maryang San , with both sides suffering heavy casualties before the Australians were finally relieved by a British battalion . However , with the peace @-@ talks ongoing , these operations proved to be last actions in the war of manoeuvre , which had lasted the previous sixteen months . It was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . A month later , the Chinese subsequently re @-@ captured Maryang San from the British during fierce fighting , and it was never re @-@ gained . Today , the battle is widely regarded as one of the Australian Army 's greatest accomplishments during the war . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 
 = = = Military situation = = = 
 
 Following General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's dismissal as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of UN forces in Korea , he was replaced by General Matthew B. Ridgway . Consequently , on 14 April 1951 , General James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as commander of the US Eighth Army and the United Nations forces in Korea . The Chinese Spring Offensive during April and May 1951 ended in its defeat , while following two months of sporadic operations in mid @-@ June and August , the war entered a new phase , with Van Fleet returning to the offensive . In July the Kansas and Wyoming Lines were strengthened , while a limited offensive in the east @-@ central sector in mid @-@ August seized the high ground around the <unk> and Bloody Ridge during the Battle of Bloody Ridge . In September the offensive in this sector continued , targeting the next hill complex north of Bloody Ridge , known as Heartbreak Ridge . 
 Meanwhile , the organisation of British Commonwealth ground forces fighting in Korea as part of the United Nations Command had undergone considerable change in the months following the battles of the Imjin River and <unk> in late @-@ April 1951 . 3 RAR had been transferred from 27th British Infantry Brigade to the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade when that formation departed for Hong Kong . Meanwhile , after protracted negotiations between the governments of Australia , Britain , Canada , India , New Zealand and South Africa , agreement had been reached to establish an integrated formation with the aim of increasing the political significance of their contribution , as well as facilitating the solution of the logistic and operational problems faced by the various Commonwealth <unk> . 
 The 1st Commonwealth Division was formed on 28 July 1951 , with the division including the 25th Canadian , 28th British Commonwealth and 29th British infantry brigades under the command of Major General James <unk> , and was part of US I Corps . Since its formation , the division had occupied part of the west @-@ central sector of the UN line , approximately 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) north of the capital Seoul . The 28th Brigade included three infantry battalions — the 1st Battalion , King 's Own Scottish Borderers ( 1 KOSB ) , 1st Battalion , King 's Shropshire Light Infantry ( 1 <unk> ) and the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — under the command of Brigadier George Taylor . During this period 3 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Francis Hassett . Peace @-@ talks at <unk> during July and September led to a lull in the fighting and 3 RAR undertook mainly defensive duties , helping to construct the defences of the Kansas Line south of the Imjin River , as well as conducting extensive patrolling on the northern side . The battalion also used the reduced operational tempo as an opportunity to train reinforcements . The period culminated in a limited , and largely unopposed , divisional advance 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) north of the Imjin to the Wyoming Line , codenamed Operation <unk> , in September . 
 
 = = Prelude = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> forces = = = 
 
 In late @-@ September and early @-@ October — even while continuing the attack against Heartbreak Ridge — Van Fleet developed a plan for a limited offensive in the western section , known as Operation Commando , to advance 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the 38th parallel , with the aim of pushing Chinese forces back and giving United Nations forces more leverage at the truce negotiations now occurring at <unk> . Operation Commando was scheduled for 3 – 5 October 1951 and the US I Corps commander , Lieutenant General John W. O <unk> , envisioned a concept of operations in which three of the corps ' four divisions would advance on a broad front in conjunction with US 25th Infantry Division on the left flank of the neighbouring US IX Corps , seizing a new defensive line known as the Jamestown Line . The divisions to be used in the advance included the 1st Commonwealth Division , US 1st Cavalry Division and the 9th South Korean Division . The 1st South Korean Division would remain in its existing position on the left flank . 
 In the sector occupied by 1st Commonwealth Division , Chinese communist forces were dug into a group of hills overlooking the Imjin River . The division faced 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Chinese <unk> Division , 64th Army under the overall command of <unk> <unk> . The Chinese forces were divided into three regiments of about 2 @,@ 000 men each , with two regiments dug @-@ in in well prepared defensive positions with overhead protection , and a third regiment in support . The 28th Brigade faced one of the two forward regiments — the <unk> Regiment — which was deployed with one battalion on Hill 355 , a second battalion <unk> Hill 217 and Hill 317 , and a third battalion in reserve to the west . 
 The task allocated to the British Commonwealth force was to take these positions with the intention of advancing the line from the southern bank of the Imjin to a line of hills to the north , in total an objective that stretched more than 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . The primary objectives of the advance would be the capture of Kowang @-@ San ( Hill 355 ) and Maryang San ( Hill 317 ) and the task of taking these positions was allocated to the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade , with this formation bearing the brunt of the fighting . <unk> planned on capturing the Jamestown Line in three phases . In the first phase , scheduled for 3 October , the 28th Brigade would take Hill 355 in the east @-@ central sector . During the second phase , on 4 October , the 25th Brigade would assault the two Hill 187 features and the south @-@ western ridge running to the <unk> River . Lastly during the third phase , scheduled for 5 October , the 28th Brigade would capture Hills 217 and 317 . As such , the bulk of the division 's strength would be concentrated on the right flank , to be held by the 28th Brigade ; meanwhile , the 25th Brigade would hold the left flank and the 29th Brigade would be held in reserve while providing a battalion to each of the other brigades as reinforcements . 
 Kowang @-@ San would be assaulted during the first phase by 1 KOSB with 1 <unk> and 3 RAR in support , while Maryang San would be taken in the third phase of the operation by 3 RAR and the 1st Battalion , Royal Northumberland Fusiliers ( 1 RNF ) , who were under commander from 29th Brigade for the duration of Operation Commando . <unk> reconnaissance and planning took place in the week prior to the commencement of the operation and Taylor emphasised the use of indirect fires , air support and infiltration tactics to limit casualties , as well as the exploitation of weak points in the Chinese defences . In direct support of the brigade was 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery with its 3 @.@ 45 @-@ inch ( 88 mm ) 25 @-@ pounder field guns , in addition to divisional and corps assets which included 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) mortars , 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) howitzers and 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) heavy artillery ; in total more than 120 guns and mortars . Also in support were two British Centurion tank squadrons from the 8th Royal Irish Hussars . 
 
 = = = Preliminary operations = = = 
 
 Given the primary task of capturing Hill 317 , Hassett studied the approaches from the air and the ground . Two previous attempts to take Maryang San by American troops had been unsuccessful . Regardless , utilising tactics first developed against the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War of running along the tops of ridges , he intended to gain the advantage of the high ground , while utilising the cover afforded by the vegetation and the ease of movement along the crest @-@ lines , in order to assault the Chinese positions from unexpected directions . Meanwhile , the Chinese defenders on Maryang San were also testing a newly developed tactic called the " mobile positional defense " , in which only small units were stationed on the hills in order to exhaust the UN attackers , while the bulk of the Chinese defenders would later counterattack before the UN forces could consolidate into their newly gained positions . 
 However , during the first phase of the operation the Australians would be tasked with capturing a Chinese outpost on Hill 199 to allow tanks and medium machine @-@ guns to provide direct fires onto the northern and eastern slopes of Hill 355 in support of an attack by the Borderers from the south @-@ east . Likewise , the Shropshires would assault and capture Hill 208 . Finally then , two days before the start of Operation Commando , the 28th Brigade crossed the Imjin river to assemble behind the 25th Brigade on 1 October . The following day the 3 RAR , less D Company , and the Borderers moved forward carefully into their assembly areas , ready to advance the following morning . C Company advanced to a position 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) in front of the Canadian positions , north @-@ east of Hill 355 . B Company was 200 metres ( 220 yd ) to the rear . In the afternoon C Company was subjected to heavy shelling , losing one soldier wounded . D Company — under the command of Major Basil <unk> — was detached to 25th Brigade to strengthen its extended front , and it would not be available until the afternoon of 3 October . 
 
 = = Battle = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> of Hill 199 , 3 October 1951 = = = 
 
 At 03 : 00 on 3 October , B Company 3 RAR moved north 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) toward Hill 199 , crossing the open valley under the cover of darkness and heavy mist . A Company then moved up behind C Company . Artillery and mortar fire targeted known Chinese artillery positions with counter @-@ battery fire prior to dawn , before switching to support the Borderers in their assault on Hill 355 . Simultaneously , the Shropshires were assaulting Hill 208 and with the support of A Squadron , 8th Royal Irish Hussars they reached the positions without opposition by 06 : 00 . By 08 : 00 B Company had gained the high ground to the north and then proceeded to patrol the short distance to west to the objective which was then taken with three wounded ; five Chinese were killed and one captured . By mid @-@ morning , both the Shropshires and the Australians had successfully captured their objectives . 
 <unk> a counter @-@ attack , the Australians on Hill 199 began digging @-@ in , however no such attack occurred . D Company subsequently returned and was allocated a position between C Company and the Borderers . C and B Companies both received shelling during the day , wounding two men . At 10 : 00 A Company — under Captain Jim Shelton — took over the defence of Hill 199 , and B Company went into reserve behind A Company . According to plan a troop of Centurion tanks and a section of medium machine @-@ guns were then moved up onto Hill 199 and began directing their fire onto the northern slopes of Hill 355 in support of the Borderers . Meanwhile , at 07 : 15 , following preparation by artillery and mortar fire , the lead British assault companies had begun to advance on Hill 355 . However , with the Chinese expecting an assault from that direction , the initial British moves met strong resistance and the Borderers were forced to withdraw and <unk> . At 14 : 15 a second assault reached the objectives on the lower slopes , and these gains were consolidated by nightfall . 
 The attack was now behind schedule . Indeed , the Borderers were still more than 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) short of their final objective , and with stubborn resistance being encountered during the initial phase , Hill 355 would now not be secured until the afternoon of 4 October . The assault was being slowed by two positions on the northeast slopes of Hill 355 — known as Hill 220 — from which the Chinese held the British right flank in enfilade . C Company 3 RAR would be detached to assist the attack on Kowang @-@ San the next morning , with the Australians tasked with outflanking the Chinese defences and capturing this position . Heavy Chinese artillery fire had also slowed progress with more than 2 @,@ 500 rounds falling in the 28th Brigade area in the previous twenty @-@ four hours , although this total was <unk> many times over by the weight of allied artillery fired across the brigade front , which included 22 @,@ <unk> rounds . On the division 's left flank , the delay also meant that the Canadian attack scheduled for 06 : 00 the next day in the 25th Brigade sector would have to be postponed until 11 : 00 , due to the continuing requirement to use the divisional artillery in support of 28th Brigade . 
 
 = = = <unk> of Hill 220 and the fall of Kowang @-@ San , 4 October 1951 = = = 
 
 On 4 October , C Company 3 RAR — under the command of Major Jack <unk> — attacked the long spur running east from the peak of Hill 355 , known as Hill 220 . <unk> their assault at 09 : 00 , the Australians quickly killed or drove off the defenders before pressing on up the spur and routing the remainder of a Chinese company . Reaching their objectives by 10 : 00 , the Australians then took advantage of the initiative gained so far , pushing a platoon towards the summit of Hill 355 . Amid heavy fighting , the Australians cleared the eastern slopes of Kowang @-@ San by 12 : 00 , despite having received no orders to do so . Thirteen Chinese were killed and three captured in the fighting , while Australian casualties included 11 wounded , one of whom subsequently died . <unk> was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his leadership . C Company withdrew to the rear of the 3 RAR position and were replaced by D Company , who occupied the position held by A Company 500 metres ( 550 yd ) north of Hill 199 . Meanwhile , led by a <unk> , the Borderers made a simultaneous assault up the western face of Kowang @-@ San , and fearing they may be caught between two attacks the Chinese defenders abandoned Hill 355 , withdrawing northwest under heavy indirect fire . 
 Given the strong resistance exhibited by the Chinese , the Canadians expected a tough fight as 25th Brigade prepared to assault its objectives as part of the second phase of the divisional plan . Yet with the loss of Hill 355 and 210 the Chinese unexpectedly withdrew from their well @-@ prepared defensive positions , with Hill 159 and 175 captured without opposition . Only the 2nd Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry encountered any opposition before they captured the two Hill 187 features , losing one killed and six wounded during stiff fighting in which 28 Chinese were also killed . Indeed , the ease with which the Canadians had captured their initial objectives allowed them to press on , attaining their final objectives on the Jamestown Line by nightfall . No further resistance was encountered , although heavy Chinese artillery fire caused a number of casualties , including three killed . The Canadians subsequently occupied the positions they were destined to hold for the next twenty @-@ two months of fighting . 
 Meanwhile , on the 28th Brigade 's left flank the Shropshires met slight resistance , securing Hill 210 southwest of Kowang @-@ San by 10 : 10 . They were then relieved by the Canadians by nightfall in preparation for the third phase of the operation . The brigade plan was now a day behind schedule , although with the unexpected ease experienced by the Canadians , overall , the divisional attack was still running according to plan . However , determined to hold on following the loss of Hill 355 , the Chinese moved in fresh troops , heavily reinforcing a number of positions , including Maryang San . 
 
 = = = Fall of Maryang San , 5 October 1951 = = = 
 
 The final objective was Maryang San , a steep hill rising 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above the valley about 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 yd ) north of Hill 355 . However , following the delay in capturing Hill 355 , Hassett would not be ready to implement his plan until early the next day . As such the third phase would begin on 5 October , with the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers scheduled to attack an intermediate objective — Hill 217 , adjacent Kowang @-@ San — before assisting the Australians assault Hill 317 . The Australians moved into position northeast of Hill 199 on the afternoon of 4 October , while over the night of 4 / 5 October the divisional artillery hit Chinese positions , with two batteries of 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) howitzers and another two 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) batteries <unk> them . Air strikes by the Mustangs of No. 2 Squadron , South African Air Force were also planned , targeting Chinese concentrations north and west of the objectives to cut @-@ off supplies and reinforcements . Both the Australians and Fusiliers were scheduled to begin their attacks at first light — at 05 : 45 — following a heavy artillery preparation . 
 In the dark the Fusiliers moved off , but amid dense fog they found it difficult to maintain their bearings and were not in position in time to commence the attack as planned . By 10 : 00 they had struggled to within 300 metres ( 330 yd ) from their objective , and following further delays the assault was commenced at 11 : 00 . After initially achieving surprise a number of the forward Chinese outposts fell to the Fusiliers . <unk> strong defensive positions on Hill 217 , the Chinese regained the initiative however , and poured heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire onto the attackers as they crossed the valley , forcing them to withdraw after suffering heavy casualties and running low on ammunition . Having expected the main axis of assault from the south , the Chinese positions were stronger than previously considered and the Fusiliers were unable to gain the summit , despite one company gaining a <unk> on the summit by midday . 
 Earlier that morning , at 04 : 45 , B and D Companies 3 RAR had moved north across the valley , while Anti @-@ Tank Platoon crossed the Imjin , taking up positions further north in order to protect the right flank . The assaulting companies would then move west towards a series of objectives before assaulting Hill 317 . Initially 3 RAR was to attack from the east , while 1 RNF would attack from the southwest through Hill 217 , however with the Fusiliers facing stiff resistance on Hill 217 itself they were unable to get forward to assist . The previous attempts to capture Maryang San had failed due to the approach to steep eastern slopes of the feature being across a wide , open valley that was dominated by enfilade fire from mutually supporting Chinese positions . Consequently , the Australians planned to cross the valley under cover of darkness and position themselves on the Chinese flank in the foothills , before scaling the position at first light . A Company would create a diversion on the left flank , while B Company would clear the lower slopes before D Company passed through to assault the Chinese main defensive position , known as the ' Victor ' feature , in a one @-@ up , one @-@ in @-@ depth assault . However , following the casualties of previous nights on Hill 199 , 220 and 355 , and the effect of constant shelling , 3 RAR was now reduced to just 320 men . In contrast , the Australians faced two fresh Chinese battalions on Maryang San , in total about 1 @,@ 200 men . 
 B Company — commanded by Captain Henry Nicholls — led off <unk> in the heavy mist , and with visibility limited in the thick vegetation , it drifted to the right off the intended axis of advance having lost direction , suffering a similar fate as the Fusiliers . <unk> , the assaulting companies became separated and the battalion attack turned into a series of independent company attacks . D Company slowly continued forward however , and when the mist lifted suddenly at 11 : 20 they were left dangerously exposed still only halfway up the slope to their objective . The Australian approach had surprised the Chinese however , who were apparently expecting the assault from the north , and D Company succeeded in closing to within grenade range of the Chinese on Victor . During a fierce twenty @-@ minute fire @-@ fight the Australians cleared their first objective with the assistance of direct fire from supporting tanks , and indirect fire support from artillery , losing three killed and 12 wounded . Included among the Australian wounded was the company commander and one of the platoon commanders , both of whom remained in command despite gunshot wounds . Chinese losses included 30 killed and 10 captured . 
 During the initial phase A Company had attacked southwest along a spur leading to Hill 317 and had met stiff opposition . The diversion was largely successful however , causing the Chinese to reinforce against the attack , which they believed to be the main effort . Meanwhile , D Company continued to press their attack along the high ground towards the ' <unk> ' feature , assaulting the deeply entrenched Chinese positions , which included heavy automatic weapons . By 16 : 00 it had successfully captured the last of the intermediate objectives assigned to it and a platoon from B Company was pushed forward to assist in the clearance of the feature . Later , Lieutenant <unk> Clark was awarded the Military Cross while Sergeant <unk> Rowlinson was awarded a bar to his Distinguished Conduct Medal for their actions during the fighting . By this time total Chinese casualties included 98 killed and 40 captured , while the Australians believed that a large number of Chinese had also been wounded . Following the progress of B and D Companies , C Company was moved up behind them and with the capture of final objective they immediately commenced an assault on Hill 317 , capturing 10 prisoners for no loss . Although the Chinese had been well dug @-@ in , there were no barbed wire obstacles to hamper the attackers and the Australians had rapidly gained the position . By 17 : 00 , Maryang San had fallen to the Australians , with the Chinese withdrawing under heavy artillery , mortar and machine @-@ gun fire . 
 On Hill 217 the Fusiliers had maintained the pressure on the Chinese throughout the day , however they were still unable to capture the feature . Regardless , the efforts of the Fusiliers in conjunction with A Company 's diversionary attack and the rapid advance of D Company with tank and artillery support had carried the day . A Company continued to attack against heavy opposition and indirect fire , slowly pushing the Chinese defenders back . Later , a platoon was detached to assist C Company consolidate the defence of Maryang San following its capture , while the remaining two platoons were withdrawn <unk> , again under heavy artillery fire . Indeed , although it had played a supporting role in the attack , the efforts of A Company had been vital , suffering 20 casualties while killing at least 25 Chinese and capturing two . Now with Maryang San captured the Australians began digging @-@ in , <unk> the south @-@ facing linear Chinese trench system into an all @-@ round defensive position with mutually supporting weapons pits . Fully expecting a Chinese counter @-@ attack that evening , <unk> moved the Assault Pioneer Platoon to bolster the hasty defences . Meanwhile , the Chinese still occupied three key <unk> positions — the ' Sierra ' feature , the ' Hinge ' and the summit of Hill 317 itself — which they continued to furiously defend . These would be the scene of considerable fighting in the days to come as the Australians attempted to clear them . 
 
 = = = The Hinge , 6 – 8 October 1951 = = = 
 
 With both sides exhausted from the fighting the night of 5 / 6 October was less eventful than expected , and the Australians used the opportunity to develop their position . To add further depth to their defences and to probe the Chinese positions , Taylor ordered the Australians to capture the central remaining Chinese position , the Sierra feature — a wooded knoll halfway between the summit of Maryang San and the Hinge — the next day . Meanwhile , the Fusiliers would renew their attack on Hill 217 . The southern approach to Hill 217 had proved to be too strongly defended by the Chinese and it became obvious that if it was to be overcome Taylor would need to split the fire of its defenders . To do this the high ground to the north @-@ west of Maryang San , known as the Hinge , would be vital . Indeed , adjacent to Hill 217 , the Hinge dominated it from the north . As such for the next assault , planned for the morning , the Fusiliers would detach their reserve company to attack the Hinge from the east , using the Australian positions on Maryang San as a firm base and thereby allowing them to outflank their opponents on Hill 217 . 
 At 07 : 00 on 6 October , 9 Platoon C Company — under the command of Lieutenant Arthur <unk> — moved forward to Sierra , using the heavy mist to conceal their movements . Under @-@ strength and not expecting the feature to be occupied , instead the Australians found a large number of Chinese in well prepared defensive positions . Without fire support and outnumbered , the Australians immediately conducted a quick attack and , using grenades and bayonets , they inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese before forcing the survivors to withdraw . Although subjected to constant shelling , 9 Platoon continued to hold the knoll , <unk> several counterattacks over the next 13 hours , cutting down each assault through the tree @-@ line and long grass with accurate rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , forcing the Chinese to withdraw leaving their dead and wounded behind . One Australian was killed in the initial assault on Sierra , while a number were later wounded during the defence . Chinese casualties included 19 killed , 30 wounded and seven captured . <unk> was later awarded the Military Cross . 
 During the day the Fusiliers again assaulted Hill 217 from the south , and attempted to work their way around the eastern and western flanks of the feature . Despite preparation by the divisional artillery and the 3 RAR Machine Gun Platoon firing their Vickers medium machine @-@ guns in support from Maryang San , the Fusiliers were unable to make progress due to Chinese machine @-@ guns located in bunkers at the top of their objective . Meanwhile , their flanking movements were also blocked by Chinese small arms and grenades . 1 RNF had now taken over 100 casualties during two days of fighting and by the afternoon they were a spent force . <unk> the Fusiliers ' weakness , the Chinese then launched their own assault , forcing them to withdraw in contact . Previous plans for an assault on the Hinge had not occurred due to issues with resupply and the dangerous approach march that would have been required . Again , despite their efforts , the Fusiliers had failed to capture their objective . It seemed that the only way to finally secure Hill 217 was along the ridge from Hill 317 , via the Hinge , and as such the Australians would be tasked with capturing the Hinge the following day . B Company was subsequently allocated the attack . In preparation , they ascended Hill 317 late in the afternoon of 6 October , finally securing the crest , and at last light joined 9 Platoon on the knoll northwest of the summit where they would form up the next day to conduct the assault . 
 In the early hours of 7 October the allied artillery and mortar bombardment began , targeting Chinese positions on the Hinge . Hassett moved the 3 RAR tactical headquarters on to Hill 317 just before the assaulting troops stepped off the line of departure , allowing him to direct the battle from a forward position and to co @-@ <unk> fire support . Waiting for the fog to lift so that the artillery could fire until the last safe moment , the attack finally began at 08 : 00 . B Company moved off down the <unk> , with two @-@ up and one @-@ in @-@ depth , using the trees and long grass for concealment . Initially it seemed that the Chinese had withdrawn during the night , when suddenly the lead Australian platoons were <unk> by small arms fire from their rear . A series of intense fire @-@ fights ensued as the Australians fought back and by 09 : 20 the Hinge finally fell , with the Australians losing two killed and 20 wounded . Chinese casualties included more than 20 killed . As a result of the fighting Captain Henry Nicholls and Lieutenant Jim Hughes were awarded the Military Cross , while <unk> J. Park and <unk> <unk> Bosworth were awarded the Military Medal . Yet even as the surviving Chinese withdrew , artillery and mortar fire began to fall on the Hinge . B Company moved quickly to consolidate the position , but were hampered by the shelling , while they now faced a pressing shortage of ammunition and difficulties evacuating their casualties . 
 For the remainder of the day B Company was subjected to intense indirect fire on the Hinge , as was C Company on Hill 317 . The Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and Assault Pioneer Platoon reinforced C Company , with a platoon of C Company moved forward to the Hinge to support B Company . At 20 : 00 both the Hinge and Hill 317 were again heavily shelled for 45 minutes , <unk> the beginning of the inevitable Chinese counterattack . Heavy mist concealed the Chinese advance , and this assisted many to penetrate the Australian perimeter . Throughout the night of 7 / 8 October the Hinge was attacked on three occasions from both the front and the flanks by a force of battalion strength , however the Australians beat back the Chinese in desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The Chinese swept forward , but were stopped by intense small arms and artillery fire . During one such assault Sergeant P.J. O 'Connell , on seeing one of his platoon 's Bren gunners wounded , manned the light machine @-@ gun himself , breaking up a Chinese assault , while controlling the fire of the men around him . Meanwhile , Sergeant <unk> Strong arranged the resupply of ammunition to the forward Australian sections . Both were awarded the Military Medal . 
 The intensity of the fighting had led to a severe shortage of ammunition among the defenders , and attempts to resupply the Australians were plagued by heavy shelling . The use of salvaged ammunition <unk> the situation momentarily after one of B Company 's two Vickers medium machine @-@ guns was destroyed by Chinese shelling , and its ammunition belts were subsequently broken up and dispersed among the riflemen . However , this soon resulted in a large number of mechanical failures and weapon <unk> , causing additional problems for the defenders . The evacuation of casualties was again an issue , and the Assault Pioneer Platoon — commanded by Lieutenant Jock McCormick — was used as stretcher bearers and to run ammunition forward , as were a number of the other specialist platoons . Their ammunition nearly exhausted , the Australians resorted to kicking and <unk> many of the attacking Chinese during the brutal fighting . Fearing the Australians would be overwhelmed by the persistent Chinese attacks , Taylor ordered the Borderers and Shropshires to detach their Korean porters to resupply the Australians , while a full divisional concentration of artillery was fired in support of 3 RAR . 
 Ultimately , B Company succeeded in holding their hastily constructed defensive positions throughout the night and until 05 : 00 on 8 October when the Chinese finally gave up . In order to preserve its remaining strength , the Chinese <unk> Division was forced to pull back by 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , surrendering the control of Hill 217 without a fight . At first light more than 120 Chinese dead and wounded lay around the Australian defences and in contrast to the savage fighting during the night , Chinese stretcher parties were allowed to come forward and collect their wounded under a flag of truce . The Australians had been victorious but were now exhausted after five days of heavy fighting . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 
 = = = Casualties = = = 
 
