Shuming Shi


2023

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A Survey on Zero Pronoun Translation
Longyue Wang | Siyou Liu | Mingzhou Xu | Linfeng Song | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu
Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Zero pronouns (ZPs) are frequently omitted in pro-drop languages (e.g. Chinese, Hungarian, and Hindi), but should be recalled in non-pro-drop languages (e.g. English). This phenomenon has been studied extensively in machine translation (MT), as it poses a significant challenge for MT systems due to the difficulty in determining the correct antecedent for the pronoun. This survey paper highlights the major works that have been undertaken in zero pronoun translation (ZPT) after the neural revolution so that researchers can recognize the current state and future directions of this field. We provide an organization of the literature based on evolution, dataset, method, and evaluation. In addition, we compare and analyze competing models and evaluation metrics on different benchmarks. We uncover a number of insightful findings such as: 1) ZPT is in line with the development trend of large language model; 2) data limitation causes learning bias in languages and domains; 3) performance improvements are often reported on single benchmarks, but advanced methods are still far from real-world use; 4) general-purpose metrics are not reliable on nuances and complexities of ZPT, emphasizing the necessity of targeted metrics; 5) apart from commonly-cited errors, ZPs will cause risks of gender bias.

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Enhancing Grammatical Error Correction Systems with Explanations
Yuejiao Fei | Leyang Cui | Sen Yang | Wai Lam | Zhenzhong Lan | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Grammatical error correction systems improve written communication by detecting and correcting language mistakes. To help language learners better understand why the GEC system makes a certain correction, the causes of errors (evidence words) and the corresponding error types are two key factors. To enhance GEC systems with explanations, we introduce EXPECT, a large dataset annotated with evidence words and grammatical error types. We propose several baselines and anlysis to understand this task. Furthermore, human evaluation verifies our explainable GEC system’s explanations can assist second-language learners in determining whether to accept a correction suggestion and in understanding the associated grammar rule.

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Explicit Syntactic Guidance for Neural Text Generation
Yafu Li | Leyang Cui | Jianhao Yan | Yongjing Yin | Wei Bi | Shuming Shi | Yue Zhang
Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Most existing text generation models follow the sequence-to-sequence paradigm. Generative Grammar suggests that humans generate natural language texts by learning language grammar. We propose a syntax-guided generation schema, which generates the sequence guided by a constituency parse tree in a top-down direction. The decoding process can be decomposed into two parts: (1) predicting the infilling texts for each constituent in the lexicalized syntax context given the source sentence; (2) mapping and expanding each constituent to construct the next-level syntax context. Accordingly, we propose a structural beam search method to find possible syntax structures hierarchically. Experiments on paraphrase generation and machine translation show that the proposed method outperforms autoregressive baselines, while also demonstrating effectiveness in terms of interpretability, controllability, and diversity.

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Effidit: An Assistant for Improving Writing Efficiency
Shuming Shi | Enbo Zhao | Wei Bi | Deng Cai | Leyang Cui | Xinting Huang | Haiyun Jiang | Duyu Tang | Kaiqiang Song | Longyue Wang | Chenyan Huang | Guoping Huang | Yan Wang | Piji Li
Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 3: System Demonstrations)

Writing assistants are valuable tools that can help writers improve their writing skills. We introduce Effidit (Efficient and Intelligent Editing), a digital writing assistant that facilitates users to write higher-quality text more efficiently through the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) technologies. We significantly expand the capacities of a writing assistantby providing functions in three modules: text completion, hint recommendation, and writing refinement. Based on the above efforts, Effidit can efficiently assist users in creating their own text. Effidit has been deployed to several Tencent products and publicly released at https://effidit.qq.com/.

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Sen2Pro: A Probabilistic Perspective to Sentence Embedding from Pre-trained Language Model
Lingfeng Shen | Haiyun Jiang | Lemao Liu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP 2023)

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Unsupervised Keyphrase Extraction by Learning Neural Keyphrase Set Function
Mingyang Song | Haiyun Jiang | Lemao Liu | Shuming Shi | Liping Jing
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023

We create a paradigm shift concerning building unsupervised keyphrase extraction systems in this paper. Instead of modeling the relevance between an individual candidate phrase and the document as in the commonly used framework, we formulate the unsupervised keyphrase extraction task as a document-set matching problem from a set-wise perspective, in which the document and the candidate set are globally matched in the semantic space to particularly take into account the interactions among all candidate phrases. Since it is intractable to exactly extract the keyphrase set by the matching function during the inference, we propose an approximate approach, which obtains the candidate subsets via a set extractor agent learned by reinforcement learning. Exhaustive experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of our model, which outperforms the recent state-of-the-art unsupervised keyphrase extraction baselines by a large margin.

