@inproceedings{ruzzetti-etal-2026-lexical,
    title = "Lexical Popularity: Quantifying the Impact of Pre-training for {LLM} Performance",
    author = "Ruzzetti, Elena Sofia  and
      Zanzotto, Fabio Massimo  and
      Caselli, Tommaso",
    editor = "Demberg, Vera  and
      Inui, Kentaro  and
      Marquez, Llu{\'i}s",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 19th Conference of the {E}uropean Chapter of the {A}ssociation for {C}omputational {L}inguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)",
    month = mar,
    year = "2026",
    address = "Rabat, Morocco",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://preview.aclanthology.org/ingest-eacl/2026.eacl-long.55/",
    pages = "1209--1230",
    ISBN = "979-8-89176-380-7",
    abstract = "Large Language Models (LLMs) excel in numerous and varied tasks. Yet, the mechanisms that underlie this success remain insufficiently understood. In particular, the size and the limited transparency of their pre-training materials make it difficult to state what the properties of the pre-training material are when compared to the test data. In this paper, we investigate whether LLMs learned generalized linguistic abstraction or rely on surface-level features, like lexical patterns, that match their pre-training data. We explore this by examining the relationship between lexical overlap of test data and task performance. We observe that lexical overlap with the pre-training material is mostly beneficial to model performance on tasks requiring functional linguistic knowledge. To further explore the impact of lexical features, we also demonstrate that LLMs are fragile with respect to lexical perturbations that preserve semantics. While we expected models to rely on lexical overlap between test instances and pre-training data for tasks requiring functional knowledge, lexical perturbations reveal that models also exhibit, to a lesser extent, this dependence for tasks requiring formal linguistic knowledge."
}