 Four hours later , at 09 : 00 , 3 RAR was relieved on Maryang San and the Hinge by the Borderers , having lost 20 killed and 104 wounded . Chinese casualties on Hill 317 had been severe , with at least 283 killed ( determined by body count ) and another 50 captured , while hundreds more were thought likely to have been killed and wounded . Later it was estimated that the Australians had destroyed at least two Chinese battalions during the five @-@ day battle . 1 RNF once more advanced against Hill 217 , this time without opposition , sending patrols to confirm that the Chinese had withdrawn . They were met by patrols from 1 KOSB on the Hinge , with the Borderers taking control of the area at 11 : 00 . Hill 217 was latter occupied on 9 October by the Borderers . The 3 RAR Assault Pioneer Platoon , the Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and a platoon from C Company remained on Maryang San however , and during the evening of 8 / 9 October the Pioneers killed four Chinese during a probe on their position . They were finally relieved on 9 October . For his leadership , Hassett was immediately awarded the DSO , while a number of awards were also made to others that had distinguished themselves during the fighting . The Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honours " Kowang @-@ San " and " Maryang San " . Today , the First Battle of Maryang San is widely regarded as one of the Australian Army 's greatest accomplishments of the Korean War . 
 
 = = = Assessment = = = 
 
 During the battle , the British Commonwealth logistic system proved robust enough to bear the strain of the fighting without serious disruption , although problems were experienced . Despite difficulties , an adequate flow of ammunition , equipment , food and water was maintained , although there were occasions when the Australians endured thirst and hunger for several hours . 3 RAR used 900 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms , 5 @,@ 000 grenades and 7 @,@ 000 mortar rounds during the five @-@ day battle , all of which was moved in man @-@ <unk> loads by Korean Service Corps porters and Australian soldiers over long distances and extreme terrain , often while under fire . These resupply operations had required considerable effort and bravery to effect , and a number of Korean porters were killed and wounded at Maryang San . 
 Indeed , the evacuation of casualties and the resupply of ammunition at times proved problematic , and heavy shelling and sniper fire disrupted stretcher parties and porters on a number of occasions , resulting in the forward companies running short of ammunition . Meanwhile , the quality of support given to the British and Australian infantry by the artillery and tanks was of a high standard and proved a critical factor . Indeed , the tanks had often operated in terrain to which they were unsuited , while the New Zealand gunners had fired over 50 @,@ 000 rounds in direct support of 3 RAR , blistering the paint off the barrels of their guns . Air support , including that provided by the South African Mustangs , had been important throughout . 
 The battle was also noted for the pioneering use of tunnel warfare by the Chinese in the Korean War . During the fighting , a company of Chinese soldiers had defended their positions from a U @-@ shaped tunnel capable of housing 100 men , which had served as both a bomb shelter and a base for counterattacks . The company leader later claimed that the tunnel enabled the defenders to inflict 700 UN casualties while suffering only 21 casualties in return . Impressed by the report , the commander of the People 's Volunteer Army , <unk> <unk> , later ordered the construction of 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) deep tunnels along the entire front line , and it formed a formidable obstacle for UN forces to overcome during the stalemate period . 
 
 = = = Subsequent operations = = = 
 
 Operation Commando finally ended on 15 October with the US I Corps having successfully seized the Jamestown Line and destroying elements of the 42nd , 47th , 64th and 65th Chinese Armies . Chinese losses were estimated at 21 @,@ 000 casualties , while UN losses were 4 @,@ 000 — the majority of them in the US 1st Cavalry Division which had borne the brunt of the fighting . Although a few hills south of the line remained in communist hands — requiring a follow @-@ up operation known as Operation <unk> which succeeded in capturing these positions by 19 October — UN supply lines near Seoul were now free from Chinese interdiction . With the peace @-@ talks ongoing , these operations proved to be last actions in the war of manoeuvre , which had lasted the previous sixteen months . It was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences , trench lines , bunkers , patrols , <unk> parties and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . Construction of defensive localities began almost immediately , although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire which made such operations hazardous . Patrolling forward of the Jamestown Line also began in order to prevent the Chinese from gaining control of no <unk> land . Yet even as the war became a contest of positional warfare and <unk> , growing western political <unk> ensured that UN commanders were increasingly <unk> of limiting casualties . 
 Total casualties among the 1st Commonwealth Division during Operation Commando amounted to 58 killed and 262 wounded , the bulk of which had occurred during the fighting for Hill 217 and Hill 317 . Indeed , in addition to the heavy casualties suffered by 3 RAR , 1 RNF had lost 16 killed and 94 wounded . The Chinese 64th Army later received a commendation for keeping their casualties " light " , despite some estimates placing its casualties at higher than 3 @,@ 000 . Throughout the operation 3 RAR had played a crucial role , and in a bold series of holding and flanking movements , coordinated with accurate and sustained artillery and direct tank fire , it had driven the Chinese from both Kowang @-@ San and Maryang San . They had then held the key position against several unsuccessful counterattacks before forcing the Chinese to retire . A month later Maryang San was subsequently <unk> by the Chinese from the Borderers amid fierce fighting at the Second Battle of Maryang San , for which Private Bill <unk> was later awarded the Victoria Cross . It was not re @-@ gained , and remained in Chinese hands until the end of the war . 
 
 
 = Ulysses ( poem ) = 
 
 " Ulysses " is a poem in blank verse by the Victorian poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson ( 1809 – 1892 ) , written in 1833 and published in 1842 in his well @-@ received second volume of poetry . An oft @-@ quoted poem , it is popularly used to illustrate the dramatic monologue form . Facing old age , mythical hero Ulysses describes his discontent and restlessness upon returning to his kingdom , Ithaca , after his far @-@ ranging travels . Despite his reunion with his wife Penelope and son Telemachus , Ulysses <unk> to explore again . 
 The character of Ulysses ( in Greek , Odysseus ) has been explored widely in literature . The adventures of Odysseus were first recorded in Homer 's <unk> and Odyssey ( c . 800 – 700 BC ) , and Tennyson draws on Homer 's narrative in the poem . Most critics , however , find that Tennyson 's Ulysses recalls Dante 's Ulisse in his Inferno ( c . <unk> ) . In Dante 's re @-@ telling , Ulisse is condemned to hell among the false <unk> , both for his pursuit of knowledge beyond human bounds and for his adventures in disregard of his family . 
 For much of this poem 's history , readers viewed Ulysses as resolute and heroic , <unk> him for his determination " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " . The view that Tennyson intended a heroic character is supported by his statements about the poem , and by the events in his life — the death of his closest friend — that prompted him to write it . In the twentieth century , some new interpretations of " Ulysses " highlighted potential <unk> in the poem . They argued , for example , that Ulysses wishes to <unk> abandon his kingdom and family , and they questioned more positive assessments of Ulysses ' character by demonstrating how he resembles flawed protagonists in earlier literature . 
 
 = = Synopsis and structure = = 
 
 As the poem begins , Ulysses has returned to his kingdom , Ithaca , having made a long journey home after fighting in the <unk> War . <unk> again by domestic life , Ulysses expresses his lack of contentment , including his indifference toward the " savage race " ( line 4 ) whom he governs . Ulysses contrasts his present restlessness with his heroic past , and contemplates his old age and eventual death — " Life <unk> on life / Were all too little , and of one to me / Little remains " ( 24 – 26 ) — and longs for further experience and knowledge . His son Telemachus will inherit the throne that Ulysses finds burdensome . While Ulysses thinks that Telemachus will be a good king — " Most blameless is he , centred in the sphere / Of common duties " ( 39 ) — he seems to have lost any connection to his son — " He works his work , I mine " ( 43 ) — and the conventional methods of governing — " by slow prudence " and " through soft degrees " ( 36 , 37 ) . In the final section , Ulysses turns to his fellow mariners and calls on them to join him on another quest , making no guarantees as to their fate but attempting to <unk> their heroic past : 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The speaker 's language is unadorned but forceful , and it expresses Ulysses ' conflicting moods as he searches for continuity between his past and future . There is often a marked contrast between the sentiment of Ulysses ' words and the sounds that express them . For example , the poem 's <unk> iambic <unk> is often interrupted by spondees ( <unk> feet that consist of two long syllables ) ; such <unk> language slows the poem ( and in other places may cast doubt upon the reliability of Ulysses ' utterances ) : 
 Observing their burdensome <unk> effect , the poet Matthew Arnold remarked , " these three lines by themselves take up nearly as much time as a whole book of the <unk> . " Many of the poem 's clauses carry over into the following line ; these <unk> emphasize Ulysses ' restlessness and dissatisfaction . 
 
 = = = Form = = = 
 
 The poem 's seventy lines of blank verse are presented as a dramatic monologue . Scholars disagree on how Ulysses ' speech functions in this format ; it is not necessarily clear to whom Ulysses is speaking , if anyone , and from what location . Some see the verse turning from a <unk> to a public address , as Ulysses seems to speak to himself in the first movement , then to turn to an audience as he introduces his son , and then to relocate to the <unk> where he addresses his mariners . In this interpretation , the comparatively direct and honest language of the first movement is set against the more politically minded tone of the last two movements . For example , the second paragraph ( 33 – 43 ) about Telemachus , in which Ulysses muses again about domestic life , is a " revised version [ of lines 1 – 5 ] for public consumption " : a " savage race " is revised to a " rugged people " . 
 The ironic interpretations of " Ulysses " may be the result of the modern tendency to consider the narrator of a dramatic monologue as necessarily " unreliable " . According to critic Dwight <unk> , the poem has been a victim of <unk> readings in which the reader expects to reconstruct the truth from a misleading narrator 's accidental revelations . ( <unk> the more obvious use of this approach in Robert <unk> 's " My Last Duchess " . ) <unk> himself views " Ulysses " as a dialectic in which the speaker weighs the virtues of a contemplative and an active approach to life ; Ulysses moves through four emotional stages that are self @-@ <unk> , not ironic : beginning with his rejection of the barren life to which he has returned in Ithaca , he then fondly recalls his heroic past , recognizes the validity of Telemachus ' method of governing , and with these thoughts plans another journey . 
 
 = = = Publication history = = = 
 
 Tennyson completed the poem on 20 October 1833 , but it was not published until 1842 , in his second collection of Poems . Unlike many of Tennyson 's other important poems , " Ulysses " was not revised after its publication . 
 Tennyson originally blocked out the poem in four paragraphs , broken before lines 6 , 33 and 44 . In this structure , the first and third paragraphs are thematically parallel , but may be read as interior and exterior monologues , respectively . However , the poem is often printed with the first paragraph break omitted . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> elements = = = 
 
 Tennyson penned " Ulysses " after the death of his close Cambridge friend , the poet Arthur Henry Hallam ( 1811 – 1833 ) , with whom Tennyson had a strong emotional bond . The two friends had spent much time discussing poetry and philosophy , writing verse , and travelling in southern France , the Pyrenees , and Germany . Tennyson considered Hallam destined for greatness , perhaps as a statesman . 
 When Tennyson heard on 1 October 1833 of his friend 's death , he was living in <unk> , Lincolnshire , in cramped quarters with his mother and nine of his ten siblings . His father had died in 1831 , requiring Tennyson to return home and take responsibility for the family . Tennyson 's friends were becoming increasingly concerned about his mental and physical health during this time . The family had little income , and three of Tennyson 's brothers were mentally ill . Just as Tennyson 's outlook was improving — he was adjusting to his new domestic duties , regaining contact with friends , and had published his 1832 book of poems — the news of Hallam 's death arrived . Tennyson shared his grief with his sister , Emily , who had been engaged to Hallam . 
 According to Victorian scholar Linda Hughes , the emotional gulf between the state of his domestic affairs and the loss of his special friendship informs the reading of " Ulysses " — particularly its treatment of domesticity . At one moment , Ulysses ' discontent seems to mirror that of Tennyson , who would have been frustrated with managing the house in such a state of grief . At the next , Ulysses is determined to transcend his age and his environment by travelling again . It may be that Ulysses ' determination to defy circumstance attracted Tennyson to the myth ; he said that the poem " gave my feeling about the need of going forward and <unk> the struggle of life " . On another occasion , the poet stated , " There is more about myself in Ulysses , which was written under the sense of loss and that all had gone by , but that still life must be fought out to the end . It was more written with the feeling of his loss upon me than many poems in In <unk> . " Hallam 's death influenced much of Tennyson 's poetry , including perhaps his most highly regarded work , In <unk> <unk> , begun in 1833 and completed seventeen years later . 
 Other critics find stylistic <unk> between the poem and its author that make " Ulysses " exceptional . W. W. Robson writes , " Tennyson , the responsible social being , the <unk> serious and ' committed ' individual , is <unk> strenuous sentiments in the accent of Tennyson the most un @-@ strenuous , lonely and poignant of poets . " He finds that Tennyson 's two widely noted <unk> , the " responsible social being " and the melancholic poet , meet uniquely in " Ulysses " , yet seem not to recognize each other within the text . 
 
 = = = Literary context = = = 
 
 Tennyson adopts aspects of the Ulysses character and narrative from many sources ; his treatment of Ulysses is the first modern account . The ancient Greek poet Homer introduced Ulysses ( Odysseus in Greek ) , and many later poets took up the character , including <unk> , Horace , Dante , William Shakespeare , and Alexander Pope . Homer 's Odyssey provides the poem 's narrative background : in its eleventh book the prophet <unk> <unk> that Ulysses will return to Ithaca after a difficult voyage , then begin a new , mysterious voyage , and later die a peaceful , " <unk> " death that comes vaguely " from the sea " . At the conclusion of Tennyson 's poem , his Ulysses is contemplating undertaking this new voyage . 
 Tennyson 's character , however , is not the lover of public affairs seen in Homer 's poems . Rather , " Ulisse " from Dante 's Inferno is Tennyson 's main source for the character , which has an important effect on the poem 's interpretation . Ulisse recalls his voyage in the Inferno 's 26th <unk> , in which he is condemned to the Eighth Circle of false <unk> for <unk> his gift of reason . Dante treats Ulisse , with his " zeal … / T <unk> the world " , as an evil <unk> who lusts for adventure at the expense of his family and his duties in Ithaca . Tennyson projects this zeal into Ulysses ' <unk> desire for knowledge : 
 The poet 's intention to recall the Homeric character remains evident in certain passages . " I am become a name " ( 11 ) recalls an episode in the Odyssey in which <unk> sings about Odysseus ' adventures in the king 's presence , acknowledging his fame . With phrases such as " There <unk> the dark broad seas " ( 45 ) and " The deep / <unk> round with many voices " ( 55 – 56 ) , Tennyson seems to be consciously invoking Homer . 
 Critics have also noted the influence of Shakespeare in two passages . In the early movement , the savage race " That hoard , and sleep , and feed , and know not me " ( 5 ) echoes Hamlet 's <unk> : " What is a man , / If his chief good and market of his time / Be but to sleep and feed ? A beast , no more . " Tennyson 's " How dull it is to pause , to make an end , / To rust <unk> ’ d , not to shine in use ! " ( 22 – 23 ) recalls Shakespeare 's Ulysses in <unk> and <unk> ( c . <unk> ) : 
 The last movement of " Ulysses " , which is among the most familiar passages in nineteenth @-@ century English @-@ language poetry , presents decisive evidence of the influence of Dante . Ulysses turns his attention from himself and his kingdom and speaks of ports , seas , and his mariners . The strains of discontent and weakness in old age remain throughout the poem , but Tennyson finally leaves Ulysses " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " ( 70 ) , recalling the <unk> <unk> desire for knowledge beyond all bounds . The words of Dante 's character as he <unk> his men to the journey find parallel in those of Tennyson 's Ulysses , who calls his men to join him on one last voyage . Quoting Dante 's Ulisse : 
 However , critics note that in the Homeric narrative , Ulysses ' original mariners are dead . A significant irony therefore develops from Ulysses ' speech to his sailors — " Come , my friends , / ' Tis not too late to seek a newer world " ( 56 – 57 ) . Since Dante 's Ulisse has already undertaken this voyage and recounts it in the Inferno , Ulysses ' entire monologue can be envisioned as his recollection while situated in Hell . 
 
 = = = From affirmation to irony = = = 
 
 The degree to which Tennyson identifies with Ulysses has provided one of the great debates among scholars of the poem . Critics who find that Tennyson identifies with the speaker read Ulysses ' speech " <unk> " , or without irony . Many other interpretations of the poem have developed from the argument that Tennyson does not identify with Ulysses , and further criticism has suggested that the purported inconsistencies in Ulysses ' character are the fault of the poet himself . 
 Key to the <unk> reading of " Ulysses " is the biographical context of the poem . Such a reading takes into account Tennyson 's statements about writing the poem — " the need of going forward " — and considers that he would not undermine Ulysses ' determination with irony when he needed a similar <unk> to face life after Hallam 's death . Ulysses is thus seen as an heroic character whose determination to seek " some work of noble note " ( 52 ) is courageous in the face of a " still hearth " ( 2 ) and old age . The passion and conviction of Tennyson 's language — and even his own comments on the poem — signify that the poet , as was typical in the Victorian age , admired courage and persistence . Read <unk> , " Ulysses " promotes the <unk> spirit of youth , even in old age , and a refusal to resign and face life passively . 
 Until the early twentieth century , readers reacted to " Ulysses " <unk> . The meaning of the poem was increasingly debated as Tennyson 's stature rose . After <unk> F. Baum criticized Ulysses ' inconsistencies and Tennyson 's conception of the poem in 1948 , the ironic interpretation became dominant . Baum finds in Ulysses echoes of Lord Byron 's flawed heroes , who similarly display conflicting emotions , self @-@ critical <unk> , and a rejection of social responsibility . Even Ulysses ' resolute final <unk> — " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " — is undercut by irony , when Baum and later critics compare this line to Satan 's " courage never to submit or yield " in John Milton 's Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) . 
 Ulysses ' apparent disdain for those around him is another <unk> of the ironic perspective . He declares that he is " matched with an aged wife " ( 3 ) , indicates his weariness in governing a " savage race " ( 4 ) , and suggests his philosophical distance from his son Telemachus . A skeptical reading of the second paragraph finds it a condescending tribute to Telemachus and a rejection of his " slow prudence " ( 36 ) . However , the adjectives used to describe Telemachus — " blameless " , " discerning " , and " decent " — are words with positive connotations in other of Tennyson 's poetry and within the classical tradition , where " blameless " is an attribute of gods and heroes . 
 Critic E. J. <unk> argued in 1954 that Ulysses is without faith in an afterlife , and that Tennyson uses a " method of <unk> " to affirm the need for religious faith by showing how Ulysses ' lack of faith leads to his neglect of kingdom and family . <unk> regards the poem as " <unk> " in Tennyson 's canon , but finds that the poem 's meaning resolves itself when this <unk> is understood : it illustrates Tennyson 's conviction that " <unk> religious sanctions and ' submitting all things to desire ' leads to either a <unk> or a brutal <unk> of responsibility and ' life ' . " 
 Other ironic readings have found Ulysses longing for withdrawal , even death , in the form of his proposed quest . In noting the sense of <unk> in the poem , critics highlight Tennyson 's tendency toward the melancholic . T. S. Eliot opines that " Tennyson could not tell a story at all " . He finds Dante 's treatment of Ulysses exciting , while Tennyson 's piece is " an elegiac mood " . " Ulysses " is found lacking in narrative action ; the hero 's goal is vague , and by the poem 's famous last line , it is not clear for what he is " striving " , or to what he refuses to yield . According to Victorian scholar Herbert Tucker , Tennyson 's characters " move " through time and space to be moved <unk> . To Ulysses , experience is " somewhere out there " , 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 
 = = = Contemporary appraisal and <unk> = = = 
 
 The contemporary reviews of " Ulysses " were positive and found no irony in the poem . Author John Sterling — like Tennyson a member of the Cambridge Apostles — wrote in the Quarterly Review in 1842 , " How superior is ' Ulysses ' ! There is in this work a delightful epic tone , and a clear impassioned wisdom quietly carving its sage words and graceful figures on pale but lasting marble . " Tennyson 's 1842 volume of poetry impressed Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle . Quoting three lines of " Ulysses " in an 1842 letter to Tennyson — 
 — Carlyle remarked , " These lines do not make me <unk> , but there is in me what would fill whole <unk> as I read . " 
 English theologian Richard Holt Hutton summarized the poem as Tennyson 's " friendly picture of the <unk> <unk> for new experience , enterprise , and adventure , when under the control of a luminous reason and a self @-@ controlled will . " The contemporary poet Matthew Arnold was early in observing the narrative irony of the poem : he found Ulysses ' speech " the least plain , the most un @-@ Homeric , which can possibly be conceived . Homer presents his thought to you just as it wells from the source of his mind : Mr. Tennyson carefully <unk> his thought before he will part with it . Hence comes ... a heightened and elaborate air . " 
 Despite the critical acclaim " Ulysses " received , its rise within the Tennyson canon took decades . Tennyson did not usually select it for publication in poetry anthologies ; in teaching anthologies , however , the poem was usually included — and it remains a popular teaching poem today . Its current prominence in Tennyson 's <unk> is the result of two trends , according to Tennyson scholar Matthew Rowlinson : the rise of formal English poetry studies in the late nineteenth century , and the Victorian effort to articulate a British culture that could be exported . He argues that " Ulysses " forms part of the prehistory of imperialism — a term that only appeared in the language in 1851 . The protagonist sounds like a " colonial administrator " , and his reference to seeking a newer world ( 57 ) echoes the phrase " New World " , which became common during the Renaissance . While " Ulysses " cannot be read as overtly <unk> , Tennyson 's later work as Poet Laureate sometimes argues for the value of Britain 's colonies , or was accused of <unk> . Rowlinson <unk> the Marxist theorist Louis <unk> 's extension of the argument that ideology is <unk> , finding that Tennyson 's poem " comes before an ideological construction for which it nonetheless makes people nostalgic " . 
 