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Rethinking Translation Memory Augmented Neural Machine Translation
Hongkun Hao | Guoping Huang | Lemao Liu | Zhirui Zhang | Shuming Shi | Rui Wang
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023

This paper rethinks translation memory augmented neural machine translation (TM-augmented NMT) from two perspectives, i.e., a probabilistic view of retrieval and the variance-bias decomposition principle. The finding demonstrates that TM-augmented NMT is good at the ability of fitting data (i.e., lower bias) but is more sensitive to the fluctuations in the training data (i.e., higher variance), which provides an explanation to a recently reported contradictory phenomenon on the same translation task: TM-augmented NMT substantially advances NMT without TM under the high resource scenario whereas it fails under the low resource scenario. Then this paper proposes a simple yet effective TM-augmented NMT model to promote the variance and address the contradictory phenomenon. Extensive experiments show that the proposed TM-augmented NMT achieves consistent gains over both conventional NMT and existing TM-augmented NMT under two variance-preferable (low resource and plug-and-play) scenarios as well as the high resource scenario.

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Making Better Use of Training Corpus: Retrieval-based Aspect Sentiment Triplet Extraction via Label Interpolation
Guoxin Yu | Lemao Liu | Haiyun Jiang | Shuming Shi | Xiang Ao
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023

In this paper, we aim to adapt the idea of retrieval-based neural approaches to the Aspect Sentiment Triplet Extraction (ASTE) task. Different from previous studies retrieving semantic similar neighbors, the ASTE task has its specialized challenges when adapting, i.e., the purpose includes predicting the sentiment polarity and it is usually aspect-dependent. Semantic similar neighbors with different polarities will be infeasible even counterproductive. To tackle this issue, we propose a retrieval-based neural ASTE approach, named RLI (Retrieval-based Aspect Sentiment Triplet Extraction via Label Interpolation), which exploits the label information of neighbors. Given an aspect-opinion term pair, we retrieve semantic similar triplets from the training corpus and interpolate their label information into the augmented representation of the target pair. The retriever is jointly trained with the whole ASTE framework, and neighbors with both similar semantics and sentiments can be recalled with the aid of this distant supervision. In addition, we design a simple yet effective pre-train method for the retriever that implicitly encodes the label similarities. Extensive experiments and analysis on two widely-used benchmarks show that the proposed model establishes a new state-of-the-art on ASTE.

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Improved Visual Story Generation with Adaptive Context Modeling
Zhangyin Feng | Yuchen Ren | Xinmiao Yu | Xiaocheng Feng | Duyu Tang | Shuming Shi | Bing Qin
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023

Diffusion models developed on top of powerful text-to-image generation models like Stable Diffusion achieve remarkable success in visual story generation. However, the best-performing approach considers historically generated results as flattened memory cells, ignoring the fact that not all preceding images contribute equally to the generation of the characters and scenes at the current stage. To address this, we present a simple method that improves the leading system with adaptive context modeling, which is not only incorporated in the encoder but also adopted as additional guidance in the sampling stage to boost the global consistency of the generated story. We evaluate our model on PororoSV and FlintstonesSV datasets and show that our approach achieves state-of-the-art FID scores on both story visualization and continuation scenarios.We conduct detailed model analysis and show that our model excels at generating semantically consistent images for stories.

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SORTIE: Dependency-Aware Symbolic Reasoning for Logical Data-to-text Generation
Xueliang Zhao | Tingchen Fu | Lemao Liu | Lingpeng Kong | Shuming Shi | Rui Yan
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2023

Logical data-to-text generation is a representative task in measuring the capabilities of both language generation and complex reasoning. Despite the introduction of reasoning skills in generation, existing works still rely on neural language models to output the final table description. However, due to the inefficacy of neural language models in complex reasoning, these methods inevitably have difficulty working out key entities in the description and might produce unfaithful descriptions. To alleviate these issues, we propose a dependency-aware symbolic reasoning framework that reasons out each entity in the table description with our designed table-compatible programming language. To figure out the dependency relationship among entities, we devise an entity scheduling mechanism to determine the order of programme synthesis such that the reasoning of an entity only relies on other “resolved” entities. Experiments on three datasets and three backbones show that ours outperforms previous methods not only in surface-level fidelity but also in logical fidelity. Notably, the proposed framework enhances GPT-2, BART and T5 with an absolute improvement of 5.7%~11.5% on SP-Acc.

2022

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Tencent AI Lab - Shanghai Jiao Tong University Low-Resource Translation System for the WMT22 Translation Task
Zhiwei He | Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi | Rui Wang
Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Machine Translation (WMT)

This paper describes Tencent AI Lab - Shanghai Jiao Tong University (TAL-SJTU) Low-Resource Translation systems for the WMT22 shared task. We participate in the general translation task on English-Livonian.Our system is based on M2M100 with novel techniques that adapt it to the target language pair.(1) Cross-model word embedding alignment: inspired by cross-lingual word embedding alignment, we successfully transfer a pre-trained word embedding to M2M100, enabling it to support Livonian.(2) Gradual adaptation strategy: we exploit Estonian and Latvian as auxiliary languages for many-to-many translation training and then adapt to English-Livonian.(3) Data augmentation: to enlarge the parallel data for English-Livonian, we construct pseudo-parallel data with Estonian and Latvian as pivot languages.(4) Fine-tuning: to make the most of all available data, we fine-tune the model with the validation set and online back-translation, further boosting the performance.In model evaluation: (1) We find that previous work underestimated the translation performance of Livonian due to inconsistent Unicode normalization, which may cause a discrepancy of up to 14.9 BLEU score.(2) In addition to the standard validation set, we also employ round-trip BLEU to evaluate the models, which we find more appropriate for this task. Finally, our unconstrained system achieves BLEU scores of 17.0 and 30.4 for English to/from Livonian.

