Researchers in social science and psychology have recently proposed using large language models (LLMs) as replacements for humans in behavioral research. In addition to arguments about whether LLMs accurately capture population-level patterns, this has raised questions about whether LLMs capture human-like conceptual diversity. Separately, it is debated whether post-training alignment (RLHF or RLAIF) affects models’ internal diversity. Inspired by human studies, we use a new way of measuring the conceptual diversity of synthetically-generated LLM “populations” by relating the internal variability of simulated individuals to the population-level variability. We use this approach to evaluate non-aligned and aligned LLMs on two domains with rich human behavioral data. While no model reaches human-like diversity, aligned models generally display less diversity than their instruction fine-tuned counterparts. Our findings highlight potential trade-offs between increasing models’ value alignment and decreasing the diversity of their conceptual representations.

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to understand people’s mental states, is an essential ingredient for developing machines with human-level social intelligence. Recent machine learning models, particularly large language models, seem to show some aspects of ToM understanding. However, existing ToM benchmarks use unimodal datasets – either video or text. Human ToM, on the other hand, is more than video or text understanding. People can flexibly reason about another person’s mind based on conceptual representations (e.g., goals, beliefs, plans) extracted from any available data. To address this, we introduce a multimodal Theory of Mind question answering (MMToM-QA) benchmark. MMToM-QA comprehensively evaluates machine ToM both on multimodal data and on different kinds of unimodal data about a person’s activity in a household environment. To engineer multimodal ToM capacity, we propose a novel method, BIP-ALM (Bayesian Inverse Planning Accelerated by Language Models). BIP-ALM extracts unified representations from multimodal data and utilizes language models for scalable Bayesian inverse planning. We conducted a systematic comparison of human performance, BIP-ALM, and state-of-the-art models, including GPT-4. The experiments demonstrate that large language models and large multimodal models still lack robust ToM capacity. BIP-ALM, on the other hand, shows promising results, by leveraging the power of both model-based mental inference and language models.

In law, lore, and everyday life, loopholes are commonplace. When people exploit a loophole, they understand the intended meaning or goal of another person, but choose to go with a different interpretation. Past and current AI research has shown that artificial intelligence engages in what seems superficially like the exploitation of loopholes, but this is likely anthropomorphization. It remains unclear to what extent current models, especially Large Language Models (LLMs), capture the pragmatic understanding required for engaging in loopholes. We examined the performance of LLMs on two metrics developed for studying loophole behavior in humans: evaluation (ratings of trouble, upset, and humor), and generation (coming up with new loopholes in a given context). We conducted a fine-grained comparison of state-of-the-art LLMs to humans, and find that while many of the models rate loophole behaviors as resulting in less trouble and upset than outright non-compliance (in line with adults), they struggle to recognize the humor in the creative exploitation of loopholes in the way that humans do. Furthermore, only two of the models, GPT 3 and 3.5, are capable of generating loopholes of their own, with GPT3.5 performing closest to the human baseline.