 = = = Literary and cultural legacy = = = 
 
 In a 1929 essay , T. S. Eliot called " Ulysses " a " perfect poem " . An <unk> of Ulysses is found in Eliot 's " <unk> " ( 1920 ) . Both poems are narrated by an aged man contemplating life 's end . An excerpt from " <unk> " reads as an ironic comment on the introductory lines of " Ulysses " : 
 The Italian poet Giovanni <unk> ( 1855 – 1912 ) stated that his long lyric poem L <unk> <unk> was an attempt to reconcile the portrayals of Ulysses in Dante and Tennyson with <unk> 's prophecy that Ulysses would die " a mild death off the sea " . <unk> 's Ulysses leaves Ithaca to <unk> his epic voyage rather than begin another . 
 " Ulysses " remains much admired , even as the twentieth century brought new interpretations of the poem . Professor of literature Basil <unk> commented in 1956 , " In ' Ulysses ' the sense that he must press on and not <unk> in idleness is expressed <unk> , through the classical story , and not <unk> as his own experience . [ Tennyson ] comes here as near perfection in the grand manner as he ever did ; the poem is flawless in tone from beginning to end ; spare , grave , free from excessive decoration , and full of firmly controlled feeling . " In the fifteenth edition of Bartlett 's <unk> <unk> ( 1980 ) , nine sections of " Ulysses " , comprising 36 of the poem 's 70 lines , are quoted , compared to only six in the ninth edition ( 1891 ) . 
 Many readers have accepted the acclaimed last lines of " Ulysses " as inspirational . The poem 's ending line has also been used as a motto by schools and other organisations . U.S. Senator Robert Francis Kennedy quoted the three last lines at the end of his speech " On the <unk> <unk> of Violence " in America a day after the assassination of Martin Luther King . The final line is inscribed on a cross at Observation Hill , Antarctica , to commemorate explorer Robert Falcon Scott and his party , who died on their return trek from the South Pole in 1912 : 
 
 
 = The Food Album = 
 
 The Food Album is a compilation album by American singer @-@ songwriter " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on June 22 , 1993 by Scotti Brothers Records . The release features ten of Yankovic 's song parodies , all of which <unk> to food . A similar album , The TV Album , which features songs entirely about television , would be released two years later . 
 The album was begrudgingly released by Yankovic , who felt that the compilation was unnecessary and merely a way for his record label to make money . Several food @-@ related songs that Yankovic had recorded , such as " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " and " Waffle King " were left off the record , although the former was due to personal preference , while the latter was due to scheduling issues . 
 The Food Album received mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom felt that the record was an enjoyable collection of songs , but that it was not an essential record to purchase . Despite the lukewarm reception , the record was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , making it Yankovic 's first and only compilation record to reach this certification . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 
 = = = Music = = = 
 
 The music featured on The Food Album spans a decade , with the earliest songs being recorded in 1982 , and the most recent song being recorded in 1992 . Yankovic 's first eponymous album has two songs featured : " I Love Rocky Road " and " My Bologna " . Both " Eat It " and " Theme from Rocky XIII ( The Rye or the Kaiser ) " were culled from the 1984 release , " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D. " Addicted to Spuds " originally appeared on the 1986 release Polka Party ! , and " Fat " and " <unk> " were first featured on Yankovic 's 1988 release Even <unk> . " <unk> " first was released on the soundtrack to the 1989 film UHF . The final two songs — " The White <unk> " and " <unk> Grande " — were taken from the 1992 album Off the Deep End . 
 Notable for its absence is " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " , from Dare to Be Stupid ( 1985 ) , Yankovic 's only previously released food @-@ related song not to make the album . According to Yankovic , this is due to the fact there is a " royalty ceiling " on the albums and he needed to pick one song to cut from the list in order to turn a profit on the album . " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " was chosen due to Yankovic 's personal dislike of the song , as his record label had forced him to record it in order to release Dare to Be Stupid back in 1985 . Also absent from the release is " Waffle King . " The song had originally been recorded for Off the Deep End . However , Yankovic decided to swap " Waffle King " with " I Was Only <unk> " — a song he had actually recorded for his next album — at the last minute ; this forced Yankovic to <unk> " Waffle King " for the time being . The song was later released on " <unk> Like Nirvana " single , as well as Yankovic 's eighth studio album , <unk> , which was released four months after The Food Album . 
 
 = = = Release = = = 
 
 The album was released by Scotti Brothers Records and was only begrudgingly approved by Yankovic . At the time , Scotti Brothers had insisted on putting out a new album by Yankovic in order to meet monetary projections for the fiscal quarter , despite the fact that no new album was ready ; <unk> would not be released until later in the year . The original concept was to release a record entitled Al Unplugged , which would have featured a cover depicting Yankovic holding the <unk> for <unk> kitchen appliances , but instead of being a live album featuring live performances , it would have featured studio remixes of previously released material , with the electronic instruments missing . Yankovic convinced them to release The Food Album instead — " a concept [ he ] hated only slightly less " — but would later describe it as a " cheesy compilation " put out " against [ his ] better wishes and judgement . " 
 The TV Album was released under similar circumstances in 1995 ; however , when it came time to release the latter album , Yankovic reported that " the record company was a whole lot <unk> when they asked the second time " , and that there was " more <unk> [ and ] less demanding " . Following the release of The Food Album and The TV Album — in addition to the various greatest hits records that had been released — Scotti Brothers used @-@ up all of their compilation options in Yankovic 's contract , which prevented the release of further compilations when <unk> Records acquired his contract in the late 1990s . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The album artwork — which features a cartoon alien after it has eaten Yankovic — was created by Doug Lawrence , who is better known as " Mr. Lawrence " , an American voice actor , comedian , writer , storyboard artist , animator and director . The " grotesque " cover was Yankovic 's " passive @-@ aggressive protest " against his label for forcing out the album ; Yankovic intended the alien having " picked the <unk> corpse of Weird Al clean " to be a reference to his record label " bleed [ ing ] his catalogue dry " by releasing the album . The Japanese release of the album , however , featured much different artwork , as well as a name change ; because there is no " F " in the Japanese language , the album was retitled The Hood . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Critical response = = = 
 
 The Food Album has received mixed reviews from most critics ; many felt that while the album was amusing it was not an essential release . Allmusic reviewer Johnny <unk> awarded the album three out of five stars and wrote that , " The Food Album is an enjoyable bag of treats . Just don 't eat too much , or you 'll probably get sick . " Likewise , The Rolling Stone Album Guide awarded the album three out of five stars . Anthony <unk> of The Buffalo News gave the album a moderately positive review and wrote that , " [ t ] here are two kinds of people in the world : those who love Weird Al Yankovic and those who can 't stand him . Count me among the Weird One 's biggest fans , and that 's why I flipped out when listening to The Food Album . " He concluded that the album was " like reading Mad magazine " ; he gave the record three stars out of five . Tim <unk> of the Press @-@ <unk> , on the other hand , wrote negatively of the album , stating " Yankovic 's songs are the kinds of things that are sort of funny in concept , less funny when you actually hear them once , and increasingly irritating with each subsequent listen [ and ] his food songs are among his worst . " 
 
 = = = Commercial performance = = = 
 
 Upon release , The Food Album failed to chart ; however , it sold steadily . On January 25 , 2006 — more than ten years after its release — the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . This makes it Yankovic 's first and only compilation album to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies and be certified Gold . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 
 = = Certifications = = 
 
 
 
 = Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God = 
 
 The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God ( Bulgarian : <unk> <unk> „ <unk> <unk> <unk> “ , <unk> <unk> „ <unk> <unk> <unk> “ ) is a former Eastern Orthodox cathedral in the city of <unk> Tarnovo , in north central Bulgaria . Located on top of the fortified Tsarevets hill in the former capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire , the cathedral was the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch from its construction in the 11th – 12th century to its destruction in <unk> . 
 Standing on top of a late Roman church , the cathedral , reconstructed in the 1970s and 1980s , follows a cross @-@ domed plan with a bell tower and a triple apse . <unk> decorated on both the exterior and interior , its internal walls now feature modern frescoes , the presence of which has meant that it has not been <unk> . Though not active as a Christian place of worship , it has been open for visitors since 1985 . 
 
 = = History = = 
 
 The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God is not the first church building to occupy the position on top of the Tsarevets hill . It was constructed directly on top of a late Roman ( early Byzantine ) basilica which dates to the 5th – 6th century AD . The Roman basilica may have remained in use by the local congregation during the First Bulgarian Empire , though it was no longer active by the time the construction of the current church began . 
 The current building of the Patriarchal Cathedral is considered by scholars to have been built in two stages . The first stage of construction was carried out in the late 11th century or the 12th century . The cathedral was initially built as a monastery church in the middle of a monastery compound , though in the early 12th century it was already the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch . The compound suffered large @-@ scale damage caused by a fire , which necessitated the church 's reconstruction in middle of the 14th century , perhaps during the rule of Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria ( r . 1331 – 71 ) . Besides repair and reinforcement efforts , work on the church in the 14th century also included the construction of the <unk> and the bell tower . 
 There are several references to the cathedral in medieval sources . The earliest reference to the church tells of the transfer of Saint Michael the Warrior 's relics from the <unk> fortress to the Patriarchal Cathedral on the order of Tsar <unk> ( r . <unk> – 1207 ) . The housing of a warrior saint 's relics in the Patriarchal Cathedral signifies the incessant warfare against <unk> and <unk> that dominated <unk> 's reign . In the late 14th century , the last Patriarch of Tarnovo , Saint <unk> , described the church as the " great patriarch 's Cathedral of the Holy Ascension " in his writings . 
 Another possible reference to the church may be in a marginal note from <unk> to a copy of the Acts of the Apostles . In the note , the <unk> , one <unk> , thanks God and the " Holy and Most Glorious Ascension " for having finished his work on the book . Scholar <unk> <unk> believes this to be an allusion to the Patriarchal Cathedral , which may have patronised the project . Alternatively , the copy could have been made at the cathedral 's <unk> , where <unk> may have worked . 
 The church is also depicted in the medieval sketch of Tarnovo in the <unk> <unk> , a <unk> service book written in the mid @-@ 14th century and then carried to <unk> ( now <unk> , Romania ) after the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule . 
 The Patriarchal Cathedral was destroyed after the Ottomans captured the Bulgarian capital after their Siege of Tarnovo on 17 July <unk> . The church was fully reconstructed in the 20th century ; reconstruction works were carried out by a team under architect <unk> <unk> . These commenced in 1978 and were finished in 1981 , to mark Bulgaria 's <unk> anniversary . However , it was not until November 1985 , when the contemporary murals were finished , that the church was opened once again for visitors . The church 's ruins have been protected as a national antiquity since 1927 ; in 1967 , they were proclaimed an architectural monument of culture of national importance . As part of the Tsarevets architectural reserve , it is also listed among the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria . 
 
 = = Location and architecture = = 
 
 The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God is located on top of the Tsarevets hill , overlooking the modern city of <unk> Tarnovo . The church was part of a group of buildings which constituted the seat of the Bulgarian <unk> and acted as the city and the country 's main cathedral . The <unk> on Tsarevets was a fortress of its own , with two defensive towers and an entrance on its west wall . The Patriarchal Cathedral stood in the middle of its courtyard . 
 The Patriarchal Cathedral features a triple apse , the central part of which matches the apse of the original basilica on the site . The three @-@ <unk> church follows the traditional Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design . Built out of crushed stones and mortar with limited brickwork , it measures 26 by 12 metres ( 85 ft × 39 ft ) . The cathedral includes two <unk> , a bell tower and two other premises attached to the south church wall . The presence of a bell tower is considered to be a rarity in Balkan church architecture . Six columns support the interior and distinguish the altar from the cella ( <unk> ) . It is unclear whether the church housed a <unk> ( stone <unk> for the clergy ) in the apse , as there are doubts that its remains may actually be part of the older basilica . 
 The church featured ample exterior and interior decoration . While the facades were decorated with arches and ceramic tiles , the interior floor mosaics were made of white , yellow and pink marble as well as semi @-@ precious <unk> like <unk> and <unk> . The interior walls were covered with frescoes and mosaics . However , none of the interior decoration has survived . During the church 's 20th @-@ century reconstruction , its interior was <unk> by artist <unk> <unk> , who depicted important moments of medieval Bulgarian history in a modernist style . Due to these murals , the church has never been <unk> and remains inactive . The facade of the cathedral also includes a stone with a donor 's inscription of a Bulgarian ruler , which ended up as part of the building material . 
 There are a total of four burial grounds in and around the church , two of which are burials for priests . One of the burial grounds is inside the <unk> , where <unk> tombs were built in the 14th century . Besides Michael the Warrior 's relics , the cathedral also housed the remains of Bulgarian <unk> Joachim I , <unk> and Joachim III . 
 
 
 = Daydream ( Mariah Carey album ) = 
 
 Daydream is the fifth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on October 3 , 1995 , by Columbia Records . The follow @-@ up to her internationally successful album Music Box ( 1993 ) and holiday album Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) , Daydream differed from the two by leaning increasingly towards R & B and hip hop . Throughout the project , Carey collaborated with Walter Afanasieff , with whom she wrote and produced most of her two previous albums . With Daydream , Carey took more control over the musical direction as well as the album 's composition . Carey said she considered Daydream the beginning of her musical and vocal transformation , a change that became more apparent in her sixth album Butterfly ( 1997 ) . During the album 's production , Carey endured many creative differences with her label and husband Tommy Mottola . 
 On Daydream , Carey collaborated with Jermaine Dupri for the first time , and co @-@ wrote and produced a song with Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , with whom she had collaborated on Music Box . It was also the first time she had worked with Boyz II Men , an R & B group consisting of four male vocalists . Together , they wrote the concept and lyrics for " One Sweet Day , " a song that Carey co @-@ produced with Afanasieff . With his assistance and the addition of a few contemporary producers , she was able to make a subtle transition into the R & B market . Daydream was nominated for six Grammy Awards at the 38th annual ceremony , during which Carey performed live . Due to the album 's critical and commercial success , critics believed Carey would be one of the night 's big winners . However , to her dismay , she was completely shut out , causing the subject to become very public and controversial . She left the annual ceremony empty @-@ handed . 
 Six singles were released from the album . Its lead single " Fantasy " became the first single by a female artist to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 and went on to top the chart for eight weeks and became the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the country . The song topped the charts in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand and became a top @-@ five hit in Finland , France , and the United Kingdom . The second single " One Sweet Day " topped the Billboard Hot 100 for sixteen weeks and became the longest @-@ running number one single in American history , a record it still holds . It also topped the charts in Canada and New Zealand and peaked within the top five in Australia , France , Ireland and the Netherlands . <unk> , the singles from Daydream spent a combined six months at the top of the Hot 100 . To promote Daydream , Carey embarked on the short but successful , Daydream World Tour , visiting Japan and Europe . 
 At the time of its release , Daydream became Carey 's best @-@ reviewed album . Critics universally praised her matured lyrics and songwriting , as well as her musical direction . The album became an international success , debuting at number one in nine different countries , and in the top five in almost every major music market . Daydream became Carey 's second album to be certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of ten million copies in the United States . Aside from its success in the United States , the album made the top five of the best @-@ selling albums in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist , with 2 @.@ 1 million copies sold . Daydream remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with 25 million copies sold worldwide . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Aside from being Carey 's second highest worldwide seller , Daydream served as her most personal and directly influenced album at the time . During the album 's recording , Carey grew as an artist , as well as a writer . For the first time in her career , Carey was able to make music that she truly related to , R & B and hip hop . While Columbia allowed Carey more <unk> with the music she recorded , they became hesitant when she featured <unk> ' Dirty # # # # # # # in the remix for " Fantasy . " They feared the sudden change was completely left field for her music , and worried it would jeopardize the album 's success . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Carey openly spoke of her issues with Columbia : " Everybody was like ' What , are you crazy ? ' They 're nervous about breaking the formula . It works to have me sing a ballad on stage in a long dress with my hair up . " 
 While Carey 's new musical direction caused tension between her and Columbia , it began to severely strain her relationship with her husband at the time , Tommy Mottola . Mottola had always been involved in Carey 's career , because he was the head of Sony Music , the parent company of her label . Since the time of Carey 's debut , Mottola had controlled nearly every aspect of her career , keeping her sound carefully regulated and insisting that she continue recording middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road pop music , despite her interest in hip hop . 
 Carey confessed that she never tried to change the situation because " [ she ] used to be <unk> and cautious , and so [ she ] would listen to what the people said . " However , the control Mottola exerted over her career soon " spilled into her personal life " once they were married , increasing the amount of conflict between the two . Soon , it was obvious that their marriage was in <unk> ; as stated in a Vanity Fair article , " the couple began to argue at the drop of a hat . " Carey was very involved in the project , more so than she had ever been on an album . " I went into this phase of recording , recording , recording and doing it really fast , " she told Time . " This time , I had more time , and I focused more on what I wanted to do . " As Carey 's career and work continued to reflect her views on how it should sound , her marriage to Mottola continued to " deteriorate . " 
 