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Findings of the Word-Level AutoCompletion Shared Task in WMT 2022
Francisco Casacuberta | George Foster | Guoping Huang | Philipp Koehn | Geza Kovacs | Lemao Liu | Shuming Shi | Taro Watanabe | Chengqing Zong
Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Machine Translation (WMT)

Recent years have witnessed rapid advancements in machine translation, but the state-of-the-art machine translation system still can not satisfy the high requirements in some rigorous translation scenarios. Computer-aided translation (CAT) provides a promising solution to yield a high-quality translation with a guarantee. Unfortunately, due to the lack of popular benchmarks, the research on CAT is not well developed compared with machine translation. In this year, we hold a new shared task called Word-level AutoCompletion (WLAC) for CAT in WMT. Specifically, we introduce some resources to train a WLAC model, and particularly we collect data from CAT systems as a part of test data for this shared task. In addition, we employ both automatic and human evaluations to measure the performance of the submitted systems, and our final evaluation results reveal some findings for the WLAC task.

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Tencent’s Multilingual Machine Translation System for WMT22 Large-Scale African Languages
Wenxiang Jiao | Zhaopeng Tu | Jiarui Li | Wenxuan Wang | Jen-tse Huang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Machine Translation (WMT)

This paper describes Tencent’s multilingual machine translation systems for the WMT22 shared task on Large-Scale Machine Translation Evaluation for African Languages. We participated in the constrained translation track in which only the data and pretrained models provided by the organizer are allowed.The task is challenging due to three problems, including the absence of training data for some to-be-evaluated language pairs, the uneven optimization of language pairs caused by data imbalance, and the curse of multilinguality. To address these problems, we adopt data augmentation, distributionally robust optimization, and language family grouping, respectively, to develop our multilingual neural machine translation (MNMT) models. Our submissions won the 1st place on the blind test sets in terms of the automatic evaluation metrics. Codes, models, and detailed competition results are available at https://github.com/wxjiao/WMT2022-Large-Scale-African.

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On Synthetic Data for Back Translation
Jiahao Xu | Yubin Ruan | Wei Bi | Guoping Huang | Shuming Shi | Lihui Chen | Lemao Liu
Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies

Back translation (BT) is one of the most significant technologies in NMT research fields. Existing attempts on BT share a common characteristic: they employ either beam search or random sampling to generate synthetic data with a backward model but seldom work studies the role of synthetic data in the performance of BT. This motivates us to ask a fundamental question: what kind of synthetic data contributes to BT performance?Through both theoretical and empirical studies, we identify two key factors on synthetic data controlling the back-translation NMT performance, which are quality and importance. Furthermore, based on our findings, we propose a simple yet effective method to generate synthetic data to better trade off both factors so as to yield the better performance for BT. We run extensive experiments on WMT14 DE-EN, EN-DE, and RU-EN benchmark tasks. By employing our proposed method to generate synthetic data, our BT model significantly outperforms the standard BT baselines (i.e., beam and sampling based methods for data generation), which proves the effectiveness of our proposed methods.

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Investigating Data Variance in Evaluations of Automatic Machine Translation Metrics
Jiannan Xiang | Huayang Li | Yahui Liu | Lemao Liu | Guoping Huang | Defu Lian | Shuming Shi
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2022

Current practices in metric evaluation focus on one single dataset, e.g., Newstest dataset in each year’s WMT Metrics Shared Task. However, in this paper, we qualitatively and quantitatively show that the performances of metrics are sensitive to data. The ranking of metrics varies when the evaluation is conducted on different datasets. Then this paper further investigates two potential hypotheses, i.e., insignificant data points and the deviation of i.i.d assumption, which may take responsibility for the issue of data variance. In conclusion, our findings suggest that when evaluating automatic translation metrics, researchers should take data variance into account and be cautious to report the results on unreliable datasets, because it may leads to inconsistent results with most of the other datasets.

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MCPG: A Flexible Multi-Level Controllable Framework for Unsupervised Paraphrase Generation
Yi Chen | Haiyun Jiang | Lemao Liu | Rui Wang | Shuming Shi | Ruifeng Xu
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2022

We present MCPG: a simple and effectiveapproach for controllable unsupervised paraphrase generation, which is also flexible toadapt to specific domains without extra training. MCPG is controllable in different levels: local lexicons, global semantics, and universal styles. The unsupervised paradigm ofMCPG combines factual keywords and diversified semantic embeddings as local lexical andglobal semantic constraints. The semantic embeddings are diversified by standard dropout,which is exploited for the first time to increaseinference diversity by us. Moreover, MCPGis qualified with good domain adaptability byadding a transfer vector as a universal style constraint, which is refined from the exemplars retrieved from the corpus of the target domain in atraining-free way. Extensive experiments showthat MCPG outperforms state-of-the-art unsupervised baselines by a margin. Meanwhile,our domain-adapted MCPG also achieves competitive performance with strong supervisedbaselines even without training.

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Exploring and Adapting Chinese GPT to Pinyin Input Method
Minghuan Tan | Yong Dai | Duyu Tang | Zhangyin Feng | Guoping Huang | Jing Jiang | Jiwei Li | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

While GPT has become the de-facto method for text generation tasks, its application to pinyin input method remains unexplored.In this work, we make the first exploration to leverage Chinese GPT for pinyin input method.We find that a frozen GPT achieves state-of-the-art performance on perfect pinyin.However, the performance drops dramatically when the input includes abbreviated pinyin.A reason is that an abbreviated pinyin can be mapped to many perfect pinyin, which links to even larger number of Chinese characters.We mitigate this issue with two strategies,including enriching the context with pinyin and optimizing the training process to help distinguish homophones. To further facilitate the evaluation of pinyin input method, we create a dataset consisting of 270K instances from fifteen domains.Results show that our approach improves the performance on abbreviated pinyin across all domains.Model analysis demonstrates that both strategiescontribute to the performance boost.

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BiTIIMT: A Bilingual Text-infilling Method for Interactive Machine Translation
Yanling Xiao | Lemao Liu | Guoping Huang | Qu Cui | Shujian Huang | Shuming Shi | Jiajun Chen
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Interactive neural machine translation (INMT) is able to guarantee high-quality translations by taking human interactions into account. Existing IMT systems relying on lexical constrained decoding (LCD) enable humans to translate in a flexible translation order beyond the left-to-right. However, they typically suffer from two significant limitations in translation efficiency and quality due to the reliance on LCD. In this work, we propose a novel BiTIIMT system, Bilingual Text-Infilling for Interactive Neural Machine Translation. The key idea to BiTIIMT is Bilingual Text-infilling (BiTI) which aims to fill missing segments in a manually revised translation for a given source sentence. We propose a simple yet effective solution by casting this task as a sequence-to-sequence task. In this way, our system performs decoding without explicit constraints and makes full use of revised words for better translation prediction. Experiment results show that BiTiIMT performs significantly better and faster than state-of-the-art LCD-based IMT on three translation tasks.

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Learning from Sibling Mentions with Scalable Graph Inference in Fine-Grained Entity Typing
Yi Chen | Jiayang Cheng | Haiyun Jiang | Lemao Liu | Haisong Zhang | Shuming Shi | Ruifeng Xu
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

In this paper, we firstly empirically find that existing models struggle to handle hard mentions due to their insufficient contexts, which consequently limits their overall typing performance. To this end, we propose to exploit sibling mentions for enhancing the mention representations.Specifically, we present two different metrics for sibling selection and employ an attentive graph neural network to aggregate information from sibling mentions. The proposed graph model is scalable in that unseen test mentions are allowed to be added as new nodes for inference.Exhaustive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our sibling learning strategy, where our model outperforms ten strong baselines. Moreover, our experiments indeed prove the superiority of sibling mentions in helping clarify the types for hard mentions.

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Redistributing Low-Frequency Words: Making the Most of Monolingual Data in Non-Autoregressive Translation
Liang Ding | Longyue Wang | Shuming Shi | Dacheng Tao | Zhaopeng Tu
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Knowledge distillation (KD) is the preliminary step for training non-autoregressive translation (NAT) models, which eases the training of NAT models at the cost of losing important information for translating low-frequency words. In this work, we provide an appealing alternative for NAT – monolingual KD, which trains NAT student on external monolingual data with AT teacher trained on the original bilingual data. Monolingual KD is able to transfer both the knowledge of the original bilingual data (implicitly encoded in the trained AT teacher model) and that of the new monolingual data to the NAT student model. Extensive experiments on eight WMT benchmarks over two advanced NAT models show that monolingual KD consistently outperforms the standard KD by improving low-frequency word translation, without introducing any computational cost. Monolingual KD enjoys desirable expandability, which can be further enhanced (when given more computational budget) by combining with the standard KD, a reverse monolingual KD, or enlarging the scale of monolingual data. Extensive analyses demonstrate that these techniques can be used together profitably to further recall the useful information lost in the standard KD. Encouragingly, combining with standard KD, our approach achieves 30.4 and 34.1 BLEU points on the WMT14 English-German and German-English datasets, respectively. Our code and trained models are freely available at https://github.com/alphadl/RLFW-NAT.mono.