 = = Conception and composition = = 
 
 One of the first songs that was recorded for the album was " Fantasy . " While Carey began developing new ideas for Daydream , she thought of the song " Genius of Love " by Tom Tom Club . She had always been a fan of the song , and presented Dave Hall with the idea of sampling the song 's hook . Hall incorporated a groove that he felt complimented Carey 's voice , while she composed some of the other beats and wrote the lyrics . Carey recorded a remix to the song as well , featuring hip @-@ hop verses from O.D.B of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , as well as production from <unk> . She spoke highly of the remix , complimenting <unk> and O.D.B , " He 's so known in the street , and he 's one of the best people out there ... we kind of did what we both do and having O.D.B took it to another level . He was my ultimate choice , so I was really happy with the way it turned out . " " One Sweet Day " was a song that Carey wrote with the R & B group Boyz II Men . After Carey 's friend and past collaborator David Cole died , she began writing and developing a song that would pay homage to him and all the friends and family her fans had lost along life 's journey . Carey had the chorus and concept composed , and after meeting with Boyz II Men , they realized they too had a similar idea in development . Together , using Carey 's chorus and idea , as well as the melody they had produced , they wrote and composed the song . It was produced by Afanasieff , who built on the song 's melody and added various grooves and beats . Carey expressed how the song was " meant to be " and how all the pieces fit into place : 
 I wrote the initial idea for ' One Sweet Day ' with Walter , and I had the chorus ... and I stopped and said , ' I really wanna do this with Boyz II Men , ' because ... obviously I 'm a big fan of theirs and I just thought that the work was crying out for them , the vocals that they do , so I put it away and said , ' Who knows if this could ever happen , but I just don 't wanna finish this song because I want it to be our song if we ever do it together . [ The ] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you , it changes your life and changes your perspective . When they came into the studio , I played them the idea for the song and when [ it ] finished , they looked at each other , a bit stunned , and told me that Nat " Nathan Morris " had written a song for his road manager who had passed away . It had basically the same lyrics and fit over the same chord changes . It was really , really weird , we finished the song right then and there . We were all <unk> flipped about it ourselves . Fate had a lot to do with that . I know some people won 't believe it , but we wouldn 't make up such a crazy story . 
 While the album 's development was underway , Carey expressed interest in working with Jermaine Dupri , whom she had been a fan of since his 1992 song , " Jump . " Soon after , Carey , Dupri , and Manuel Seal began composing a song for the album . As Seal played the piano , Carey began <unk> and playing with certain notes in the B @-@ section , until she came up with the chorus for " Always Be My Baby . " After the rest of the song was written and composed , Carey recorded the song alongside longtime background singers Kelly Price , <unk> Price , and <unk> Daniels . Together , they built " a wall of background voices " in which she would cover with her final belting notes . The song featured a <unk> rhythm , while its composition was described as " sassy and soft R & B " which displayed a " sexy and slow jam . " " Underneath the Stars " was the first song recorded for Daydream . The song featured a " ' 70s soul vibe " as well as synthetic record <unk> , in order to the give the song an authentic ' 70s sound . Carey felt the additions were simple steps taken to further display a contemporary R & B groove . Additionally , she felt the song paid homage to the style of Minnie <unk> , who was one of Carey 's biggest vocal influences growing up . The song had a soft sound , and had " a lot [ sic ] of texture " and bass , showing a more creative side to Carey . 
 For the album , Carey covered the 1982 Journey song " Open Arms . " The song was of Carey 's personal choice , as well as her own idea . Together with Afanasieff , they toned down the song 's arrangement , making it a bit glossy , especially in comparison to the " raw and powerful ' One Sweet Day . ' " Additionally , with the help of her background singers , Carey added a touch of gospel to the song . One of the more gospel @-@ influenced songs on the album was " I Am Free . " The song was created by Carey , Afanasieff and <unk> Holland , with whom she had worked previously on Merry Christmas . Carey began <unk> the melody with the lyrics she had already written , while Holland played the organ and Afanasieff worked on the song 's programming . , giving the song a genuine and <unk> gospel feel . The chorus was sophisticated and natural , with each following line " cascading onto one another , " something that would have proved difficult for a " less skilled vocalist . " Carey started leaning away from the " standard <unk> Dion ballad " and more towards R & B jams . However , she was not going to completely abandon the type of songs that made her famous . For this reason , Carey wrote " When I Saw You " with Afanasieff , a song that would truly embody some of her earlier work , as well as show off her powerful vocals . Returning to her R & B territory , Carey recorded " Long <unk> " , the second song she wrote alongside Dupri and Seal which contains a strong hip hop background . Her vocals in the song were described as " <unk> over the <unk> bassline like silk . " 
 " Melt Away " was a song Carey produced on her own , and co @-@ wrote with Babyface . The song 's writing and production were " superb . " with each verse gliding into its chorus . According to Chris <unk> , " Underneath the Stars " was as " strong as any slow jam released in the <unk> , and one that would find a lot of flavor late at night with dancers . " Another song that brought back <unk> of older decades was " Forever . " The <unk> was featured through the chord changes and in the way the guitar arpeggios " stayed at the forefront of the music . " The song displayed subtle vocals from Carey , as well as an undeniable <unk> . " Daydream Interlude ( Sweet Fantasy Dub Mix ) " was one of the <unk> tracks on the album . The song was a club remix of " Fantasy " , which was tuned and remixed by famed house music producer David <unk> . The song was directed to be a dance @-@ club song , further broadening Carey 's " musical horizon . " The song incorporated Carey 's vocals , and added them to a thumping house beat , something he would do for many of her future singles . " Looking In " was the final song on the album . It was Carey 's most personal song at the time , one in which she let herself appear " naked " and " stripped down ; it was written by her and Afanasieff . " According to author Chris <unk> : 
 " [ The song ] reflected on her life now , the changes she 'd gone through , and the difference between the public perception of Mariah Carey and the real person . Intimate and revealing , it made an appropriate end to the album , and was evident that Mariah was growing , changing , and becoming much more herself , confident of who she was and what she could do . " 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 Daydream received universal acclaim at the time of its release . Reviews applauded the little changes of style from previous Carey releases , some of whom adding that it is her best record , while others dismissed it as <unk> and lacking of originality . AllMusic 's senior editor , Stephen Thomas Erlewine , awarded the album four and a half out of five stars . Erlewine called Daydream her " best record yet " and wrote , " Mariah Carey certainly knows how to construct an album . <unk> herself directly between urban R & B with tracks like " Fantasy , " and the adult contemporary radio format with songs like " One Sweet Day , " a duet with Boyz II Men , Carey appeals to both audiences equally because of the sheer amount of craft and hard work she puts into her albums . Daydream is her best record to date , featuring a consistently strong selection of songs and a remarkably impassioned performance by Carey . Daydream demonstrates that Carey continues to perfect her craft , and that she has earned her status as an R & B / pop diva . " In his review for the album , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called Daydream " her best record since her 1990 debut " , writing , " in fact , it 's easily the best collection Carey has put out since her self @-@ titled 1990 debut , the album Daydream most resembles in its emphasis on R & B grooves . " Tucker specifically complimented " One Sweet Day " , " Always Be My Baby " , " Forever " , and " Daydream Interlude " ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) , writing " One Sweet Day , her collaboration with Boyz II Men , radiates a <unk> <unk> that Carey , for all the brazen <unk> of her public persona , rarely permits herself to reveal in song . I like the relaxed swing of " Always Be My Baby " , and the brisk <unk> tempo of Forever . However , it 's on what many Carey fans will probably find the most <unk> cut , " Daydream Interlude ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) " , that the singer really defines herself . At her best , as she is on this <unk> , <unk> track , Carey is a disco diva for the ' 90s , a worthy successor to <unk> women like <unk> Summer and Vicki Sue Robinson , R & B singers with an affinity for the endless groove . " 
 Stephen Holden , editor of The New York Times , gave the album a positive review . Holden wrote the following regarding Daydream " Ms. Carey 's songwriting has taken a leap forward , becoming more relaxed , <unk> , and less reliant on <unk> <unk> . " Holden praised " Fantasy " , which he wrote " with ' Fantasy , ' Ms. Carey <unk> confidently into the territory where gospel @-@ flavored pop @-@ soul meets light hip @-@ hop and recorded some of the most gorgeously spun choral music to be found on a contemporary album . " Additionally , he complimented " One Sweet Day , " " Melt Away , " " Always Be My Baby " , and " Underneath the Stars " , calling them " the best on the album " . People gave the album a positive review , calling it " her fourth and best album . " Additionally , People praised the album and its songs , writing " Daydream vaults over its pop predecessors because the material is both <unk> and <unk> . Carey also has better control of her instrument — her voice <unk> greater <unk> and agility . She still <unk> it on a little thick at times when it comes to fervor , as on the <unk> ' Melt Away , ' which Carey co @-@ wrote with Babyface . For the most part she <unk> from strength to strength , from the <unk> belting on ' One Sweet Day , ' a duet with Boyz II Men , to the rich gospel feel of ' I Am Free , ' which has a mood so <unk> you can almost hear the ladies ' handheld fans snapping . " While the album was positively reviewed by critics , Carey 's cover of Journey 's 1982 song " Open Arms " was universally panned . Stephen Thomas Erlewine criticized the song , calling it " second rate " . " Open Arms " received a negative review from Stephen Holden as well , who called it a " sobbing remake " . 
 
 = = Chart performance = = 
 
 Daydream entered the Billboard 200 at number one , with 224 @,@ 000 copies sold , staying at the top spot the following week with 216 @,@ 000 copies sold , for a third consecutive week , it topped the charts with 170 @,@ 000 copies sold . It gained power again in the upcoming weeks of holiday sales where it peaked in the year 's last weeks with 486 @,@ 000 and 760 @,@ 000 units sold at the pinnacle . The album moved 760 @,@ 000 copies during the Christmas week of 1995 , the album 's highest sales week . It also reached number one on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Daydream was the second best @-@ selling album of 1996 , and the eighteenth best @-@ selling album on the 1990s decade in the US . In the United States , Daydream became Carey 's best @-@ selling album , being certified diamond by the RIAA ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of ten million copies . 
 In Canada , Daydream peaked at number two on the charts , and was certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . The album experienced success in Europe , where it reached number one in Germany , The Netherlands , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In France , Daydream peaked at number two and was certified double @-@ platinum by the <unk> National de l <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) . Sales in France are estimated at 800 @,@ 000 copies . Daydream was certified triple @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of three million copies throughout Europe in 1996 . 
 In Australia , Daydream was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 350 @,@ 000 copies . The album finished ninth on the ARIA End of Year Charts in both 1995 and 1996 . In Japan , the album debuted at number one on the Oricon charts . According to the Oricon , Daydream made the top five of the best @-@ selling albums in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist , with 2 @.@ 5 million copies sold . Daydream remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with sales of 25 million copies worldwide . 
 
 = = Singles = = 
 
 Six singles were released from Daydream . " Fantasy " was released as the album 's lead single on September 12 , 1995 . The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Carey the first female artist , and the second performer ever to accomplish the feat . The song spent eight consecutive weeks atop the chart , as well as topping the charts in Australia , Canada and New Zealand . In Europe , " Fantasy " performed well , peaking within the top five in Belgium , Finland , France , and the United Kingdom . " Fantasy " was the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the US , with sales of 1 @.@ 5 million in 95 ' alone . " One Sweet Day " was chosen as the follow @-@ up single , achieving similar success . The song once again debuted at the top of the US charts , and became the longest running number one single in US history , spending sixteen consecutive weeks atop the Billboard charts . The song became a success in other regions around the world as well , topping the charts in Canada and New Zealand and peaked within the top five in Australia , France , Ireland , and The Netherlands . Serving as the album 's third single in select European countries , " Open Arms " was released on December 5 , 1995 . The song achieved success in the UK , Ireland and New Zealand , where it peaked at number four , seven and eight . However , " Open Arms " charted weakly in other European countries , such as Belgium , France , and Germany , where it charted outside the top @-@ thirty . 
 " Always Be My Baby " was released as the fourth single . The song debuted at number two on the Hot 100 , failing to become Carey 's third number one debut ( a feat she would accomplish with " <unk> " in 1997 ) . The song eventually reached and stayed atop the charts for two weeks , and then kept steady at number two for nine weeks . " Always Be My Baby " performed moderately in other major markets . The song peaked within the top five in Canada , New Zealand and the UK , but charted outside the top @-@ ten elsewhere . " Forever " was chosen as the fifth single from Daydream . The song was ineligible to chart in the Hot 100 , but managed to crack the top @-@ ten on the Hot 100 airplay chart . " Forever " charted well in Canada , where it peaked at number thirteen . " Underneath the Stars " was chosen as the sixth and final single from the album . Described by Carey as one of her favorite songs , " Underneath the Stars " received a limited number of pressings in the US , where it charted weakly on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . 
 
 = = Promotion = = 
 
 In order to promote the album , Carey embarked on her second head @-@ lining tour . Originally , she had not planned to tour , due to the long travel times and <unk> ; however , after many requests from fans , Carey agreed to tour . The tour reached Japan and select European countries , not visiting the United States . This was possibly due to the mixed reception Carey 's 1993 North American Music Box Tour received three years prior . The shows were all spaced apart , giving Carey time to rest her vocals , " It 's very strenuous to sing all my songs back to back , but I 'm actually really looking forward to it . " Many musicians joined Carey for the tour , including Randy Jackson who served as the musical director and played the bass , Dan Shea on the keyboards , Vernon Black playing the guitar , <unk> Conway on the drums , and percussion and music sequencing by Peter Michael and Gary <unk> . All of the musicians and background vocalists were under the supervision of Walter Afanasieff , who played the piano and guided the production . Before embarking on her world tour in 1996 , Carey performed a sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden in 1995 . The performance was filmed , and released as a DVD titled Fantasy : Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden . It became Carey 's fourth video release . 
 When the three Japanese shows at the Tokyo <unk> went on sale , Carey set a record after all 150 @,@ 000 tickets sold out under three hours . The shows became the fastest sellout in the stadium 's history , breaking the previous record held by The Rolling Stones . The shows in Japan were a critical and commercial success , with critics and fans raving about the show and Carey 's vocals . Carey 's presence in Asia in the 90s was unparalleled to any other international artist . Her international success and anticipation was even compared to the " <unk> " in the 1960s . In an interview with MTV , Carey spoke of how she felt performing in Asia : 
 " First of all , you 're in front of so many people that basically don 't speak your language . It took a little getting used to , but I think by the end of the show , you know , everybody started to kind of <unk> . " 
 For the show , Carey sang fourteen original songs , including many of her biggest hits up until that point , as well as many songs from Daydream . They included " Fantasy , " " One Sweet Day , " " Open Arms , " " Always Be My Baby , " " Forever " and " Underneath the Stars " as well as hits from her previous studio efforts . Carey 's following shows in France , Germany , The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were all sold @-@ out as well , receiving warm critical response . During the span of the tour 's seven short dates , Carey had already begun working on concepts for her new album Butterfly . According to author Marc <unk> , Carey 's European tour was truly a success , in many aspects : 
 " The European tour mirrored the success of her shows in Japan . Mariah 's appearances overseas were <unk> experiences for the singer . The popularity – indeed , <unk> – surrounding her shows in these countries reached massive proportions . The reception the concerts received reflected the fact that Mariah 's music cut through race and language barriers and had struck at a universal , emotional core with fans . The tour cemented the fact that Mariah Carey had arrived as the performing centerpiece on the world stage . " 
 In addition to touring the world , Carey performed on a variety of television programs and award shows . After " Fantasy " was released in September throughout Europe , Carey performed the song on the popular British chart show Top of the Pops , which aired live via satellite on Asian television . Carey performed " Fantasy " in France and at the 23rd Annual American Music Awards on January 29 , 1996 . " One Sweet Day " was performed at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards , Princess Diana 's memorial service in September 1997 , and at Carey 's Black Entertainment Television Christmas special in 2001 . During her European promotional tour for the album , Carey performed " Open Arms " on various television programs , including <unk> , <unk> .. ? in Germany , Top of the Pops and Des O 'Connor in the United Kingdom and on Swedish television . 
 
 = = Awards and accolades = = 
 
 The music industry took note of Carey 's success . She won two awards at the 1996 American Music Awards for her solo efforts : Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . Throughout 1995 & 1996 , Carey was awarded various prestigious awards at the World Music Awards , including " World 's Best Selling Female R & B Artist " , " World 's Best Selling Overall Female Recording Artist , " " World 's Best Selling Pop Artist " and " World 's Best Selling Overall Recording Artist . " Additionally , " Fantasy " was named " Song of the Year " at the BMI Awards and " Favorite Song " at the <unk> Entertainment Awards , where Carey also won the award for " Top Pop Female . " In 1996 , Carey won many awards at the Billboard Music Awards , including " Hot 100 Singles Artist of the Year " , " Hot 100 Airplay ( Always Be My Baby ) , " " Hot Adult Contemporary Artist of the Year " and " Special Award for 16 weeks at # 1 for ' One Sweet Day . ' " 
 
 = = = Grammy controversy = = = 
 
 Daydream was proven to be one of the best @-@ selling and most acclaimed albums of 1995 . When the Grammy Award nominees were announced , and Daydream was nominated for six different awards , critics began raving how it would be " cleaning up " that year . The 38th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 28 , 1996 at the Shrine <unk> in Los Angeles . Carey , being a multiple award nominee , was one of the headlining performers . Together with Boyz II Men , she sang a live rendition of " One Sweet Day , " to a very positive response . However , as the award winners were announced one by one , Carey watched as her name was not called up even once . Daydream had lost all of its six nominations , shocking most critics who branded it the " album of the year " . With every passing loss , the television cameras continued to <unk> on Carey 's face , who was finding it more difficult to retain her smile . By the end of the night , Carey had not won a single award . The disappointment on her face was <unk> obvious . While Carey was nominated again the following year , she did not perform again until the 2006 ceremony , when she was nominated for eight awards ( winning three ) for The <unk> of Mimi . 
 
 = = Music videos = = 
 
 Carey directed the music video for " Fantasy " . Additionally , she chose the concept and created the idea . The video featured Carey in roller @-@ <unk> , <unk> through a theme @-@ park , while enjoying different rides and roller coasters . The video then cut into scenes of Carey dancing on top of a car , celebrating an event with many friends . Carey said her inspiration for the video was to give off a " free and open feeling , " trying to portray the freedom she had finally achieved in being allowed to direct her first video . The video for " Fantasy " debuted on September 7 , at the " MTV Video Music Awards . " Carey expressed how much she enjoyed the video 's filming , speaking about the " roller @-@ coaster scenes " : 
 " They did not expect me to get that shot ! They were saying , ' How 's she going to sing on a roller coaster ? ... We put a little speaker on the bottom of the car , where my feet where . We built the rig in front of the roller coaster and the lens kept falling off ! " 
 When Carey and Boyz II Men got together to record " One Sweet Day , " they didn 't have enough time to re @-@ unite and film a video . For this reason , a filming crew was present during the song 's recording , and filmed bits of Carey and Boyz recording the song . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Walter Afanasieff made the following statements regarding the video for " One Sweet Day " : 
 " It was crazy ! They had film crews and video guys , while I 'm at the board trying to produce . And these guys were running around having a ball , because Mariah and them are laughing and screaming and they 're being interviewed . And I 'm tapping people on the shoulder . " We 've got to get to the microphone ! " They 're gone in a couple of hours , so I recorded everything they did , praying that it was enough . " 
 The video for " Always Be My Baby " was once again filmed by Carey . It featured Carey swinging on a swing in the middle of a dark meadow , showing her <unk> through the woodlands . The video was set as a " peaceful and relaxing " setting , in order to try to reflect the sweet and mellow song 's message . " Forever " , the album 's fifth single , was the final song to be accompanied by a music video . Carey 's label used footage from her live performances of the song in New York City and Japan and compiled them into a video . On February 11 , 2012 , Carey revealed through her Twitter account that a music video for " Underneath the Stars " was actually recorded . Filming sessions occurred in England and France ; Carey commented , however , that it " never got released and I don 't know where it is ! " 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 Notes 
 Track listing and credits from album booklet . 
 " Fantasy " contains a sample of " Genius of Love " by Tom Tom Club . 
 
 = = Album credits = = 
 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 = = Certifications = = 
 
 
 
 = Leg before wicket = 
 
 Leg before wicket ( lbw ) is one of the ways in which a batsman can be dismissed in the sport of cricket . Following an appeal by the fielding side , the umpire may rule a batsman out lbw if the ball would have struck the wicket , but was instead intercepted by any part of the batsman 's body ( except the hand holding the bat ) . The umpire 's decision will depend on a number of criteria , including where the ball pitched , whether the ball hit in line with the wickets , and whether the batsman was attempting to hit the ball . 
 Leg before wicket first appeared in the laws of cricket in 1774 , as batsmen began to use their pads to prevent the ball hitting their wicket . Over several years , <unk> were made to clarify where the ball should pitch and to remove the element of interpreting the batsman 's intentions . The 1839 version of the law used a wording that remained in place for nearly 100 years . However , from the latter part of the 19th century , batsmen became increasingly expert at " pad @-@ play " to reduce the risk of their dismissal . Following a number of failed proposals for reform , in 1935 the law was expanded , such that batsmen could be dismissed lbw even if the ball pitched outside the line of off stump . Critics felt this change made the game unattractive as it encouraged negative tactics at the expense of leg spin bowling . 
 After considerable debate and various experiments , the law was changed again in 1972 . In an attempt to reduce pad @-@ play the new version , which is used to this day , allowed batsmen to be out lbw in some circumstances if they did not attempt to hit the ball with their bat . Since the 1990s , the availability of television replays and , later , ball @-@ tracking technology to assist umpires has increased the percentage of lbws in major matches . However , the accuracy of the technology and the consequences of its use remain controversial . 
 In his 1995 survey of cricket laws , Gerald Brodribb states : " No dismissal has produced so much argument as lbw ; it has caused trouble from its earliest days " . Owing to its complexity , the law is widely misunderstood among the general public and has proven controversial among spectators , administrators and commentators ; lbw decisions have sometimes caused crowd trouble . Since the law 's introduction , the proportion of lbw dismissals has risen steadily through the years . Statistics reveal that the probability of a batsman being dismissed lbw in a Test match varies depending on where the match is played and which teams are playing . 
 
 = = Definition = = 
 
 The definition of leg before wicket ( lbw ) is currently Law 36 in the Laws of Cricket , written by the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . Before a batsman can be dismissed lbw , the fielding team must appeal to the umpire . For the batsman to be <unk> lbw , the ball , if it <unk> , must pitch in line with the wickets , or on the off side of the stumps . Then the ball must strike part of the batsman 's body , without first touching his bat , in line with the wickets and have been going on to hit the stumps . The batsman may also be out lbw if , having made no attempt to hit the ball with his bat , he is struck outside the line of off stump by a ball that would have hit the wickets . The umpire must assume that the ball would have continued on the same trajectory after striking the batsman , even if it would have bounced before hitting the stumps . However , if the bowler delivers a no ball — an illegal delivery — the batsman cannot be lbw under any circumstances . 
 A batsman can be out lbw even if the ball did not hit his leg : for example , a batsman struck on the head could be lbw . However , he cannot be lbw if the ball pitches on the leg side of the stumps ( " outside leg stump " ) , even if the ball would have otherwise hit the wickets . Similarly , a batsman who has attempted to hit the ball with his bat cannot be lbw if the ball strikes him outside the line of off stump . However , some shots in cricket , such as the switch hit or reverse sweep , involve the batsman switching between a <unk> and left @-@ handed stance ; this affects the location of the off and leg side , which are determined by the stance . The law explicitly states that the off side is determined by the batsman 's position when the bowler <unk> his run @-@ up . 
 According to MCC guidelines for umpires , factors to consider when giving an lbw decision include the angle at which the ball was travelling and whether the ball was swinging through the air . He must also account for the height of the ball at impact and how far from the wicket the batsman was standing ; from this information he must determine if the ball would have passed over the stumps or struck them . The MCC guidance states that it is easier to make a decision when the ball strikes the batsman without pitching , but that the difficulty increases when the ball has bounced and more so when there is a shorter time between the ball pitching and striking the batsman . 
 
 = = Development of the law = = 
 
 
 = = = Origins = = = 
 
 The earliest known written version of the Laws of Cricket , dating from 1744 , does not include an lbw rule . At the time , batsmen in English cricket used curved bats , which made it unlikely that they would be able to stand directly in front of the wickets . However , a clause in the 1744 laws gave umpires the power to take action if the batsman was " standing unfair to strike " . Cricket bats were modified to become <unk> over the following years , allowing batsmen to stand closer to the wickets . Subsequently , some players deliberately began to obstruct the ball from hitting the wickets . Such tactics were criticised by writers and a revision of the laws in 1774 ruled that the batsman was out if he deliberately stopped the ball from hitting the wicket with his leg . However , critics noted that the umpires were left the difficult task of interpreting the intentions of batsmen . The 1788 version of the laws no longer required the umpires to take account of the batsman 's intent ; now a batsman was lbw if he stopped a ball that " pitch [ ed ] straight " . Further clarification of the law came in 1823 , when a condition was added that " the ball must be delivered in a straight line to the wicket " . The ambiguity of the wording was highlighted when two prominent umpires disagreed over whether the ball had to travel in a straight line from the bowler to the wicket , or between the wickets at either end of the pitch . In 1839 the MCC , by then responsible for drafting the Laws of Cricket , endorsed the latter interpretation and ruled the batsman out lbw if the ball pitched in between the wickets and would have hit the stumps . 
 
 = = = Controversy and attempted reform = = = 
 
 In essence , the lbw law remained the same between 1839 and 1937 , despite several campaigns to have it changed . An 1863 proposal to allow a batsman to be lbw if the ball hit his body at any point between the wickets , regardless of where the ball pitched or whether it would hit the wicket at all , came to nothing . There were few complaints until the proportion of lbw dismissals in county cricket began to increase during the 1880s . Until then , batsmen used their pads only to protect their legs ; their use for any other purposes was considered <unk> , and some amateur cricketers did not wear them at all . As cricket became more organised and competitive , some batsmen began to use their pads as a second line of defence : they lined them up with the ball so that if they missed with the bat , the ball struck the pad instead of the wicket . Some players took this further ; if the delivery was not an easy one from which to score runs , they attempted no shot and allowed the ball to bounce safely off their pads . Arthur Shrewsbury was the first prominent player to use such methods , and others followed . Criticism of this practice was heightened by the increased quality and reliability of cricket pitches , which made batting easier , led to higher scores and created a perceived imbalance in the game . 
 Several proposals were made to prevent pad @-@ play . At a meeting of representatives of the main county cricket clubs in 1888 , one representative expressed the opinion that a " batsman who defended his wicket with his body instead of with his bat should be punished " . The representatives supported a motion to alter the law to state that the batsman would be out if he stopped a ball that would have hit the wicket ; in contrast to the existing wording , this took no account of where the ball pitched relative to the wickets . Further proposals included one in which the intent of the batsman was taken into account , but no laws were changed and the MCC merely issued a condemnation of the practice of using pads for defence . This reduced pad @-@ play for a short time , but when it increased again , a second <unk> by the MCC had little effect . 
 Further discussion on altering the law took place in 1899 , when several prominent cricketers supported an amendment similar to the 1888 proposal : the batsman would be out if the ball would have hit the wicket , where it pitched was irrelevant . At a Special General Meeting of the MCC in 1902 , Alfred <unk> formally proposed this amendment ; the motion was supported by 259 votes to 188 , but failed to secure the two @-@ thirds majority required to change the laws . A. G. Steel was the principal opponent of the change , as he believed it would make the task of the umpires too difficult , but he later regretted his stance . <unk> 's brother , Robert , supported the alteration and campaigned for the rest of his life to have the lbw law altered . As evidence that pad @-@ play was increasing and needed to be curtailed , he cited the growing number of wickets which were falling lbw : the proportion rose from 2 % of dismissals in 1870 to 6 % in 1890 , and 12 % in 1923 . In 1902 , the proposed new law was tried in the Minor Counties Championship , but deemed a failure . An increase in the size of the stumps was one of several other rejected proposals at this time to reduce the dominance of batsmen over bowlers . 
 