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Understanding and Improving Sequence-to-Sequence Pretraining for Neural Machine Translation
Wenxuan Wang | Wenxiang Jiao | Yongchang Hao | Xing Wang | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu | Michael Lyu
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

In this paper, we present a substantial step in better understanding the SOTA sequence-to-sequence (Seq2Seq) pretraining for neural machine translation (NMT). We focus on studying the impact of the jointly pretrained decoder, which is the main difference between Seq2Seq pretraining and previous encoder-based pretraining approaches for NMT. By carefully designing experiments on three language pairs, we find that Seq2Seq pretraining is a double-edged sword: On one hand, it helps NMT models to produce more diverse translations and reduce adequacy-related translation errors. On the other hand, the discrepancies between Seq2Seq pretraining and NMT finetuning limit the translation quality (i.e., domain discrepancy) and induce the over-estimation issue (i.e., objective discrepancy). Based on these observations, we further propose simple and effective strategies, named in-domain pretraining and input adaptation to remedy the domain and objective discrepancies, respectively. Experimental results on several language pairs show that our approach can consistently improve both translation performance and model robustness upon Seq2Seq pretraining.

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Bridging the Data Gap between Training and Inference for Unsupervised Neural Machine Translation
Zhiwei He | Xing Wang | Rui Wang | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Back-translation is a critical component of Unsupervised Neural Machine Translation (UNMT), which generates pseudo parallel data from target monolingual data. A UNMT model is trained on the pseudo parallel data with translated source, and translates natural source sentences in inference. The source discrepancy between training and inference hinders the translation performance of UNMT models. By carefully designing experiments, we identify two representative characteristics of the data gap in source: (1) style gap (i.e., translated vs. natural text style) that leads to poor generalization capability; (2) content gap that induces the model to produce hallucination content biased towards the target language. To narrow the data gap, we propose an online self-training approach, which simultaneously uses the pseudo parallel data {natural source, translated target} to mimic the inference scenario. Experimental results on several widely-used language pairs show that our approach outperforms two strong baselines (XLM and MASS) by remedying the style and content gaps.

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Rethinking Negative Sampling for Handling Missing Entity Annotations
Yangming Li | Lemao Liu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Negative sampling is highly effective in handling missing annotations for named entity recognition (NER). One of our contributions is an analysis on how it makes sense through introducing two insightful concepts: missampling and uncertainty. Empirical studies show low missampling rate and high uncertainty are both essential for achieving promising performances with negative sampling. Based on the sparsity of named entities, we also theoretically derive a lower bound for the probability of zero missampling rate, which is only relevant to sentence length. The other contribution is an adaptive and weighted sampling distribution that further improves negative sampling via our former analysis. Experiments on synthetic datasets and well-annotated datasets (e.g., CoNLL-2003) show that our proposed approach benefits negative sampling in terms of F1 score and loss convergence. Besides, models with improved negative sampling have achieved new state-of-the-art results on real-world datasets (e.g., EC).

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A Model-agnostic Data Manipulation Method for Persona-based Dialogue Generation
Yu Cao | Wei Bi | Meng Fang | Shuming Shi | Dacheng Tao
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Towards building intelligent dialogue agents, there has been a growing interest in introducing explicit personas in generation models. However, with limited persona-based dialogue data at hand, it may be difficult to train a dialogue generation model well. We point out that the data challenges of this generation task lie in two aspects: first, it is expensive to scale up current persona-based dialogue datasets; second, each data sample in this task is more complex to learn with than conventional dialogue data. To alleviate the above data issues, we propose a data manipulation method, which is model-agnostic to be packed with any persona-based dialogue generation model to improve their performance. The original training samples will first be distilled and thus expected to be fitted more easily. Next, we show various effective ways that can diversify such easier distilled data. A given base model will then be trained via the constructed data curricula, i.e. first on augmented distilled samples and then on original ones. Experiments illustrate the superiority of our method with two strong base dialogue models (Transformer encoder-decoder and GPT2).

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On the Evaluation Metrics for Paraphrase Generation
Lingfeng Shen | Lemao Liu | Haiyun Jiang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

In this paper we revisit automatic metrics for paraphrase evaluation and obtain two findings that disobey conventional wisdom: (1) Reference-free metrics achieve better performance than their reference-based counterparts. (2) Most commonly used metrics do not align well with human annotation.Underlying reasons behind the above findings are explored through additional experiments and in-depth analyses.Based on the experiments and analyses, we propose ParaScore, a new evaluation metric for paraphrase generation. It possesses the merits of reference-based and reference-free metrics and explicitly models lexical divergence. Based on our analysis and improvements, our proposed reference-based outperforms than reference-free metrics.Experimental results demonstrate that ParaScore significantly outperforms existing metrics.

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Towards Efficient Dialogue Pre-training with Transferable and Interpretable Latent Structure
Xueliang Zhao | Lemao Liu | Tingchen Fu | Shuming Shi | Dongyan Zhao | Rui Yan
Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

With the availability of massive general-domain dialogue data, pre-trained dialogue generation appears to be super appealing to transfer knowledge from the general domain to downstream applications. In most existing work, such transferable ability is mainly obtained by fitting a large model with hundreds of millions of parameters on massive data in an exhaustive way, leading to inefficient running and poor interpretability. This paper proposes a novel dialogue generation model with a latent structure that is easily transferable from the general domain to downstream tasks in a lightweight and transparent way. Experiments on two benchmarks validate the effectiveness of the proposed model. Thanks to the transferable latent structure, our model is able to yield better dialogue responses than four strong baselines in terms of both automatic and human evaluations, and our model with about 22% parameters particularly delivers a 5x speedup in running time compared with the strongest baseline. Moreover, the proposed model is explainable by interpreting the discrete latent variables.

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GuoFeng: A Benchmark for Zero Pronoun Recovery and Translation
Mingzhou Xu | Longyue Wang | Derek F. Wong | Hongye Liu | Linfeng Song | Lidia S. Chao | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu
Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

The phenomenon of zero pronoun (ZP) has attracted increasing interest in the machine translation (MT) community due to its importance and difficulty. However, previous studies generally evaluate the quality of translating ZPs with BLEU scores on MT testsets, which is not expressive or sensitive enough for accurate assessment. To bridge the data and evaluation gaps, we propose a benchmark testset for target evaluation on Chinese-English ZP translation. The human-annotated testset covers five challenging genres, which reveal different characteristics of ZPs for comprehensive evaluation. We systematically revisit eight advanced models on ZP translation and identify current challenges for future exploration. We release data, code, models and annotation guidelines, which we hope can significantly promote research in this field (https://github.com/longyuewangdcu/mZPRT).

2021

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REAM: An Enhancement Approach to Reference-based Evaluation Metrics for Open-domain Dialog Generation
Jun Gao | Wei Bi | Ruifeng Xu | Shuming Shi
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL-IJCNLP 2021

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On the Copying Behaviors of Pre-Training for Neural Machine Translation
Xuebo Liu | Longyue Wang | Derek F. Wong | Liang Ding | Lidia S. Chao | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL-IJCNLP 2021

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On the Language Coverage Bias for Neural Machine Translation
Shuo Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Zhixing Tan | Shuming Shi | Maosong Sun | Yang Liu
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL-IJCNLP 2021

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Enhancing the Open-Domain Dialogue Evaluation in Latent Space
Zhangming Chan | Lemao Liu | Juntao Li | Haisong Zhang | Dongyan Zhao | Shuming Shi | Rui Yan
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL-IJCNLP 2021

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Segmenting Natural Language Sentences via Lexical Unit Analysis
Yangming Li | Lemao Liu | Shuming Shi
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021

The span-based model enjoys great popularity in recent works of sequence segmentation. However, each of these methods suffers from its own defects, such as invalid predictions. In this work, we introduce a unified span-based model, lexical unit analysis (LUA), that addresses all these matters. Segmenting a lexical unit sequence involves two steps. Firstly, we embed every span by using the representations from a pretraining language model. Secondly, we define a score for every segmentation candidate and apply dynamic programming (DP) to extract the candidate with the maximum score. We have conducted extensive experiments on 3 tasks, (e.g., syntactic chunking), across 7 datasets. LUA has established new state-of-the-art performances on 6 of them. We have achieved even better results through incorporating label correlations.

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On the Complementarity between Pre-Training and Back-Translation for Neural Machine Translation
Xuebo Liu | Longyue Wang | Derek F. Wong | Liang Ding | Lidia S. Chao | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021

Pre-training (PT) and back-translation (BT) are two simple and powerful methods to utilize monolingual data for improving the model performance of neural machine translation (NMT). This paper takes the first step to investigate the complementarity between PT and BT. We introduce two probing tasks for PT and BT respectively and find that PT mainly contributes to the encoder module while BT brings more benefits to the decoder. Experimental results show that PT and BT are nicely complementary to each other, establishing state-of-the-art performances on the WMT16 English-Romanian and English-Russian benchmarks. Through extensive analyses on sentence originality and word frequency, we also demonstrate that combining Tagged BT with PT is more helpful to their complementarity, leading to better translation quality. Source code is freely available at https://github.com/SunbowLiu/PTvsBT.

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An Empirical Study on Multiple Information Sources for Zero-Shot Fine-Grained Entity Typing
Yi Chen | Haiyun Jiang | Lemao Liu | Shuming Shi | Chuang Fan | Min Yang | Ruifeng Xu
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Auxiliary information from multiple sources has been demonstrated to be effective in zero-shot fine-grained entity typing (ZFET). However, there lacks a comprehensive understanding about how to make better use of the existing information sources and how they affect the performance of ZFET. In this paper, we empirically study three kinds of auxiliary information: context consistency, type hierarchy and background knowledge (e.g., prototypes and descriptions) of types, and propose a multi-source fusion model (MSF) targeting these sources. The performance obtains up to 11.42% and 22.84% absolute gains over state-of-the-art baselines on BBN and Wiki respectively with regard to macro F1 scores. More importantly, we further discuss the characteristics, merits and demerits of each information source and provide an intuitive understanding of the complementarity among them.