 = = = <unk> to the law = = = 
 
 Between 1900 and the 1930s , the number of runs scored by batsmen , and the proportion of lbw dismissals , continued to rise . <unk> grew increasingly frustrated with pad @-@ play and the extent to which batsmen refused to play shots at bowling directed outside the off stump , simply allowing it to pass by . The English fast bowler Harold Larwood responded by targeting leg stump , frequently hitting the batsman with the ball in the process . This developed into the controversial Bodyline tactics he used in Australia in 1932 – 33 . Some batsmen began to go further and preferred to kick away balls pitched outside off stump — reaching out to kick the ball instead of allowing it to hit their pads — if they presented any threat , knowing that they could not be dismissed lbw . The authorities believed these developments represented poor entertainment value . At the height of the Bodyline controversy in 1933 , Donald Bradman , the leading Australian batsman and primary target of the English bowlers , wrote to the MCC recommending an alteration of the lbw law to create more exciting games . 
 To address the problem , and <unk> the balance for bowlers , the MCC made some alterations to the laws . The size of the ball was reduced in 1927 , and that of the stumps increased in 1931 , but the changes had little effect . Between 1929 and 1933 , county authorities conducted a trial in which a batsman could be lbw if he had hit the ball onto his pads . Then , in 1935 , an experimental law was introduced in which the batsman could be dismissed lbw even if the ball pitched outside the line of off stump — in other words , a ball that turned or swung into the batsman but did not pitch in line with the wickets . However , the ball was still required to strike the batsman in line with the wickets . The umpire signalled to the scorers when he declared a batsman out under the new rule , and any such dismissal was designated " lbw ( n ) " on the <unk> . 
 Several leading batsmen opposed the new law , including the professional Herbert <unk> , known as an exponent of pad @-@ play , and amateurs Errol Holmes and Bob Wyatt . Wisden <unk> ' <unk> noted that these three improved their batting records during the 1935 season , but batsmen generally were less successful . There were also fewer drawn matches . There was an increase in the number of lbws — out of 1 @,@ 560 lbw dismissals in first @-@ class matches in 1935 , 483 were given under the amended law . Wisden judged the experiment a success and several of its opponents changed their mind by the end of the season ; batsmen soon became accustomed to the alteration . Although Australian authorities were less convinced , and did not immediately introduce the revision into domestic first @-@ class cricket , in 1937 the new rule became part of the Laws of Cricket . 
 According to Gerald Brodribb , in his survey and history of the Laws , the change produced more " <unk> " , exciting cricket but any alteration in outlook was halted by the Second World War . When the sport resumed in 1946 , batsmen were out of practice and the amended lbw law played into the hands of off spin and inswing bowlers , who began to dominate county cricket . The cricket historian Derek <unk> notes that many of these bowlers imitated the methods of Alec <unk> , an inswing bowler who was successful immediately after the war , but that the resulting cricket was <unk> to watch . The revised lbw law , and other alterations in the game in favour of the bowler , further encouraged such bowling . The new law continued to provoke debate among writers and cricketers ; many former players claimed that the alteration had caused a deterioration in batting and reduced the number of shots played on the off side . A 1963 report in The Times blamed the law for reducing the variety of bowling styles : " the change has led to a steady increase in the amount of seam and off @-@ spin bowling . Whereas in the early thirties every county had a leg spinner and an orthodox left arm spinner , leg spinners , at any rate , are now few and far between . Walk on to any of the first @-@ class grounds at any time tomorrow and the chances are that you will see the <unk> standing back and a medium pace bowler in action ... there is little doubt that the game , as a spectacle , is less attractive than it was . " Several critics , including Bob Wyatt , maintained that the lbw law should be returned to its pre @-@ 1935 wording ; he campaigned to do so until his death in 1995 . On the other hand , Bradman , in the 1950s , proposed extending the law so that batsmen could be lbw even if they were struck outside the line of off stump . An MCC study of the state of cricket , carried out in 1956 and 1957 , examined the prevalent and unpopular tactic involving off @-@ spin and inswing bowlers aiming at leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side . Rather than alter the lbw law to combat the problem , the MCC reduced the number of fielders allowed on the leg side . 
 
 = = = Playing no stroke = = = 
 
 In the 1950s and 1960s , the amount of pad @-@ play increased , owing to more difficult and unpredictable pitches that made batting much harder . Critics continued to regard this tactic as " negative and unfair " . In an effort to discourage pad @-@ play and encourage leg spin bowling , a new variant of the lbw law was introduced , initially in Australia and the West Indies in the 1969 – 70 season , then in England for 1970 . Under the re @-@ <unk> law , a batsman would be lbw if a ball destined to hit the stumps pitched in line with the wickets or " outside a batsman 's off stump and in the opinion of the umpire he made no genuine attempt to play the ball with his bat . " This revision omitted the requirement that the impact should be in line with the wickets , but meant that any batsman playing a shot could not be out if the ball pitched outside off stump , in contrast to the 1935 law . The editor of Wisden believed the change encouraged batsmen to take more risks , and had produced more attractive cricket . However , the proportion of wickets falling lbw sharply declined , and concerns were expressed in Australia . The Australian authorities proposed a <unk> to the previous law . A batsman could once more be out to a ball that pitched outside off stump , but a provision was added that " if no stroke is offered to a ball pitching outside the off @-@ stump which in the opinion of the umpire would hit the stumps , but hits the batsman on any part of his person other than the hand , then the batsman is out , even if that part of the person hit is not in line between wicket and wicket . " The difference to the 1935 rule was that the batsman could now be out even if the ball struck outside the line of off @-@ stump . This wording was adopted throughout the world , although it was not yet part of the official Laws , from 1972 and the percentage of lbws sharply increased to beyond the levels preceding the 1970 change . The MCC added the revised wording to the Laws of Cricket in 1980 ; this version of the lbw law is still used as of 2013 . 
 
 = = = Effects of technology = = = 
 
 Since 1993 , the proportion of lbws in each English season has risen steadily . According to cricket historian Douglas Miller , the percentage of lbw dismissals increased after broadcasters incorporated ball @-@ tracking technology such as Hawk @-@ Eye into their television coverage of matches . Miller writes : " With the passage of time and the adoption of <unk> into other sports , together with presentations demonstrating its accuracy , cricket followers seem gradually to have accepted its predictions . Replay analyses have shown that a greater proportion of balls striking an <unk> leg go on to hit the wicket than had once been expected . " He also suggests that umpires have been influenced by such evidence ; their greater understanding of which deliveries are likely to hit the stumps has made them more likely to rule out batsmen who are standing further away from the stumps . This trend is replicated in international cricket , where the increasing use of technology in reviewing decisions has altered the attitude of umpires . Spin bowlers in particular win far more appeals for lbw . However , the use of on @-@ field technology has proved controversial ; some critics regard it as more reliable than human judgement , while others believe that the umpire is better placed to make the decision . 
 The International Cricket Council ( ICC ) , responsible for running the game worldwide , conducted a trial in 2002 where lbw appeals could be referred to a match official , the third umpire , to review on television replays . The third umpire could only use technology to determine where the ball had pitched and if the batsman hit the ball with his bat . The ICC judged the experiment unsuccessful and did not pursue it . More trials followed in 2006 , although ball @-@ tracking technology remained unavailable to match officials . After a further series of trials , in 2009 the <unk> Decision Review System ( DRS ) was brought into international cricket where teams could refer the on @-@ field decisions of umpires to a third umpire who had access to television replays and technology such as ball tracking . According to the ICC 's general manager , Dave Richardson , DRS increased the frequency with which umpires awarded lbw decisions . In a 2012 interview , he said : " <unk> may have realised that if they give someone out and DRS shows it was not out , then their decision can be rectified . So they might , I suppose , have the courage of their convictions a bit more and take a less conservative approach to giving the batsman out . I think if we 're totally honest , DRS has affected the game slightly more than we thought it would . " 
 Critics of the system suggest that rules for the use of DRS have created an inconsistency of approach to lbw decisions depending on the circumstances of the referral . Opponents also doubt that the ball @-@ tracking technology used in deciding lbws is reliable enough , but the ICC state that tests have shown the system to be 100 % accurate . The Board of Control for Cricket in India ( <unk> ) have consistently declined to use DRS in matches involving India owing to their concerns regarding the ball @-@ tracking technology . Early DRS trials were conducted during India matches , and several problems arose over lbws , particularly as the equipment was not as advanced as it later became . The <unk> believe the technology is unreliable and open to manipulation . 
 
 = = Trends and perception = = 
 
 A study in 2011 by Douglas Miller shows that in English county cricket , the proportion of wickets to fall lbw has increased steadily since the First World War . In the 1920s , around 11 % of wickets were lbw but this rose to 14 % in the 1930s . Between 1946 and 1970 , the proportion was approximately 11 % but subsequently increased until reaching almost 19 % in the decade before 2010 . Miller also states that captains of county teams were statistically more likely to receive the benefit of lbw decisions — less likely to be out lbw when batting and more likely to dismiss batsmen lbw when bowling . For many years , county captains submitted end @-@ of @-@ match reports on the umpires ; as umpires were professionals whose careers could be affected , captains consequently received <unk> whether batting or bowling . Before 1963 , when the status was abolished in county cricket , umpires were also more lenient towards amateur cricketers . <unk> administered English cricket , and offending one could end an umpire 's career . Elsewhere in the world , lbws are more statistically likely in matches taking place on the Indian subcontinent . However , batsmen from the subcontinent were less likely to be lbw wherever they played in the world . 
 Teams that toured other countries often became frustrated by lbws given against them ; there was often an assumption of national bias by home umpires against visiting teams . Several studies investigating this perception have suggested that home batsmen are sometimes less likely than visiting batsmen to be lbw . However , the data is based on lbw decisions awarded , not on the success @-@ rate of appeals to the umpire . Fraser points out that it is impossible to determine from these studies if any of the decisions were wrong , particularly as the lbw law can have different interpretations , or if other factors such as pitch conditions and technique were involved . A 2006 study examined the effect that neutral umpires had on the rate of lbws . Although the reasons were again ambiguous , it found that lbws increased slightly under neutral umpires regardless of team or location . 
 In his survey of cricket laws , Gerald Brodribb suggests that " no dismissal has produced so much argument as lbw ; it has caused trouble from its earliest days " . Among those who do not follow cricket , the law has the reputation of being extremely difficult to understand , of equivalent complexity to association football 's offside rule . Owing to the difficulty of its interpretation , lbw is regarded by critics as the most controversial of the laws but also a <unk> by which an umpire 's abilities are judged . In his book Cricket and the Law : The Man in White Is Always Right , David Fraser writes that umpires ' lbw decisions are frequently criticised and " arguments about bias and incompetence in <unk> inform almost every discussion about lbw decisions . " Problems arise because the umpire has not only to establish what has happened but also to speculate over what might have occurred . <unk> aspects of lbw decisions include the umpire having to determine whether the ball pitched outside leg stump , and in certain circumstances whether the batsman intended to hit the ball or leave it alone . <unk> are frequently criticised for their lbw decisions by players , commentators and spectators . Historically , trouble ranging from protests and arguments to crowd demonstrations occasionally arose from disputed decisions . For example , a prolonged crowd disturbance , in which items were thrown onto the playing field and the match was delayed , took place when <unk> <unk> was <unk> lbw during a 1996 One Day International in India . 
 
 
 = The Family Jewels ( Marina and the Diamonds album ) = 
 
 The Family Jewels is the debut studio album recorded by Welsh singer Marina Diamandis , professionally known as Marina and the Diamonds . It was released on 15 February 2010 by 679 Recordings and Atlantic Records . Diamandis collaborated with several producers including Pascal Gabriel , Liam Howe , Greg Kurstin , Richard " <unk> " <unk> , and <unk> during its recording . She identifies the lyrical themes as " the seduction of commercialism , modern social values , family and female sexuality . " 
 Contemporary music critics gave The Family Jewels fairly positive reviews , with the vocal delivery dividing opinions . The record debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 618 copies . The album was eventually certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry and has sold 195 @,@ 358 units in the United Kingdom . The Family Jewels performed moderately on international record charts ; it peaked at number 138 on the Billboard 200 in the United States . 
 The Family Jewels was supported by five singles , all of which were supplemented by accompanying music videos . " Mowgli 's Road " was released on 13 November 2009 , although " Hollywood " became its first charting track after reaching number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . Follow @-@ up singles " I Am Not a Robot " , " Oh No ! " , and " Shampain " respectively peaked at numbers 26 , 38 , and 141 in the United Kingdom . The record was additionally promoted by Diamandis ' headlining The Family Jewels Tour , which visited Australia , Europe and North America from January 2010 through December 2011 . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 Born and raised in South East Wales , Diamandis moved to London at the age of 18 to study music , despite not having a musical background . After dropping out of four institutions and failing in auditions , she began composing her own music . After the success of her <unk> @-@ released debut EP <unk> vs. <unk> in 2007 , she was signed by <unk> Gold Records the following year and by 679 Artists in October 2008 . In 2009 , after playing at a variety of festivals including Glastonbury in the summer , she ranked in second place in the BBC 's Sound of 2010 and was one of the three nominees for the Critics ' Choice Award at the 2010 BRIT Awards . 
 In a 2012 interview with <unk> , Diamandis said that the album 's title came from a slang term for <unk> , but she had been too coy to admit it before . 
 
 = = Composition = = 
 
 Diamandis explained that the album is " a body of work largely inspired by the seduction of commercialism , modern social values , family and female sexuality " , intended to be " enjoyed and consumed as a story and theory that encourages people to question themselves " . 
 In a review for Q , writer Hugh Montgomery noted genres such as disco ( " Shampain " ) , <unk> punk ( " Girls " ) and cabaret ( " Hermit The Frog " ) . The opening track , " Are You Satisfied ? " , <unk> the meaning of a fulfilling life ; a writer for The Line of Best <unk> likened it to the thinking of Danish <unk> philosopher <unk> <unk> . In a January 2010 interview with The Daily Telegraph , Diamandis admitted that she " <unk> " at the lyrics of the song " Girls " , which " could be seen as a bit <unk> " , including the lines " Girls they never befriend me / ' Cause I fall asleep when they speak / Of all the calories they eat " ; she clarified that the lyrics concerned her own psychological problems with weight . A <unk> Gold press release for a limited double A @-@ side of " Obsessions " and " Mowgli 's Road " described the former as a " bold and ambitious ... master work " and the latter as a " a high intensity , left field pop smash " . 
 Diamandis reportedly made producer Liam Howe take 486 vocal takes for " The Outsider " . " Hollywood " takes inspiration from Diamandis ' previous obsession with American celebrity culture , while in " I Am Not a Robot " , her favourite track from the album , she sings to tell herself to accept <unk> , with lines such as " you 've been acting awful tough lately , smoking a lot of cigarettes lately ... don 't be so pathetic " ; she expected audiences to be able to relate to the song . " <unk> " reflects on the dedication and sacrifice needed during her early years in London ; " Oh No ! " and " Are You Satisfied ? " have similar lyrical themes . " Oh No ! " was a late addition to the track listing , causing some reviews of the album to not include it . The album had initially been scheduled for release in October 2009 , and was delayed by Diamandis ' self @-@ confessed <unk> . 
 
 = = Release and promotion = = 
 
 
 = = = Music videos = = = 
 
 In 2008 , Diamandis filmed videos for the tracks " Seventeen " and " Obsessions " . The following year , photographer Rankin directed the accompaniment for " I Am Not a Robot " , which used much body <unk> . The video for " Mowgli 's Road " featured Diamandis and two dancers , with puppeteers standing in front of them to give them the impression of having <unk> limbs ; it was shot over 17 hours . 
 Polish artist <unk> Burza shot the " classic pop video " for " Hollywood " , with the aim to " make her audiences fall in love her even more , perhaps <unk> a little popcorn and feel inspired to dress up for fun " . Burza also filmed the video for " Oh No ! " , with an aesthetic based on " <unk> neon " MTV graphics and the fame @-@ hungry lyrics . The video to " Shampain " made an homage to Michael Jackson 's Thriller . 
 Dan Knight made a video for <unk> Gonzales ' " stripped @-@ down " remix of " Hollywood " that was intended to be the opposite of Burza 's official video . In the video , Gonzales and Diamandis perform on a 1980s <unk> music show complete with <unk> . 
 
 = = = Singles = = = 
 
 " Obsessions " was Diamandis ' first single , released on 14 February 2009 , and " Mowgli 's Road " followed on 13 November 2009 . She chose the song as an " <unk> " <unk> due to its <unk> , but it received attention after being shared by bloggers including <unk> Hilton and Kanye West . 
 " Hollywood " was released as the album 's second single and Diamandis ' first major release on 1 February 2010 . It reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . It was followed on 26 April by " I Am Not a Robot " , which peaked at number 26 on the same listing . " Oh No ! " was released as the album 's fourth single on 2 August only in the UK and Ireland ; it charted at number 38 . " Shampain " was released as the album 's fifth and final single on 11 October , again only in the same region , and reached number 141 in the UK . 
 " I Am Not a Robot " was nominated for the 2010 <unk> £ 20 Music Prize for best British single , eventually losing to " <unk> " by <unk> . 
 
 = = = Tour = = = 
 
 Diamandis went on her first headlining tour to promote the album , performing in Europe , North America and Australia . <unk> included the Glastonbury Festival 2010 , South by Southwest and the Falls Festival . In parallel to headlining her own tour in the United States in mid @-@ 2011 , she was an opening act for Katy Perry 's California Dreams Tour , and finished by opening for Coldplay 's <unk> <unk> Tour at the Manchester Arena that December . 
 After a performance at Manchester 's <unk> Institute on 21 February 2010 , Contactmusic.com writer Katy <unk> awarded Diamandis a 9 / 10 rating , stating " Next time she plays Manchester , it will be to a sold out Academy 2 audience , with a top @-@ selling album <unk> the merchandising stand . Marina won 't be playing to a few hundred people above a <unk> bar in the foreseeable future " . 
 
 = = Critical reception = = 
 
 The Family Jewels received mostly positive reviews . At Metacritic , which assigns a <unk> rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on 21 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . 
 Hugh Montgomery of Q magazine noted that the singer 's " imaginative reach " was " complemented by a winning pop <unk> " , while Luke O 'Neil from The Phoenix stated that " [ t ] he likes of Kate Nash and company have <unk> through this piano <unk> / <unk> dance @-@ diva territory , but never mind , because this gorgeous genre starts now . " <unk> Cooper from NME rated the album nine out of ten stars , finding flaw only in the titles of " Shampain " and " Hermit the Frog " . 
 More mixed reviews were critical of Diamandis ' vocal delivery . Lou Thomas from BBC Music commented that " [ t ] he consistently diverting changes in style across the album are fine — the <unk> 80s shoulder @-@ pad pop of ' The Outsider ' is nothing like anything else here , for example . But over 13 songs of Sparks @-@ voice and many similar staccato piano riffs listeners may feel <unk> by Marina and her slightly overbearing presence " , concluding that her eccentric vocals would <unk> opinions . Sean O <unk> wrote on The <unk> Club that after " dozens of <unk> Regina <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> " and " Kate Bush <unk> " , the " overbearing need to prove herself just ends up being exhausting " . Joe Rivers of No <unk> praised " Are You Satisfied ? " , " Hollywood " and " Oh No ! " but was put off by sudden " <unk> " in " Hermit the Frog " and a " <unk> <unk> " in " The Outsider " . 
 A negative review came from The Independent 's Andy Gill who considered " Shampain " and " Hermit the Frog " as " every bit as annoying as their <unk> titles , with <unk> , <unk> piano and synth figures " . He found certain vocal techniques in " Mowgli 's Road " and " I Am Not a Robot " to be " <unk> " , and evaluated the lyrics of " Girls " and " Hollywood " as shallow . Gill added that the content of " <unk> " , " Obsessions " and " The Outsider " did not match with what would be expected from the titles . 
 The NME placed the album at number 33 on its list of the Top 75 Albums of 2010 . 
 
 = = Commercial performance = = 
 
 The Family Jewels debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 618 copies . It remains Diamandis ' best @-@ selling debut week , after her second studio album <unk> Heart entered the chart at number one with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 units . The Family Jewels was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry , and had sold 195 @,@ 358 copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2015 . The record debuted at number seven in Greece and number nine in Ireland ; it was eventually certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association . 
 The Family Jewels performed moderately on several international record charts . The record reached number 12 on the German Media Control Charts , and entered the <unk> Austria Top 40 at number 18 . It peaked at number 88 on the Dutch <unk> , number 100 on the Swiss <unk> , and number 132 in France . In Oceania , the album reached number 79 on the Australian ARIA Charts . With first @-@ week sales of 4 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , The Family Jewels entered the Billboard 200 at number 138 ; furthermore , it respectively charted at numbers 2 and 49 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers and Top Rock Albums charts . 
 In an interview for Australian radio in January 2011 , Diamandis said that her career that far had been " more like a failure than a success " , particularly in the American market . She attributed this to the inaction of <unk> Shop Records , her label in the United States , as well as a move in musical tastes to " pumping beats " by artists like Lady Gaga . She cancelled performances in the United States in order to begin work on a new album . 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Family Jewels . 
 Notes 
 ^ a signifies an additional producer 
 ^ b signifies an original producer 
 ^ c signifies a <unk> 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Family Jewels . 
 
 = = Charts = = 
 
 
 = = Certifications = = 
 
 
 = = Release history = = 
 
 
 
 = 1981 Peach Bowl ( January ) = 
 
 The 1981 Peach Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Hurricanes from the University of Miami at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia on January 2 , 1981 . The game was the final contest of the 1980 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 20 @-@ 10 victory for Miami . Another game by the same name followed the 1981 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season and was played in December , 1981 . 
 Virginia Tech was awarded a bid to the Peach Bowl as a reward for finishing 8 – 3 during the regular season , a record that included wins over nationally ranked teams such as the Clemson Tigers and the Virginia Cavaliers . Facing Virginia Tech was a familiar post @-@ season opponent — Miami — whom the Hokies had played in the 1966 Liberty Bowl , Tech 's last bowl appearance prior to the Peach Bowl . Miami finished the regular season with an 8 – 3 record , including wins over Florida State and Florida . 
 The game kicked off at 3 : 00 p.m. EST under sunny skies and in temperatures of 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) . Unlike the 1966 Liberty Bowl , in which Virginia Tech scored first , it was Miami who dominated the game 's early going . The Hurricanes scored a touchdown on the first drive of the game and <unk> on another touchdown early in the second quarter . Tech was held scoreless in the early going , thanks to two Miami interceptions at the goal line as Virginia Tech was threatening to score . Late in the second quarter , Tech was finally able to get on the <unk> with a field goal , but at halftime , the Miami Hurricanes led 14 – 3 . After halftime , the Hokies threatened Miami for the first time all game . Virginia Tech mounted an 80 @-@ yard drive that resulted in a touchdown , cutting Miami 's lead to 14 – 10 . But the Hurricanes ' defense <unk> down on any further offensive attempts by Virginia Tech and denied the Hokies more points . Miami added two field goals : one in the third quarter and one in the fourth quarter that finally put the game out of reach for Virginia Tech . Miami 's win was its first bowl victory since the 1966 Liberty Bowl , which also featured a Hurricane victory over Virginia Tech . 
 
 = = Team Selection = = 
 
 
 = = = Miami = = = 
 
 The Miami Hurricanes came into the 1980 college football season after an 5 – 6 season in 1979 under head coach Howard Schnellenberger . During that season , the team was nicknamed the " Jet <unk> Kids " after they traveled an NCAA @-@ record 28 @,@ 000 miles ( 45 @,@ 000 km ) , including a trip to the <unk> Bowl in Tokyo , Japan . While impressive , the season wasn 't as successful as hoped , and Schnellenberger began his second season as coach hoping to improve upon the 5 – 6 effort despite what was the toughest schedule — in terms of opponents ' winning percentage — in the country . 
 Miami got off to a good start doing just that as it raced out to four consecutive wins to begin the season , including a victory over nationally ranked rival No. 9 Florida State . On October 11 , however , Miami traveled to South Bend , Indiana , to face the Notre Dame Fighting Irish and suffered its first loss of the season to the undefeated Irish , who would go on to be ranked No. 1 in the country . This defeat was followed in succession by two others , but the Hurricanes were able to stop the slide on November 8 with a homecoming win over East Carolina . Miami added two more wins before the end of the season , and brought the regular season to a close with an overall record of 8 – 3 . 
 
 = = = Virginia Tech = = = 
 
 The Virginia Tech Hokies , like Miami , entered the 1980 season after accumulating a 5 – 6 record in 1979 . Though the Hokies traveled far less than Miami , they also hoped to improve upon their losing record . Tech was coached by Bill Dooley , who was entering his third season as head coach . 
 Like Schnellenberger , he got his team off to a fast start . In the season opener , Tech traveled to North Carolina to face the Wake Forest Demon <unk> . Wake Forest had attended the <unk> Bowl the previous year and was favored in the game against Tech . Despite those facts , the Hokies won , 16 – 7 . Virginia Tech won its first four games of the regular season before falling to the nationally ranked Clemson Tigers on October 4 . Tech recovered from the loss , defeating Rhode Island , then Virginia before a then @-@ state record crowd of 52 @,@ 000 people , but lost a second game , to Richmond on October 25 . The Hokies split their final three games of the regular season , winning two and losing one , and finished with a regular season record of 8 – 3 . Tech 's 6 – 0 record at Lane Stadium — its home stadium — was the best in school history . Tech 's selection by the Peach Bowl was announced in the locker room following the team 's final regular season game . The Peach Bowl representative present was <unk> by celebrating players chanting " Peach Bowl ! Peach Bowl ! " The representative later said , " I 've never seen a <unk> celebration . " 
 
 = = <unk> buildup = = 
 
 
 = = = Miami offense = = = 
 
 The Miami Hurricanes entered the Peach Bowl with a record @-@ breaking offense that set the school mark for the most accumulated yards in school history with a total offensive mark of 3 @,@ <unk> yards . Leading the aerial portion of the Miami offense was sophomore quarterback Jim Kelly , who completed 109 of 206 passes for 1 @,@ <unk> yards , 11 touchdowns , and seven interceptions . Kelly 's 11 touchdowns tied the Miami record for most touchdowns in a season at that time . Kelly 's favorite receiver was wide receiver Larry Brodsky , who caught 33 passes for 570 yards and three touchdowns during the regular season . One of Brodsky 's touchdowns came on an 81 @-@ yard reception that tied the longest pass reception in the history of Miami football to that point . 
 The Hurricanes ' ground offense was led by running back Smokey Roan , who carried the ball 152 times for <unk> yards and five touchdowns . Roan was assisted by an able offensive line . Miami offensive tackle John <unk> was named as an honorable mention to the Associated Press All @-@ America team , which recognizes the best college football players in the country . 
 
 = = = Miami defense = = = 
 
 Miami 's defense shut out one opponent , and held six other opponents to single touchdowns or field goals . Middle guard Jim Burt was one of the Hurricanes ' defensive leaders , recovering four fumbles in a single game during the regular season . In recognition of this and other performances , Burt was named to the Associated Press All @-@ America list . Also recognized was defensive back Fred Marion , who was named an honorable mention to the All @-@ America list . Marion intercepted seven passes during the regular season , tying him for second in Miami history for the most interceptions in a season . 
 
 = = = Virginia Tech offense = = = 
 
 Throughout the regular season , Virginia Tech 's offense was led by running back Cyrus Lawrence , who accumulated what was then a school record of 1 @,@ 221 yards during the regular season . He also set a record for most carries by a Tech player in a season with 271 . Tech quarterback Steve Casey was called the " key man in the Tech offense . " Casey was Tech 's starting quarterback and completed 97 of 176 passes during the regular season for 1 @,@ 119 yards and 13 touchdowns . At the time , he ranked second among Tech 's career passing leaders , and was considered to be an offensive threat . 
 Casey 's favorite target was wide receiver Sidney Snell , who caught a Tech @-@ record eight touchdown receptions during the regular season . Snell accounted for 568 yards on 43 receptions of all types . <unk> end Rob Purdham only caught seven passes during the regular season , but four of the catches were for touchdowns . 
 
 = = = Virginia Tech defense = = = 
 
 The Tech defense was ranked among the top five in the country during the regular season , and set a school record for fewest points allowed during an 11 @-@ game regular season . Tech permitted just 109 points during the season , and allowed only 11 touchdowns in 11 games . 
 The leading <unk> on the Tech defense was freshman linebacker Ashley Lee , who accumulated 95 tackles during the regular season . Lee was one of two freshman linebackers for the Hokies during their record @-@ breaking defensive season . 
 Virginia Tech 's defense also featured Robert Brown , who accumulated 10 tackles , including two quarterback sacks , in the Hokies ' regular @-@ season finale against the Virginia Military Institute . Tech head coach Bill Dooley lobbied in vain for Brown 's inclusion in the annual All @-@ America list recording the best college football players in the country , saying , " Robert Brown is an All @-@ American football player ... but because he was a transfer student , he received no preseason buildup . ... I guarantee the people who have seen him know he 's an All @-@ American . " Brown finished the regular season with 61 tackles , broke up four passes , and recovered three fumbles . 
 
 = = Game summary = = 
 
 The 1981 Peach Bowl kicked off at 3 p.m. EST on January 2 , 1981 , at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia in front of a crowd estimated at 45 @,@ 384 people . More than 14 @,@ 000 of those present were estimated to be fans of Virginia Tech . Weather at kickoff was sunny , with a temperature of 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) and a north @-@ northwest wind estimated at 14 miles per hour ( 23 km / h ) . The game was televised nationally on CBS , with Curt <unk> , Hank <unk> , and Frank <unk> serving as the <unk> for the television broadcast . William Parkinson was the referee , Robert <unk> was the umpire , and the linesman was Richard <unk> . Miami won the traditional <unk> coin toss used to decide first possession and elected to receive the ball to begin the game . 
 
 = = = First quarter = = = 
 
 After the Virginia Tech kickoff and a short return , Miami began the first drive of the game at its 32 @-@ yard line . The game 's first play was an incomplete pass from Miami quarterback Jim Kelly . After a one @-@ yard rush , Kelly completed his first pass of the game , an 18 @-@ yard toss that drove Miami to the Tech 49 @-@ yard line and gave the Hurricanes a first down . Miami then committed a 15 @-@ yard penalty , pushing the Hurricanes back into their side of the field . On the second play after the penalty , Kelly completed a 29 @-@ yard pass that gave Miami a first down . The Hurricanes were further aided by a 15 @-@ yard <unk> the passer penalty against Virginia Tech , giving Miami a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . From there , it took Miami just three plays to score a touchdown , the final play being a 15 @-@ yard pass from Kelly to Larry Brodsky . With 12 : 37 remaining in the quarter , Miami took a 7 – 0 lead . 
 Following Miami 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Virginia Tech began its first offensive possession of the game at its 24 @-@ yard line . A three @-@ yard rush from fullback Scott Dovel was followed by two rushes from Tech 's Cyrus Lawrence : one for eight yards and a second for 17 more . These drove Tech into Miami territory and gave the Hokies a first down . Once there , however , Miami 's defense stiffened and Tech was forced to punt . Miami recovered the ball at its 12 @-@ yard line , and the Hurricanes began their second possession of the game . <unk> Chris Hobbs and running back Smokey Roan alternated carries , picking up yardage and first downs before entering Virginia Tech territory . On the Hurricanes ' first play on Tech 's side of the field , however , Miami committed two penalties , pushing the Hurricanes back 20 yards . Following the penalties , Miami was unable to pick up a first down and punted back to the Hokies . 
 Tech recovered the punt at its 30 @-@ yard line and began its second possession . Lawrence rushed for five yards , and Miami committed a five @-@ yard <unk> penalty , giving Tech a first down by penalty . Dovel and Lawrence then combined for another first down after two plays . Tech was unable to gain another first down and punted the ball away . Attempting to field the ball , Miami 's Fred Marion fumbled the ball , which was recovered by a Tech defender at the Miami 25 @-@ yard line . Despite beginning with excellent field position , Tech was unable to score . On the first play after the fumble recovery , Tech attempted to run a trick play involving a pass by Lawrence . The pass was intercepted by a Miami defender at the Hurricanes ' one @-@ yard line , and Miami 's offense returned to the field . 
 From their one @-@ yard line , the Hurricanes ran a short rush up the middle , then Kelly connected on a 28 @-@ yard pass to tight end Mark Cooper for a first down . Three short rushes by fullback <unk> Neal resulted in 12 yards and a first down . With time running out in the quarter , Kelly attempted and completed a 27 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Rocky <unk> , driving the Hurricanes to the Tech 30 @-@ yard line and bringing the quarter to an end . Miami led , 7 – 0 at the end of the first quarter . 
 
 = = = Second quarter = = = 
 
 Miami began the second quarter in possession of the ball and facing a first down at the Virginia Tech 30 @-@ yard line . From there , it took Miami just four plays to score . Roan ran for seven yards , Kelly completed an 11 @-@ yard pass , threw an incomplete pass , then Hobbs ran 12 yards for the touchdown . The score and following extra point gave Miami a 14 – 0 lead with 13 : 47 remaining before halftime . 
 Virginia Tech received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and was promptly penalized 10 yards for an illegal block during the kickoff . Despite the initial setback , Tech made good the penalty with two passes from quarterback Steve Casey . After gaining one first down , the Hokies gained several more with a combination of passes from Casey and rushes from Lawrence . Tech drove into Miami territory and penetrated the Hurricanes ' red zone , in the process gaining a first down after facing a fourth down near midfield . Attempting to pass for a touchdown , however , Casey threw an interception at the goal line to a Miami defender . The Hurricanes thus again denied Tech a scoring opportunity and the Miami offense began <unk> . 
 The Hurricanes picked up a first down on one rush each from Hobbs and Roan , but were unable to gain another . After a Miami punt , Tech returned to offense from its 46 @-@ yard line . Casey picked up a first down on a pass , then gained another after a seven @-@ yard scramble that followed a three @-@ yard rush by Lawrence . Lawrence then gained a first down on his own after rushing for nine yards and five yards , driving the Hokies to the Miami 15 @-@ yard line in the process . After entering the Miami red zone , however , Tech was unable to gain a first down and Casey was sacked for a loss of 13 yards . Facing a fourth down and needing 20 yards for a first down , Tech coach Bill Dooley sent in kicker Dennis <unk> to attempt a 42 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 29 seconds left in the first half , Tech cut Miami 's lead to 14 – 3 . 
 Miami was penalized 15 yards for <unk> the kicker during the field goal attempt , allowing Tech to kick off from the Miami 45 @-@ yard line following the score . Instead of kicking off to Miami , Tech attempted an <unk> kick , which would allow Tech to retain possession if the ball was recovered by the kicking team after traveling 10 yards from the point at which it was kicked . The ball did not travel the needed 10 yards , however , and Miami began offense at its 37 @-@ yard line , where the ball rolled out of bounds . On Miami 's first play after the kick , Kelly attempted a long pass into Tech territory , but the ball was intercepted by Tech 's Mike <unk> at the Hokies ' 12 @-@ yard line . With just 21 seconds remaining in the first half , Tech attempted to gain quick yardage in an effort to close within field goal distance . Though Lawrence picked up 15 yards and a first with a rush , the Hokies were unable to enter the Miami side of the field before time expired . At the end of the first half , Miami still held a 14 – 3 lead . 
 
 = = = Third quarter = = = 
 
 Because Miami received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . After Miami 's kickoff and a touchback , Tech began the first possession of the second half at its 20 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a quick first down off a rush each by Lawrence , Dovel , and Casey . Lawrence picked up another with two rushes that resulted in 13 yards and drove the Hokies to their 44 @-@ yard line . There , Casey completed his longest pass of the game — a 42 @-@ yard throw to tight end Rob Purdham — that gave Tech a first down at the Miami 14 @-@ yard line . Tech continued to drive , picking up short yardage with multiple rushes . The Hokies suffered a near @-@ disaster when Lawrence fumbled the ball , but Tech retained possession when the ball rolled out of bounds at the one @-@ yard line . Two plays after the fumble , Lawrence vaulted over the goal line for Tech 's first and only touchdown of the game . Following the extra point , Tech cut Miami 's lead to 14 – 10 with 8 : 52 remaining in the quarter . 
 Following the Tech kickoff , Miami began a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line and went three and out . Following the Hurricanes ' punt , Tech 's offense began work at its 22 @-@ yard line . Despite having a chance to take the lead with a successful drive , the Hokies also went three and out , punting back to Miami and allowing the Hurricanes to begin a possession at their 33 @-@ yard line . This possession was more successful than Miami 's first of the second half . Kelly ran for four yards , then completed a six @-@ yard pass for a first down . Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard grabbing @-@ the @-@ <unk> penalty , and Kelly completed a 15 @-@ yard pass that pushed the Miami offense to the Tech 22 @-@ yard line . Young picked up 12 yards and a first down with a rush to the left , but Kelly was sacked for a loss of 13 yards , <unk> the gain . Unable to gain another first down or a touchdown , Miami was forced to settle for a field goal attempt . The 31 @-@ yard attempt was good , and Miami expanded its lead to 17 – 10 with 29 seconds remaining in the quarter . 
 Tech received Miami 's kickoff for a touchback , and the Hokies ' offense began work at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . Lawrence ran for six yards , and time ran out in the quarter . With one quarter remaining , Miami held a 17 – 10 lead . 
 
 = = = Fourth quarter = = = 
 
 Tech began the fourth quarter in possession of the ball and facing a second down at its 26 @-@ yard line . Despite needing just another four yards for a first down , Tech was unable to gain the needed yardage and was forced to punt . During the kick , Miami was penalized five yards , and began its first possession of the fourth quarter at its 18 @-@ yard line after the penalty . Kelly completed an 18 @-@ yard pass for a first down , but Miami was unable to gain another . After punting to Tech , the Hokies were likewise unable to gain a first down and went three and out after committing a delay of game penalty . 
 Tech 's punt was short , and Miami began a possession at the Tech 41 @-@ yard line . The Hurricanes picked up a first down with two rushes by Roan for a total of 14 yards . Despite further short gains by Roan , the Hurricanes were stopped short by the Tech defense and were unable to gain another . Miami sent in kicker Dan Miller , who kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal to give Miami a 20 – 10 lead with 6 : 27 remaining in the game . 
 Tech received Miami 's post @-@ score kickoff needing to score quickly in order to have a chance to have a second opportunity on offense — needed because Tech was now two scores behind . Tech returned the kickoff to the 24 @-@ yard line but were penalized 12 yards for an illegal block . Casey passed for an eight @-@ yard gain and ran for three yards for a first down . After that gain , things went against the Hokies . Casey was penalized 15 yards for intentional <unk> , and Tech was unable to gain another first down . The Hokies punted , and Miami took over on offense at its 46 @-@ yard line . In possession of the lead , Miami began to run out the clock , executing multiple rushing plays in succession in order to force the game clock to continue to count down . Tech 's defense forced a stop , but because Miami punted the ball with just 2 : 20 remaining in the game , there was little chance that Tech would be able to make up the needed two scores . 
 Tech received the ball at its 16 @-@ yard line , and Casey completed a quick 14 @-@ yard pass to Purdham for a first down . But Tech was unable to gain another first down , and after four plays were stopped short , Tech turned the ball over to Miami after Casey threw an incomplete pass on fourth down . Miami received the ball with 1 : 24 remaining and ran a series of <unk> plays to draw down the clock and bring the game to an end . Miami earned the win , 20 – 10 . 
 
 = = Statistical summary = = 
 
 In recognition of their performances during the Peach Bowl , Miami quarterback Jim Kelly and nose guard Jim Burt were named the game 's offensive and defensive most valuable players of the game , respectively . Kelly finished the game having completed 11 of his 22 pass attempts for 179 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Burt , the other MVP , accumulated nine tackles — the second @-@ most of any player in the game — including seven <unk> tackles and one tackle for loss . 
 Virginia Tech running back Cyrus Lawrence finished the game with 27 carries for 137 rushing yards and a touchdown . The 27 carries remain the most ever recorded by a single Virginia Tech player in a bowl game . Tech quarterback Steve Casey led the Hokies in passing yardage , completing nine of his 23 pass attempts for 119 yards and one interception . 
 The Hurricanes ' ground offense was led by Smokey Roan , who carried the ball 16 times for 86 yards . Second to Roan for Miami was Chris Hobbs , who contributed 66 yards and a touchdown on 10 carries . Hurricanes wide receiver Larry Brodsky finished with four catches for 80 yards and a touchdown . Miami turned the ball over four times during the course of the game . Tech 's 80 @-@ yard touchdown drive in the third quarter remains tied for the longest ever recorded by a Tech offense during a bowl game . Conversely , the 99 @-@ yard drive allowed to Miami remains the longest scoring drive Tech 's defense has ever allowed in a bowl game . 
 On defense , Virginia Tech linebacker Ashley Lee 's 15 tackles remains the most ever recorded by a Tech defender in a bowl game . Three Tech players were tied for second on the team with eight tackles . Behind defensive MVP Burt , Miami had one player with eight tackles and two with seven . Fred Marion , one of the Hurricanes with seven tackles , also intercepted a Tech pass and broke up another pass . 
 
 = = <unk> effects = = 
 
 In exchange for their participation , each team received $ <unk> @,@ 389 . Miami 's win brought the Hurricanes to a final record of 9 – 3 for the 1980 college football season . Likewise , the loss dropped Virginia Tech to a final record of 8 – 4 . Miami 's win also was its first bowl @-@ game victory since a similar win over Tech in the 1966 Liberty Bowl . 
 The 1980 Peach Bowl victory is sometimes cited as the turning point in the Miami football program , as the Hurricanes went 9 – 2 and 7 – 4 over the next two season before participating in the 1984 Orange Bowl , the championship game of the 1983 college football season . Tech also participated in a 1984 bowl game ; the 1984 Independence Bowl , which followed the 1984 college football season . The Hokies did not win a bowl game until the 1986 Peach Bowl ; however , the game had lasting effects on Virginia Tech 's football recruiting efforts . <unk> star players Bruce Smith and Jesse Penn signed letters of intent with Virginia Tech following the game . 
 Miami had a handful of players selected in the 1981 NFL Draft : <unk> John <unk> was picked with the 101st overall selection , Jim <unk> with the <unk> pick , and Pat Walker with the <unk> pick . Miami quarterback Jim Kelly , a sophomore during the 1981 Peach Bowl , was selected in the first round of the 1983 NFL Draft and went on to become a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his performance during 10 seasons with the Buffalo Bills . In 2002 , Kelly was named to the Peach Bowl Hall of Fame in honor of his performance in the 1980 game . 
 
 = = Later aftermath = = 
 
 Miami and Virginia Tech would both be charter members of the Big East Conference 's football league in 1991 , and in 2004 , both schools moved to the Atlantic Coast Conference - which now has a tie @-@ in for what is now called the Chick @-@ <unk> A Bowl . 
 