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Fine-grained Entity Typing without Knowledge Base
Jing Qian | Yibin Liu | Lemao Liu | Yangming Li | Haiyun Jiang | Haisong Zhang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Existing work on Fine-grained Entity Typing (FET) typically trains automatic models on the datasets obtained by using Knowledge Bases (KB) as distant supervision. However, the reliance on KB means this training setting can be hampered by the lack of or the incompleteness of the KB. To alleviate this limitation, we propose a novel setting for training FET models: FET without accessing any knowledge base. Under this setting, we propose a two-step framework to train FET models. In the first step, we automatically create pseudo data with fine-grained labels from a large unlabeled dataset. Then a neural network model is trained based on the pseudo data, either in an unsupervised way or using self-training under the weak guidance from a coarse-grained Named Entity Recognition (NER) model. Experimental results show that our method achieves competitive performance with respect to the models trained on the original KB-supervised datasets.

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Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: System Demonstrations
Heike Adel | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: System Demonstrations

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Dialogue Response Selection with Hierarchical Curriculum Learning
Yixuan Su | Deng Cai | Qingyu Zhou | Zibo Lin | Simon Baker | Yunbo Cao | Shuming Shi | Nigel Collier | Yan Wang
Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)

We study the learning of a matching model for dialogue response selection. Motivated by the recent finding that models trained with random negative samples are not ideal in real-world scenarios, we propose a hierarchical curriculum learning framework that trains the matching model in an “easy-to-difficult” scheme. Our learning framework consists of two complementary curricula: (1) corpus-level curriculum (CC); and (2) instance-level curriculum (IC). In CC, the model gradually increases its ability in finding the matching clues between the dialogue context and a response candidate. As for IC, it progressively strengthens the model’s ability in identifying the mismatching information between the dialogue context and a response candidate. Empirical studies on three benchmark datasets with three state-of-the-art matching models demonstrate that the proposed learning framework significantly improves the model performance across various evaluation metrics.

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Self-Training Sampling with Monolingual Data Uncertainty for Neural Machine Translation
Wenxiang Jiao | Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi | Michael Lyu | Irwin King
Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Self-training has proven effective for improving NMT performance by augmenting model training with synthetic parallel data. The common practice is to construct synthetic data based on a randomly sampled subset of large-scale monolingual data, which we empirically show is sub-optimal. In this work, we propose to improve the sampling procedure by selecting the most informative monolingual sentences to complement the parallel data. To this end, we compute the uncertainty of monolingual sentences using the bilingual dictionary extracted from the parallel data. Intuitively, monolingual sentences with lower uncertainty generally correspond to easy-to-translate patterns which may not provide additional gains. Accordingly, we design an uncertainty-based sampling strategy to efficiently exploit the monolingual data for self-training, in which monolingual sentences with higher uncertainty would be sampled with higher probability. Experimental results on large-scale WMT English⇒German and English⇒Chinese datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Extensive analyses suggest that emphasizing the learning on uncertain monolingual sentences by our approach does improve the translation quality of high-uncertainty sentences and also benefits the prediction of low-frequency words at the target side.

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GWLAN: General Word-Level AutocompletioN for Computer-Aided Translation
Huayang Li | Lemao Liu | Guoping Huang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Computer-aided translation (CAT), the use of software to assist a human translator in the translation process, has been proven to be useful in enhancing the productivity of human translators. Autocompletion, which suggests translation results according to the text pieces provided by human translators, is a core function of CAT. There are two limitations in previous research in this line. First, most research works on this topic focus on sentence-level autocompletion (i.e., generating the whole translation as a sentence based on human input), but word-level autocompletion is under-explored so far. Second, almost no public benchmarks are available for the autocompletion task of CAT. This might be among the reasons why research progress in CAT is much slower compared to automatic MT. In this paper, we propose the task of general word-level autocompletion (GWLAN) from a real-world CAT scenario, and construct the first public benchmark to facilitate research in this topic. In addition, we propose an effective method for GWLAN and compare it with several strong baselines. Experiments demonstrate that our proposed method can give significantly more accurate predictions than the baseline methods on our benchmark datasets.

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Tail-to-Tail Non-Autoregressive Sequence Prediction for Chinese Grammatical Error Correction
Piji Li | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)

We investigate the problem of Chinese Grammatical Error Correction (CGEC) and present a new framework named Tail-to-Tail (TtT) non-autoregressive sequence prediction to address the deep issues hidden in CGEC. Considering that most tokens are correct and can be conveyed directly from source to target, and the error positions can be estimated and corrected based on the bidirectional context information, thus we employ a BERT-initialized Transformer Encoder as the backbone model to conduct information modeling and conveying. Considering that only relying on the same position substitution cannot handle the variable-length correction cases, various operations such substitution, deletion, insertion, and local paraphrasing are required jointly. Therefore, a Conditional Random Fields (CRF) layer is stacked on the up tail to conduct non-autoregressive sequence prediction by modeling the token dependencies. Since most tokens are correct and easily to be predicted/conveyed to the target, then the models may suffer from a severe class imbalance issue. To alleviate this problem, focal loss penalty strategies are integrated into the loss functions. Moreover, besides the typical fix-length error correction datasets, we also construct a variable-length corpus to conduct experiments. Experimental results on standard datasets, especially on the variable-length datasets, demonstrate the effectiveness of TtT in terms of sentence-level Accuracy, Precision, Recall, and F1-Measure on tasks of error Detection and Correction.