 
 = The Magdalen Reading = 
 
 The Magdalen Reading is one of three surviving fragments of a large mid @-@ 15th @-@ century oil on panel altarpiece by the Early Netherlandish painter Rogier van der Weyden . The panel , originally oak , was completed some time between 1435 and 1438 and has been in the National Gallery , London since 1860 . It shows a woman with the pale skin , high cheek bones and oval eyelids typical of the <unk> portraits of noble women of the period . She is identifiable as the Magdalen from the jar of <unk> placed in the foreground , which is her traditional attribute in Christian art . She is presented as completely absorbed in her reading , a model of the contemplative life , repentant and <unk> of past sins . In Catholic tradition the Magdalen was <unk> with both Mary of Bethany who <unk> the feet of Jesus with oil and the unnamed " sinner " of Luke 7 : 36 – 50 . Iconography of the Magdalen commonly shows her with a book , in a moment of reflection , in tears , or with eyes averted . Van der Weyden pays close attention to detail in many passages , in particular the folds and cloth of the woman 's dress , the rock crystal of the rosary beads held by the figure standing over her , and the <unk> of the exterior . 
 The background of the painting had been overpainted with a thick layer of brown paint . A cleaning between 1955 and 1956 revealed the figure standing behind the Magdalene and the kneeling figure with its bare foot protruding in front of her , with a landscape visible through a window . The two partially seen figures are both cut off at the edges of the London panel . The figure above her has been identified as belonging to a fragment in the <unk> <unk> Gulbenkian , Lisbon , which shows the head of Saint Joseph , while another Lisbon fragment , showing what is believed to be Saint Catherine of Alexandria , is thought to be from the same larger work . The original altarpiece was a <unk> <unk> , known only through a drawing , Virgin and Child with Saints , in Stockholm 's <unk> , which followed a partial copy of the painting that probably dated from the late 16th century . The drawing shows that The Magdalen occupied the lower right @-@ hand corner of the altarpiece . The Lisbon fragments are each a third of the size of The Magdalen , which measures 62 @.@ 2 cm × 54 @.@ 4 cm ( 24 @.@ 5 in × 21 @.@ 4 in ) . 
 Although internationally successful in his lifetime , van der Weyden fell from view during the 17th century , and was not rediscovered until the early 19th century . The Magdalen Reading can first be traced to an 1811 sale . After passing through the hands of a number of dealers in the Netherlands , the panel was purchased by the National Gallery , London , in 1860 from a collector in Paris . It is described by art historian Lorne Campbell as " one of the great masterpieces of 15th @-@ century art and among van der Weyden 's most important early works . " 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 Mary Magdalene as depicted in early Renaissance painting is a composite of various biblical figures . Here , she is based on Mary of Bethany , who is identified as the Magdalene in the Roman Catholic tradition . Mary of Bethany sat at Jesus ' feet and " listened to His Word " , and thus is seen as a contemplative figure . The counterpoint is Mary 's sister Martha who , representative of the active life , wished that Mary would help her serve . Mary is shown by van der Weyden as youthful , sitting in quiet piety with her head <unk> and eyes <unk> averted from the viewer . She is absorbed in her reading of a holy book , the covers of which include a <unk> of white cloth , a common form of protective binding . Four coloured cloth <unk> are tied to a gold bar near the top of the spine . According to Lorne Campbell , the manuscript " looks rather like a 13th @-@ century French Bible " and is " clearly a devotional text " . It was rare for contemporary portraits to show women reading , and if the model herself could read then she was likely from a noble family . 
 Van der Weyden often linked form and meaning , and in this fragment the semicircular outline of the Magdalene reinforces her quiet detachment from her surroundings . She is seated on a red cushion and rests her back against a wooden <unk> . By her feet is her usual attribute of an alabaster jar ; in the <unk> she brought spices to the tomb of Jesus . The view through the window is of a distant canal , with an archer atop the garden wall and a figure walking on the other side of the water , whose reflection shows in the water . 
 Van der Weyden 's pose for the Magdalene is similar to a number of female religious figures painted by his master Robert Campin or his workshop . It closely resembles , in theme and tone , the figure of Saint Barbara in Campin 's <unk> Altarpiece , and also the Virgin in an <unk> attributed to Campin in Brussels . Typically for a van der Weyden , the Magdalen 's face has an almost sculpted look , and the elements of her clothes are conveyed in minute detail . She wears a green robe ; in medieval art the Magdalene is usually depicted naked ( sometimes clad only in her long hair ) or in richly coloured dress , typically red , blue or green , almost never in white . Her robe is tightly pulled below her bust by a blue sash , while the gold <unk> of her <unk> is adorned by a jewelled <unk> . Art critic Charles <unk> observed that the Magdalen 's past as a " fallen woman " is hinted at by the <unk> in the fur lining of her dress and the few strands of hair loose from her veil . <unk> wrote , " Even her fingers , absent @-@ <unk> <unk> , suggest <unk> . In her mix of purity and <unk> , van der Weyden 's Magdalen feels whole ; but she isn 't . " In the medieval period , fur symbolized female sexuality and was commonly associated with the Magdalene . Medieval historian Philip <unk> explains that artists such as <unk> and <unk> often portrayed the Magdalen in furs and notes that she " is noticeably dressed in fur @-@ lined garments in The Magdalen Reading by Rogier van der Weyden " . 
 The level of detail used in portraying the Magdalene has been described by Campbell as " far exceed [ ing ] " van Eyck . Her lips are painted with a shades of <unk> , white and red which are mixed into each other to give a transparent look at the edges . The fur lining of her dress is painted in a range of greys running from almost pure white to pure black . Rogier gave the fur a textured look by painting stripes parallel to the line of the dress and then <unk> the paint before it dried . The gold on the cloth is rendered with a variety of <unk> , grid and dots of varying colour and size . 
 Many of the objects around her are also closely detailed , in particular the wooden floor and nails , the folds of the Magdalene 's dress , the costume of the figures in the exterior and the beads of Joseph 's rosary . The effect of falling light is closely studied ; Joseph 's crystal rosary beads have bright highlights , while subtle <unk> of light and shade can be seen in the <unk> 's tracery and in the <unk> of her book . Mary is absorbed in her reading and seemingly unaware of her surroundings . Van der Weyden has given her a quiet dignity although he is generally seen as the more emotional of the master Netherlandish painters of the era , in particular when contrasted with Jan van Eyck . 
 Lorne Campbell describes the tiny figure of the woman seen through the window and her reflection in the water as " small miracles of painting " , and says that " the attention to detail far exceeds that of Jan van Eyck and the skill of execution is <unk> " . He notes that these tiny details would have been impossible for a viewer to observe when the altarpiece was in its intended position . Other areas of the panel , however , have been described as dull and <unk> . One critic wrote that the areas of the floor and most of the cupboard behind her seem unfinished and " much too narrow and <unk> in effect " . A number of objects placed on the cupboard are now barely visible save for their bases . The object on the right seated on legs alongside a box is likely a small pitcher , possibly a reliquary . A moulding to the left of the cupboard may represent a doorway . 
 
 = = Altarpiece fragment = = 
 
 Virgin and Child with Saints , a drawing in Stockholm 's <unk> , is believed to be a study of a portion of the original altarpiece by a follower of van der Weyden , who possibly may have been the Master of the <unk> <unk> . The drawing has a loosely <unk> background and shows , from left to right : an unidentified bishop saint with <unk> and <unk> making a blessing gesture ; a narrow gap with a few wavy vertical lines suggesting a start at the outline of a further kneeling figure ; a barefoot bearded figure in a rough robe identified as Saint John the Baptist ; a seated Virgin holding on her lap the Christ Child who leans to the right , looking at a book ; and holding the book , a kneeling <unk> male identified as John the Evangelist . The drawing stops at the end of John 's robe , at about the point on the London panel where Joseph 's walking stick meets John and the Magdalene 's robes . This suggests that the Magdalene panel was the first to be cut from the larger work . 
 At an unknown point before 1811 , the original altarpiece was broken into at least three pieces , possibly due to damage , although The Magdalen fragment is in good condition . The black <unk> was likely added after the early 17th century when Netherlandish painting had fallen from favour and was <unk> . Campbell believes that after the removal of the background detail " it looked sufficiently like a genre piece to hang in a well @-@ known collection of Dutch seventeenth @-@ century paintings " . From the size of three surviving panels in relation to the drawing , it is estimated that the original was at least 1 m high by 1 @.@ 5 m wide ; the bishop and the Magdalene seem to clearly mark the horizontal <unk> , but the extent of the picture above and below the surviving elements and the drawing cannot be judged . Such a size is comparable with smaller altarpieces of the period . The background was overpainted with a thick layer of black / brown pigment until it was cleaned in 1955 ; it was only after the layer 's removal that it was linked to the upper body and head of Joseph from the Lisbon piece . These two works were not recorded in inventory until 1907 , when they appear in the collection of <unk> <unk> in <unk> , France . 
 The London panel shows much of the clothing of two other figures from the original altarpiece . To the left of the Magdalene is the red robe of what appears to be a kneeling figure . The figure and robe , and less precisely the background , match a kneeling Saint John the Evangelist . Behind the Magdalen is a standing figure in blue and red robes , with linear rosary beads in one hand and a walking stick in the other . A panel at the <unk> <unk> Gulbenkian in Lisbon shows the head of a figure believed to be the Saint Joseph ; the background and clothes match with those of the figure behind the Magdalen on the London panel . 
 There is a further small panel in Lisbon of a female head , richly or <unk> dressed , which first appeared in 1907 with the Joseph panel when it was recorded in the inventory of Leo <unk> at <unk> . The figure may represent Saint Catherine of Alexandria , and from both the angle of her cloth and the fact that the river behind her would be parallel to that in the exterior of the London panel it can be assumed that she was kneeling . In the Stockholm drawing she is omitted , or only traces of her dress shown . The Joseph panel has a <unk> of a view through a window to an exterior scene ; if the other female is presumed to be kneeling , the trees above the waterway <unk> with those in the London panel . Some art historians , including Martin Davies and John Ward , have been slow to allow the Catherine panel as part of the altarpiece , though it is undoubtedly by van der Weyden or a near @-@ contemporary follower . Evidence against this link includes the fact that the moulding of the window to the left of the Gulbenkian female saint is plain , while that next to Saint Joseph is <unk> . Such an inconsistency in a single van der Weyden work is unusual . The panels are of equal thickness ( 1 @.@ 3 cm ) and of near @-@ identical size ; the Saint Catherine panel measures 18 @.@ 6 cm × 21 @.@ 7 cm ( 7 @.@ 3 in × 8 @.@ 5 in ) , the Saint Joseph 18 @.@ 2 cm × 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 2 in × 8 @.@ 3 in ) . 
 Lorne Campbell thinks that though the Catherine head is " obviously less well drawn and less successfully painted than the Magdalen " , it " seems likely " that all three fragments came from the same original work ; he points out that " about half way up the right edge of this fragment [ " Catherine " ] is a small triangle of red , outlined by a continuous <unk> <unk> ... It is likely that the red is part of the <unk> of the missing figure of the Baptist " . The small piece is on the outermost edge of the panel , and only visible when it was removed from the frame . Ward believes the piece corresponds directly with the folds of John 's robes . 
 The Stockholm drawing contains a narrow blank gap to the right of the bishop with a few <unk> lines that could represent the lower profile of the kneeling figure of Saint Catherine . Although none of the faces in the three surviving panels match any in the drawing , a 1971 reconstruction by art historian John Ward — which combined all of the works into a composition of a central Virgin and Child flanked by six saints — is widely accepted . The Stockholm drawing 's original location or history before the 19th century is unknown , except that the <unk> shows a surviving carving of the Virgin and Child attributed to a Brussels workshop from about 1440 . This carving is also now in Portugal . 
 
 = = Iconography = = 
 
 Van der Weyden 's depiction of the Magdalen is based on Mary of Bethany , identified by the time of Pope Gregory I as the repentant prostitute of Luke 7 : 36 – 50 . She then became associated with weeping and reading : Christ 's mercy causes the eyes of the sinner to be <unk> or tearful . Early Renaissance artists often conveyed this idea by portraying contemplative eyes , associating tears with words , and in turn weeping with reading . Examples can be seen in 16th @-@ century works by <unk> and <unk> which show the Magdalen reading , often with her eyes averted towards her book ( and presumably away from a male gaze ) , or looking up to the heavens or , sometimes , glancing <unk> towards the viewer . Writing in " The Crying Face " , <unk> <unk> explains that in van der Weyden 's time the gesture of <unk> or concealing the eyes became a " pictorial formula for crying " . 
 By the medieval period , reading became synonymous with devotion , which involved withdrawal from public view . Van der Weyden 's placement of the Magdalen in an interior scene reflects the increasing literacy of domestic or <unk> in the mid @-@ 15th century . The increased production of devotional texts showed that noble women of the period routinely read texts such as a psalter or book of hours in the privacy of their homes . Whether the Magdalen herself was a reader , by the 17th century she was firmly established as such in the visual arts . Because the Magdalen was present at Christ 's death and subsequent resurrection , she was seen as the bearer of news — a witness — and hence directly associated with the text . 
 The Magdalen imagery further draws on the idea of Christ as the word , represented by a book , with the Magdalen as the reader learning of her own life story in a moment of reflection and repentance . Her devotion to reading reflects her traditional status as the <unk> repentant <unk> , as well as a <unk> or seer . According to legend , the Magdalen lived the last 30 years of her life as a <unk> in <unk> @-@ <unk> and is often shown with a book , reading or writing , symbolizing her later years of contemplation and repentance . By the 13th century she acquired the imagery of a once @-@ <unk> woman who , clothed in long hair , now hid her nakedness in exile and " borne by angels , floats between heaven and earth " . 
 The Magdalen 's <unk> jar was common in the lexicon of art in van der Weyden 's period . Mary of Bethany may have used a jar when she <unk> of her sins at Christ 's feet in her home ; by the Renaissance , the image of the Magdalen was of the woman who <unk> Christ 's feet with her tears and dried them with her hair . She signified the " sacrament of <unk> ( <unk> and <unk> ) " by pouring precious <unk> on Christ 's feet at his tomb . 
 
 = = <unk> and <unk> = = 
 
 The altarpiece 's date is uncertain but believed to be between 1435 and 1438 . Van der Weyden was made painter to the city of Brussels in 1435 , and it is believed to have been painted after this appointment . The National Gallery gives " before 1438 " . Art historian John Ward notes that the altarpiece was one of van der Weyden 's first masterpieces , created early in his career when he was still heavily influenced by Robert Campin . He proposes a c . <unk> date based on similarities to Campin 's <unk> Altarpiece . 
 Because van der Weyden , like most of the early Netherlandish painters , was not rediscovered until the early 19th century , many of his works were wrongly attributed or dated , and major pieces such as the Berlin <unk> Altarpiece continue to emerge . Conversely , when a number of pieces considered either by van der Weyden or assistants under his supervision were cleaned in the <unk> to late 20th century , his hand or direct influence was <unk> , or in the case of the Magdalen , associated with other images whose attribution had been uncertain . 
 The Magdalen Reading can first be traced to an 1811 sale of the estate of Cassino , a little @-@ known collector in <unk> , when the work was already cut down . The painting is recorded in the inventory of <unk> <unk> , also of <unk> . After passing to the <unk> brothers , who were leading dealers in art of the early Netherlandish period , it moved to the collector Edmond <unk> in Paris , whose " small but choice " collection of early Netherlandish paintings was purchased for the National Gallery , London by Charles Lock <unk> in 1860 ; an acquisition that also included two Robert Campin portraits and panels by Simon <unk> ( 1425 – 1489 ) . This was during a period of acquisition intended to establish the international prestige of the gallery . Probably before 1811 , all the background except the red robe on the left and the alabaster jar and <unk> was overpainted in plain brown , which was not removed until the cleaning begun in 1955 . In general the " painted surface is in very good condition " , although better in the parts that were not overpainted , and there are a few small losses . 
 The Magdalen Reading was transferred from its original oak to a mahogany panel ( West Indian <unk> ) by unknown craftsmen sometime between 1828 and when the National Gallery acquired it in 1860 . Campbell states that the transfer was " Certainly after 1828 , probably after 1845 , and certainly before 1860 " , the year it was acquired by the National Gallery . Artificial <unk> @-@ coloured paint found in the transfer ground indicates that the change of panel took place after 1830 . The heads in Lisbon are still on their original oak panels . The Stockholm drawing was discovered in a German inventory c . 1916 and is likely of Swedish origin . It was bequeathed by a Norwegian collector , Christian <unk> , to the Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts in 1918 . 
 
 = = Gallery = = 
 
 
 
 = Rosemary 's Baby ( 30 Rock ) = 
 
 " Rosemary 's Baby " is the fourth episode of the second season of 30 Rock , and the twenty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by Jack Burditt and was directed by Michael Engler . The episode first aired on October 25 , 2007 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Elijah Cook , Carrie Fisher , Marcella Roy , Paul Scheer , Megan Blake Stevenson , Jean <unk> and Stuart <unk> . 
 The episode focuses on Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) <unk> with her idol , Rosemary Howard ( Carrie Fisher ) ; Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) family problems ; and Jenna <unk> 's ( Jane Krakowski ) attempt to replace Kenneth <unk> 's ( Jack <unk> ) burnt page jacket . The episode was praised by critics , with Alec Baldwin winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) announces that Liz Lemon is the winner of the " G.E. <unk> Award " , a prize awarded to the G.E. employee who best exemplifies a follower , which also includes $ 10 @,@ 000 . Liz takes Pete <unk> ( Scott <unk> ) to a book signing to meet Rosemary Howard ( Carrie Fisher ) , her idol when she was a girl , and invites her to be a guest writer on " The <unk> Show " . Rosemary pitches several controversial ideas to Jack , who orders Liz to fire her , but when Liz refuses , Jack fires them both . Liz goes to Rosemary 's house , and once she realizes that Rosemary is crazy , she flees . Liz goes back to Jack 's office and begs for her job back , and he happily <unk> her . Jack promises to help Liz invest her prize money , and she swears that she will send Rosemary $ 400 a month for the rest of her life . 
 When Tracy causes a stir at a public event , Jack assures him that as a movie star , he can do anything he wants , except for dog fighting . Jack finds Tracy <unk> his order , but Tracy shouts that Jack is not his dad . Jack and Tracy meet with an NBC <unk> , and Jack role @-@ plays Tracy 's father , Tracy , and Tracy 's mom , among several other people from Tracy 's childhood , conveying the message that even though Tracy 's parents may have divorced , they still loved him . This comforts Tracy , and affirms that while he loves his family , they are crazy , and he needs to stay away from them . Tracy hugs Jack , and tells him that he is the only family he needs . 
 Jenna accidentally burns Kenneth 's page jacket on a hot plate , and Kenneth worries that head page Donny Lawson ( Paul Scheer ) will punish him . Jenna finds Donny backstage at the studio , who is <unk> that he finally has a reason to send Kenneth to CNBC in New Jersey . Donny offers Kenneth a choice : go to New Jersey , or compete in a " page off " , a contest of physical <unk> and NBC <unk> ; Jenna agrees to the page off . Before the event starts , Pete comes in and <unk> at the pages to get back to work . He forces Donny to give Kenneth a new jacket , but Donny swears to Jenna and Kenneth that he will get back at them . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 " Rosemary 's Baby " was mainly filmed on September 11 , 2007 , while Fisher 's scenes were filmed the next day on September 12 , 2007 . Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a <unk> . Liz Lemon admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete <unk> , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess <unk> during four recent <unk> . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy Jordan takes on the identity of the character <unk> . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening <unk> " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Robert Carlock , who she described as " the resident expert " . Prior to the airing of the episode , fans were " raving " about the much awaited guest appearance of Fisher . Fisher 's last line in the episode , " Help me , Liz Lemon ! You 're my only hope ! " , was a spoof of the line " Help me <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> , you 're my only hope ! " from her past role in the original Star Wars trilogy , in which she played Princess <unk> . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Rosemary 's Baby " was viewed by an average of 6 @.@ 5 million American viewers . The episode achieved a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 in key 18 – 49 demographic . The 3 @.@ 1 rating refers to 3 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 8 share refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . In the U.S. , " Rosemary 's Baby " was up by 19 % in the rating demographic compared to the previous episode , " The Collection , " receiving its highest result since the second season premiere episode , " <unk> , " on October 4 , 2007 . 
 " Rosemary 's Baby " was named as one of the " Top 11 TV Episodes of 2007 " by UGO , and ranked thirteenth on The <unk> Critic 's list of " the 50 Best Episodes of 2007 " ; both citing the Baldwin and Morgan therapy scene as the reason . Matt Webb <unk> of TV Guide declared it as " one of 30 Rock 's best episodes ever . " Webb <unk> praised Carrie Fisher 's guest appearance , but felt that Baldwin 's role @-@ playing during Morgan 's therapy session stole the show . Bob Sassone of TV Squad felt that even though the plot was " insane " , the episode still managed " to have a heart at its core " . Sassone called the therapy scene " one of the funniest scenes ... on TV this season " . Robert Canning of IGN felt that the episode has " great storylines to great guest stars " , making it " one of the best the series has produced so far " . Canning called the therapy scene " the best moment of the episode " . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Between Carrie Fisher 's <unk> <unk> guest role and Jack Donaghy 's <unk> of Tracy Jordan 's therapy session , this 2007 episode was so wrong . And so good . " 
 Michael Engler , the director of this episode , was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series . This episode also earned Carrie Fisher a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series and earned Jack Burditt a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series . 
 
 
 = Polka Party ! = 
 
 Polka Party ! is the fourth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1986 . The album is the fourth of Yankovic 's to be produced by former The <unk> guitarist Rick <unk> . Recorded between April 1986 and September 1986 , the album was Yankovic 's follow @-@ up to his successful 1985 release , Dare to Be Stupid . The album 's lead single was " Living With a Hernia " , although it was not a hit and did not chart . 
 The music on Polka Party ! is built around parodies and <unk> of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 1980s , featuring jabs at James Brown , Mick Jagger , El <unk> , and Robert Palmer . The album also features many " style parodies " , or musical imitations that come close to , but do not copy , existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like the Talking Heads , as well as imitations of various musical genres like country music . 
 Peaking at only number 177 on the Billboard 200 , Polka Party ! was met with mixed reviews and was considered a commercial and critical failure . Despite this , the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1986 . Polka Party ! is one of Yankovic 's few studio albums not to be certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and was later demoted to a budget release in 2009 . 
 
 = = Production = = 
 
 
 = = = Recording = = = 
 
 In April 1986 Yankovic entered the recording studio to begin the sessions to his follow @-@ up to 1985 's Dare to Be Stupid . To produce the album , Yankovic brought in former The <unk> guitarist Rick <unk> , who had also produced Yankovic 's previous albums . <unk> Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " <unk> on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in roughly three sessions . The first session took place between April 22 and 23 , and yielded four originals : " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " , " One of Those Days " , " Dog Eat Dog " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The second session , which spanned August 4 – 5 , produced three parodies : " Living with a Hernia " , " Addicted to Spuds " , and " Here 's Johnny " . The final session , which lasted from August 29 to September 1 produced the parody " <unk> People " , an original song named " Good Enough for Now " , and the album 's titular polka medley . <unk> , Yankovic described the record as " not a whole lot different than " the other albums he had recorded , calling the process " even a bit formulaic " . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 On April 22 , 1986 , Yankovic began recording three new original songs for his next album : " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " , " One of Those Days " , and " Dog Eat Dog " . Although " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " is an original composition , Yankovic admitted that the intro was inspired by the style of The <unk> . Lyrically , the song is a plea by the singer to his wife not to not wear certain shoes which he cannot stand . " One of Those Days " is a song detailing horrible things as if they were everyday <unk> . Each horrible thing escalates up to global <unk> while more mundane <unk> pop up at different times . 
 " Dog Eat Dog " is a style parody of the Talking Heads . Described as a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek look at office life " , the song was inspired by Yankovic 's past experience of working in the <unk> as well as the traffic department at <unk> One radio station . He noted , " At first I thought [ the job ] was <unk> cool that I had a phone and a desk and a little <unk> to call my own , but after a while I felt like my soul had been sucked out of me . " The song features a line directly parodying the Talking Heads song " Once In a Lifetime " : " Sometimes I tell myself , this is not my beautiful <unk> / Sometimes I tell myself this is not my beautiful chair ! " This mirrors a similar line in the Talking Heads song : " You may tell yourself , this is not my beautiful house / You may tell yourself , this is not my beautiful wife " . 
 On April 23 , Yankovic recorded " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The song , " a <unk> little tune about death , destruction and the end of the world " was the result of Scotti Brothers Records ' insistence that Yankovic record a Christmas record . After Yankovic presented the song to his label , they relented , because it was " a little different from what they were expecting . " After the song 's release , some radio stations banned the record , a move that Yankovic attributes to " most people [ not wanting ] to hear about nuclear <unk> during the holiday season . " Following the September 11 attacks , when the general term " ground zero " was co @-@ opted as a proper name for the World Trade Center site where two of those attacks took place , the disturbing lyrics caused this song to be banned largely from radio . Yankovic wanted the song to receive a video , but due to budget reasons , his label did not agree . Yankovic , however , directed one himself which was mostly made up of stock footage , with a live action finale that was filmed in an economically devastated part of the Bronx , New York that looked like a bomb had gone off . The final original that was recorded was " Good Enough for Now " , a country music pastiche about how the singer 's lover , who , while not the best , will do for now . 
 
 = = = <unk> and polka = = = 
 
 On August 4 , Yankovic began recording parodies starting with " Living With a Hernia " . The song , a spoof of " Living in America " by James Brown — which was also the theme to the 1985 film Rocky IV — is about <unk> . When it came time to pick a song to parody as the lead single for Polka Party ! Scotti Brothers Records " had some very strong ideas " and wished to have Yankovic parody a musician who was signed on the same label . After " Living in America " became a hit , the record label insisted that Yankovic parody the song , to which Yankovic obliged . In order to accurately write the song , Yankovic researched the various types of <unk> . Yankovic noted that " it was a real <unk> to do James Brown . I 'm a total non @-@ dancer , never went to any dances in high school , but if I <unk> <unk> a dance routine I can figure it out . " A <unk> named Chester <unk> was hired to accurately create the dance scenes featured in the video , which was shot on the concert set actually used in the movie Rocky IV . The second parody recorded was " Addicted to Spuds " , a pastiche of " Addicted to Love " by Robert Palmer , about a man 's obsession for potatoes and potato @-@ based dishes . A music video for the song was never made to the song because there was a strict budget for videos for the album , and Yankovic felt that the video would be one big joke and not really worth its own video . A parody of Palmer 's video , however , was later inserted into Al 's " UHF " video . 
 On August 5 , Yankovic recorded " Here 's Johnny " , a parody of " Who 's Johnny " by El <unk> . The song , a loving ode to The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson announcer Ed McMahon , features John <unk> of the television series <unk> fame doing an impression of McMahon 's voice . According to Yankovic , Peter Wolf , the man who wrote " Who 's Johnny " , enjoyed the parody idea so much that he personally brought the <unk> disc program that had all the synthesizer parts for the original song into the studio when Yankovic was recording his parody . The final parody recorded for the album was " <unk> People " , a play on Mick Jagger 's " <unk> People " , which was recorded on August 29 , 1986 . The song , about elderly people who are missing their teeth , was written after Yankovic heard it would be the theme to the 1986 film <unk> People . Assuming the song would be a hit , Yankovic requested and received permission from Jagger to record a parody version . When Jagger 's song failed to crack the Top 40 , Yankovic considered not recording his version , but because Jagger had " authorized " the parody , he decided failing to produce it would be an insult to the artist . Therefore , he recorded the spoof anyway . 
 The album 's polka medley , the titular " Polka Party ! " , was recorded on the same day as " Here 's Johnny " . This was Yankovic 's third polka medley , and his only medley to bear the same name as an album . Like his other <unk> , the song is a <unk> of then @-@ popular songs in music . 
 
 = = Reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Promotion = = = 
 
 To promote the album 's release , Scotti Brothers Records purchased full @-@ page <unk> in Billboard magazine that advertised the release as Yankovic 's " biggest <unk> yet " . Unlike previous albums , Yankovic did not undertake a tour to promote Polka Party ! Instead , he opened for the American rock band The Monkees ; Yankovic later joked that the Monkees merely " closed for me " . Yankovic explained that while it " was a fun tour " and that the crowds were very enthusiastic , the tension between the Monkees was obvious ; on his website , he wrote that while the band members " are all terrific people individually " , they " didn 't seem to get along all that great when they weren 't on stage . " 
 
 = = = Critical response = = = 
 
 Polka Party ! received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Allmusic reviewer Eugene <unk> gave the album three stars and wrote that " just about anyone could feel let down by this album . " <unk> was largely critical of the parody choices , noting that many of the original versions would be forgotten in " fifteen years " . Christopher <unk> from The Daily Vault gave Polka Party ! an F and described it as an album that " seemed like it could well have been the ' last call ' for Yankovic . " <unk> heavily criticized the record , writing that both the parodies and originals were not good and that " Yankovic [ was ] going through the motions " . Rolling Stone awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , tying it with the 1992 album Off the Deep End and the 1999 release Running with <unk> as Yankovic 's best @-@ rated album . Although it was not a critical success , the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1987 , but lost to Bill <unk> 's Those of You with or Without Children , You 'll <unk> . 
 Despite the album 's lackluster reception , many of the songs on the album , such as " Dog Eat Dog " , " Addicted to Spuds " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " , went on to become fan favorites and live staples . Two of the album 's tracks , " Living with a Hernia " and " Addicted to Spuds " , appeared on Yankovic 's first greatest hits album ( 1988 ) , " Christmas at Ground Zero " appeared on the second volume ( 1994 ) . In addition , the 1994 box set Permanent Record : Al in the Box contained five of the album 's songs : " Addicted to Spuds " , " Dog Eat Dog " , " Here 's Johnny " , " Living with a Hernia " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " . Only " Dog Eat Dog " , however , appeared on Yankovic 's 2009 Essential collection , although the 3 @.@ 0 version contained " Living with a Hernia " . 
 
 = = = Commercial performance = = = 
 
 Polka Party ! was released October 21 , 1986 . After it was released , the album peaked at number 177 on the Billboard 200 . Compared to Yankovic 's previous albums — Dare to Be Stupid peaked at number 50 and In 3 @-@ D peaked at number 17 — Polka Party ! was a major commercial disappointment for the comedian . The album was the lowest @-@ charting studio album released by Yankovic and is one of his few studio albums not to be certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The others include the soundtrack to his film UHF ( 1989 ) and <unk> <unk> ( 2003 ) . Due to low sales the album was demoted to a budget release along with various other Yankovic albums in August 2009 . 
 Yankovic was dismayed by the album 's lackluster reception . He noted that he " thought it was the end of [ his ] career " . Yankovic explained that " I figured I 'd peaked with ' Eat It ' and ' Like a Surgeon ' and now people were slowly forgetting about me and I was well on my way to obscurity . " However , Yankovic 's next album , Even <unk> , would resurrect his career and become his best @-@ selling album at the time ; the experience led Yankovic to realize that " careers have peaks and valleys , and whenever I go through the rough times , another peak might be right around the corner . " 
 
 = = Track listing = = 
 
 The following is adapted from the album liner notes . 
 
 = = Credits and personnel = = 
 
 
 = = Charts and certifications = = 
 
 
 = = = Charts = = = 
 
 
 
 = Trees ( poem ) = 
 
 " Trees " is a lyric poem by American poet Joyce Kilmer . Written in February 1913 , it was first published in Poetry : A Magazine of Verse that August and included in Kilmer 's 1914 collection Trees and Other Poems . The poem , in twelve lines of rhyming couplets of iambic tetrameter verse , describes what Kilmer perceives as the inability of art created by humankind to replicate the beauty achieved by nature . 
 Kilmer is most remembered for " Trees " , which has been the subject of frequent parodies and references in popular culture . Kilmer 's work is often disparaged by critics and dismissed by scholars as being too simple and overly sentimental , and that his style was far too traditional and even archaic . Despite this , the popular appeal of " Trees " has contributed to its endurance . Literary critic Guy Davenport considers it " the one poem known by practically everybody . " " Trees " is frequently included in poetry anthologies and has been set to music several times — including a popular rendition by Oscar Rasbach , performed by singers Nelson Eddy , Robert Merrill , and Paul <unk> . 
 The location for a specific tree as the possible inspiration for the poem has been claimed by several places and institutions connected to Kilmer 's life — among these are Rutgers University , the University of Notre Dame , and towns across the country that Kilmer visited . However , Kilmer 's eldest son , Kenton , declares that the poem does not apply to any one tree — that it could apply equally to any . " Trees " was written in an upstairs bedroom at the family 's home in Mahwah , New Jersey that " looked out down a hill , on our well @-@ wooded lawn . " Ironically , Kenton Kilmer stated that while his father was " widely known for his affection for trees , his affection was certainly not sentimental — the most distinguished feature of Kilmer 's property was a colossal woodpile outside his home . " 
 
 = = Writing = = 
 
 
 = = = Mahwah : February 1913 = = = 
 
 According to Kilmer 's oldest son , Kenton , " Trees " was written on 2 February 1913 , when the family resided in Mahwah , New Jersey in the northwestern corner of Bergen County . The <unk> lived on the southwest corner of the intersection of <unk> Road and Armour Road in Mahwah for five years and the house overlooked the <unk> Valley . 
 It was written in the afternoon in the intervals of some other writing . The desk was in an upstairs room , by a window looking down a wooded hill . It was written in a little notebook in which his father and mother wrote out copies of several of their poems , and , in most cases , added the date of composition . On one page the first two lines of ' Trees ' appear , with the date , February 2 , 1913 , and on another page , further on in the book , is the full text of the poem . It was dedicated to his wife 's mother , Mrs. Henry Mills Alden , who was <unk> to all her family . 
 In 2013 , the notebook alluded to by Kilmer 's son was uncovered by journalist and Kilmer researcher Alex <unk> in Georgetown University 's <unk> Library in a collection of family papers donated to the university by Kilmer 's granddaughter , Miriam Kilmer . The " Mrs. Henry Mills Alden " to whom the poem was dedicated was <unk> Foster Murray Alden ( 1866 – 1936 ) , the mother of Kilmer 's wife , <unk> Murray Kilmer ( 1888 – 1941 ) . Alden , a writer , had married Harper 's Magazine editor Henry Mills Alden in 1900 . 
 
 = = = Kilmer 's inspiration = = = 
 
 Kilmer 's poetry was influenced by " his strong religious faith and dedication to the natural beauty of the world . " 
 Although several communities across the United States claim to have inspired " Trees " , nothing can be established specifically regarding Kilmer 's inspiration except that he wrote the poem while residing in Mahwah . Both Kilmer 's widow , <unk> , and his son , Kenton , refuted these claims in their correspondence with researchers and by Kenton in his memoir . Kenton wrote to University of Notre Dame researcher Dorothy Colson : 
 Mother and I agreed , when we talked about it , that Dad never meant his poem to apply to one particular tree , or to the trees of any special region . Just any trees or all trees that might be <unk> on or <unk> on , and that would be suitable nesting places for robins . I guess they 'd have to have upward @-@ reaching branches , too , for the line about ' lifting leafy arms to pray . ' Rule out weeping willows . 
 According to Kenton Kilmer , the upstairs room in which the poem was written looked down the hill over the family 's " well @-@ wooded lawn " that contained " trees of many kinds , from mature trees to thin <unk> : oaks , <unk> , black and white <unk> , and I do not know what else . " A published interview with Joyce Kilmer in 1915 mentioned the poet 's large woodpile at the family 's Mahwah home : 
 ... while Kilmer might be widely known for his affection for trees , his affection was certainly not sentimental — the most distinguished feature of Kilmer 's property was a colossal woodpile outside his home . The house stood in the middle of a forest and what lawn it possessed was obtained only after Kilmer had spent months of weekend <unk> in <unk> down trees , pulling up stumps , and splitting logs . Kilmer 's neighbors had difficulty in believing that a man who could do that could also be a poet . 
 
 = = <unk> and analysis = = 
 
 " Trees " is a poem of twelve lines in strict iambic tetrameter . All but one of the lines has the full eight syllables of iambic tetrameter . The eleventh , or penultimate , line begins on the stressed syllable of the iambic foot and drops the <unk> syllable — an <unk> ( or " headless " ) <unk> line — that results in a truncated seven @-@ syllable iambic tetrameter line . Making the meter of a line <unk> can change the feeling of the poem , and is often used to achieve a certain effect as a way of changing tone or announcing a conclusion . The poem 's rhyme scheme is rhyming couplets rendered aa <unk> <unk> <unk> ee aa . 
 Despite its deceptive simplicity in rhyme and meter , " Trees " is notable for its use of personification and anthropomorphic imagery : the tree of the poem , which Kilmer depicts as female , is depicted as pressing its mouth to the Earth 's breast , looking at God , and raising its " leafy arms " to pray . The tree of the poem also has human physical attributes — it has a " hungry mouth " , arms , hair ( in which robins nest ) , and a <unk> . 
 Rutgers @-@ Newark English professor and poet Rachel <unk> described the poem as being " rather slight " although it " is free of irony and self consciousness , except that little reference to fools like me at the end , which I find kind of charming . " Scholar Mark <unk> Winchell points out that Kilmer 's depiction of the tree indicates the possibility that he had several different people in mind because of the variety of anthropomorphic descriptions . Winchell posits that if the tree described were to be a single human being it would be " an <unk> deformed one . " 
 " In the second stanza , the tree is a sucking <unk> drawing <unk> from Mother Earth ; in the third it is a <unk> reaching its leafy arms to the sky in prayer ... In the fourth stanza , the tree is a girl with jewels ( a nest of robins ) in her hair ; and in the fifth , it is a <unk> woman living alone with nature and with God . There is no warrant in the poem to say that it is different trees that remind the poet of these different types of people . " 
 However , Winchell observes that this " series of <unk> <unk> ... could be presented in any order without damaging the overall structure of his poem . " 
 
 = = Publication and reception = = 
 
 
 = = = Publication = = = 
 
 " Trees " was first published in the August 1913 issue of Poetry : A Magazine of Verse . The magazine , which had begun publishing the year before in Chicago , Illinois , quickly became the " principal organ for modern poetry of the English @-@ speaking world " publishing the early works of poets who became the major influences on the development of twentieth @-@ century literature ( including T.S. Eliot , Ezra Pound , <unk> , Wallace Stevens , Robert Frost and Edna St. Vincent <unk> ) . Poetry paid Kilmer six dollars to print the poem , which was immediately successful . The following year , Kilmer included " Trees " in his collection Trees and Other Poems published by the George H. Doran Company . 
 Joyce Kilmer 's reputation as a poet is staked largely on the widespread popularity of this one poem . " Trees " was liked immediately on first publication in Poetry : A Magazine of Verse ; when Trees and Other Poems was published the following year , the review in Poetry focused on the " nursery rhyme " <unk> and simplicity of the poems , finding a particular <unk> <unk> in " Trees " , which gave it " an unusual , haunting <unk> " . However , the same review criticized the rest of the book , stating " much of the verse in this volume is very slight indeed . " 
 Despite the enduring popular appeal of " Trees " , most of Joyce Kilmer 's works are largely unknown and have fallen into obscurity . A select few of his poems , including " Trees " , are published frequently in anthologies . " Trees " began appearing in anthologies shortly after Kilmer 's 1918 death , the first inclusion being Louis <unk> 's Modern American Poetry ( 1919 ) . Journalist and author Mark <unk> , ranks the first two lines of " Trees " as 26th out of 50 lines in an assessment of the " most quoted lines of poetry " as measured by Google hits . 
 
 = = = Popular appeal = = = 
 
 With " Trees " , Kilmer was said to have " rediscovered simplicity " , and the simplicity of its message and delivery is a source of its appeal . In 1962 , English professor Barbara <unk> recounted that her undergraduate students considered the poem as " one of the finest poems ever written , or at least a very good one " — even after its technical flaws were discussed — because of its simple message and that it " paints such lovely pictures " . The students pointed to " how true the poem is " , and it appealed to both her students ' " romantic attitude towards nature " and their appreciation of life , nature , <unk> , and beauty because of its message that " the works of God completely overshadow our own <unk> attempts at creation . " Considering this sentiment , the enduring popularity of " Trees " is <unk> by its association with annual Arbor Day <unk> and the planting of memorial trees as well as the several parks named in honor of Kilmer , including the Joyce Kilmer @-@ <unk> Wilderness and Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest tracts within the <unk> National Forest in Graham County , North Carolina . 
 " Trees " has been described by literary critic Guy Davenport as " the one poem known by practically everybody . " According to journalist Rick Hampson , " Trees " was " <unk> and recited by generations of students ... It comforted troops in the trenches of World War I. It was set to music and set in stone , <unk> in opera houses and vaudeville theaters , <unk> at ceremonies each April on Arbor Day . " According to Robert Holliday , Kilmer 's friend and editor , " Trees " speaks " with authentic song to the simplest of hearts . " Holliday added that this " exquisite title poem now so universally known made his reputation more than all the rest he had written put together " and was " made for immediate widespread popularity . " 
 
 = = = Critical reception = = = 
 
 Several critics — including both Kilmer 's contemporaries and modern scholars — have disparaged Kilmer 's work as being too religious , simple , overly sentimental , and suggested that his style was far too traditional , even archaic . Poet Conrad <unk> , a contemporary of Kilmer , lambasted his work as being unoriginal — merely " <unk> with a sentimental bias " and " <unk> out of the same faint <unk> , the same old <unk> and love songs , <unk> <unk> of <unk> all too familiar . " <unk> characterized Kilmer as a " <unk> in the pretty and sweet " and " pale @-@ <unk> <unk> to the artificial and archaic . " 
 Kilmer is considered among the last of the Romantic era poets because his verse is conservative and traditional in style and does not break any of the formal rules of <unk> — a style often criticized today for being too sentimental to be taken seriously . The entire corpus of Kilmer 's work was produced between 1909 and 1918 when Romanticism and sentimental lyric poetry fell out of favor and <unk> took root — especially with the influence of the Lost Generation . In the years after Kilmer 's death , poetry went in drastically different directions , as is seen in the work of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound , and academic criticism grew with it to <unk> the more sentimental and straightforward verse . 
 The poem was criticized by <unk> Brooks and Robert Penn Warren in their textbook Understanding Poetry first published in 1938 . Brooks and Warren were two of the major contributors to the New Criticism movement , where its supporters opposed using literature as a surrogate for religion . New Criticism proponents analyzed poetry on its aesthetic formulae and excluded reader 's response , the author 's intention , historical and cultural contexts , and <unk> bias from their analysis . They attributed the popularity of Trees largely to its religious appeal and believed it was a " stock response that has nothing to do , as such , with poetry , " adding : 
 " It praises God and appeals to a religious sentiment . Therefore , people who do not stop to look at the poem itself or to study the images in the poem and think about what the poem really says , are inclined to accept the poem because of the <unk> sentiment , the <unk> little pictures ( which in themselves appeal to stock responses ) , and the mechanical rhythm . " 
 Literary critic Mark <unk> Winchell believed that Brooks and Warren 's criticism of Kilmer 's poem was chiefly to demonstrate that " it is sometimes possible to learn as much about poetry from bad poems as from good ones . " 
 
 = = <unk> claims regarding inspiration = = 
 
 Due to the enduring popular appeal of " Trees " , several local communities and organizations across the United States have staked their claim to the genesis of the poem . While the accounts of family members and of documents firmly establish Mahwah being the place where Kilmer wrote the poem , several towns throughout the country have claimed that Kilmer wrote " Trees " while staying there or that a specific tree in their town inspired Kilmer 's writing . Local tradition in <unk> , New Hampshire asserts without proof that Kilmer wrote the poem while <unk> in the town . <unk> , Massachusetts claims that either " a sprawling maple dominated the grounds near a hospital where Kilmer once was treated " or " a spreading maple in the yard of an old mansion , " inspired the poem . 
 In New Brunswick , New Jersey , Kilmer 's hometown , the claim involved a large white oak on the Cook College campus ( now the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences ) , at Rutgers University . This tree , the " Kilmer Oak " , was estimated to be over 300 years old . Because it had been weakened by age and disease , the Kilmer Oak was removed in 1963 , and in reporting by The New York Times and other newspapers the local tradition was repeated with the claim that " Rutgers said it could not prove that Kilmer had been inspired by the oak . " Currently , <unk> from <unk> of the historic tree are being grown at the site , throughout the Middlesex County and central New Jersey , as well as in major <unk> around the United States . The remains of the original Kilmer Oak are presently kept in storage at Rutgers University . 
 Because of Kilmer 's close identification with Roman Catholicism and his correspondence with many priests and theologians , a tree located near a <unk> dedicated to the Virgin Mary at the University of Notre Dame in South Bend , Indiana has been asserted as the inspiration for the poem . According to Dorothy <unk> , the claim was first made by a priest named Henry <unk> . There are several accounts that Kilmer visited the campus of Notre Dame to lecture and to visit friends , but none of these accounts or occasions date before 1914 . 
 In his 1997 book of essays entitled The Geography of the <unk> , American writer Guy Davenport suggests a different inspiration for Kilmer 's poem . 
 " Trees were favorite symbols for Yeats , Frost , and even the young Pound . ... But Kilmer had been reading about trees in another context [ , ] the movement to stop child labor and set up nursery schools in slums . ... Margaret McMillan ... had the happy idea that a breath of fresh air and an intimate acquaintance with grass and trees were worth all the pencils and <unk> in the whole school system . ... The English word for <unk> equipment is ' apparatus . ' And in her book Labour and Childhood ( 1907 ) you will find this sentence : ' <unk> can be made by fools , but only God can make a <unk> 
 It appears that Davenport must have loosely and erroneously <unk> the sentiments expressed by McMillan , as this exact quote does not appear in her text . Instead , McMillan is expressing the observation that several nineteenth @-@ century writers , including William Rankin , William Morris and Thomas Carlyle , opposed the effects of machinery on society and craftsmanship and thus <unk> machine @-@ made items . Davenport 's observation likely was derived in some way from McMillan 's examination and quotation of Carlyle : 
 " He ( Carlyle ) often makes comparisons between men and machines , and even trees and machines , greatly to the disadvantage of the latter . For example , ' O , that we could displace the machine god and put a man god in his place ! ' and ' I find no <unk> of life so true as this of a tree ! Beautiful ! Machine of the universe ! ' 
 
 = = Adaptations and parodies = = 
 
 
 = = = Musical adaptations = = = 
 
 Several of Kilmer 's poems , including " Trees " , were set to music and published in England by Kilmer 's mother , Annie Kilburn Kilmer , who was a writer and amateur composer . The more popular musical setting of Kilmer 's poem was composed in 1922 by American pianist and composer Oscar Rasbach . This setting had been performed and recorded frequently in twentieth century , including <unk> Schumann @-@ <unk> , John Charles Thomas , Nelson Eddy , Robert Merrill , Perry <unk> , and Paul <unk> . Rasbach 's song appeared on popular network television shows , including All in the Family , performed by the puppets Wayne and Wanda in The <unk> Show , and as an animated feature segment featuring Fred <unk> and the <unk> performing the song in the 1948 animated film Melody Time , the last of the short @-@ film anthology features produced by Walt Disney . 
 Rasbach 's setting has also been lampooned , most notably in the Our Gang short film " Arbor Day " ( 1936 ) , directed by Fred C. <unk> , in which <unk> ( played by Carl <unk> ) , sings the song in a <unk> , strained voice after a " <unk> , spare that tree " dialogue with Spanky ( George McFarland ) , sings " Trees . " Film critic Leonard <unk> has called this " the poem 's all @-@ time worst rendition . " In his album Caught in the Act , Victor <unk> , when playing requests , responds to a member of the audience : " <unk> I don 't know that ' <unk> in the Window ' . I know one that comes pretty close to it , " and proceeds to play the Rasbach setting of " Trees . " 
 Dutch composer <unk> van der <unk> , included a setting of " Trees " as the third in a set of five songs written in 1977 , which included texts by poets Christina <unk> , Percy <unk> Shelley , Kilmer , Matthew Prior , and Sir John <unk> . 
 