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TexSmart: A System for Enhanced Natural Language Understanding
Lemao Liu | Haisong Zhang | Haiyun Jiang | Yangming Li | Enbo Zhao | Kun Xu | Linfeng Song | Suncong Zheng | Botong Zhou | Dick Zhu | Xiao Feng | Tao Chen | Tao Yang | Dong Yu | Feng Zhang | ZhanHui Kang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing: System Demonstrations

This paper introduces TexSmart, a text understanding system that supports fine-grained named entity recognition (NER) and enhanced semantic analysis functionalities. Compared to most previous publicly available text understanding systems and tools, TexSmart holds some unique features. First, the NER function of TexSmart supports over 1,000 entity types, while most other public tools typically support several to (at most) dozens of entity types. Second, TexSmart introduces new semantic analysis functions like semantic expansion and deep semantic representation, that are absent in most previous systems. Third, a spectrum of algorithms (from very fast algorithms to those that are relatively slow but more accurate) are implemented for one function in TexSmart, to fulfill the requirements of different academic and industrial applications. The adoption of unsupervised or weakly-supervised algorithms is especially emphasized, with the goal of easily updating our models to include fresh data with less human annotation efforts.

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Tencent Translation System for the WMT21 News Translation Task
Longyue Wang | Mu Li | Fangxu Liu | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu | Xing Wang | Shuangzhi Wu | Jiali Zeng | Wen Zhang
Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on Machine Translation

This paper describes Tencent Translation systems for the WMT21 shared task. We participate in the news translation task on three language pairs: Chinese-English, English-Chinese and German-English. Our systems are built on various Transformer models with novel techniques adapted from our recent research work. First, we combine different data augmentation methods including back-translation, forward-translation and right-to-left training to enlarge the training data. We also apply language coverage bias, data rejuvenation and uncertainty-based sampling approaches to select content-relevant and high-quality data from large parallel and monolingual corpora. Expect for in-domain fine-tuning, we also propose a fine-grained “one model one domain” approach to model characteristics of different news genres at fine-tuning and decoding stages. Besides, we use greed-based ensemble algorithm and transductive ensemble method to further boost our systems. Based on our success in the last WMT, we continuously employed advanced techniques such as large batch training, data selection and data filtering. Finally, our constrained Chinese-English system achieves 33.4 case-sensitive BLEU score, which is the highest among all submissions. The German-English system is ranked at second place accordingly.

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Tencent AI Lab Machine Translation Systems for the WMT21 Biomedical Translation Task
Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on Machine Translation

This paper describes the Tencent AI Lab submission of the WMT2021 shared task on biomedical translation in eight language directions: English-German, English-French, English-Spanish and English-Russian. We utilized different Transformer architectures, pretraining and back-translation strategies to improve translation quality. Concretely, we explore mBART (Liu et al., 2020) to demonstrate the effectiveness of the pretraining strategy. Our submissions (Tencent AI Lab Machine Translation, TMT) in German/French/Spanish⇒English are ranked 1st respectively according to the official evaluation results in terms of BLEU scores.

2020

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Tencent Neural Machine Translation Systems for the WMT20 News Translation Task
Shuangzhi Wu | Xing Wang | Longyue Wang | Fangxu Liu | Jun Xie | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi | Mu Li
Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Machine Translation

This paper describes Tencent Neural Machine Translation systems for the WMT 2020 news translation tasks. We participate in the shared news translation task on English Chinese and English German language pairs. Our systems are built on deep Transformer and several data augmentation methods. We propose a boosted in-domain finetuning method to improve single models. Ensemble is used to combine single models and we propose an iterative transductive ensemble method which can further improve the translation performance based on the ensemble results. We achieve a BLEU score of 36.8 and the highest chrF score of 0.648 on Chinese English task.

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Tencent AI Lab Machine Translation Systems for WMT20 Chat Translation Task
Longyue Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Xing Wang | Li Ding | Liang Ding | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Machine Translation

This paper describes the Tencent AI Lab’s submission of the WMT 2020 shared task on chat translation in English-German. Our neural machine translation (NMT) systems are built on sentence-level, document-level, non-autoregressive (NAT) and pretrained models. We integrate a number of advanced techniques into our systems, including data selection, back/forward translation, larger batch learning, model ensemble, finetuning as well as system combination. Specifically, we proposed a hybrid data selection method to select high-quality and in-domain sentences from out-of-domain data. To better capture the source contexts, we exploit to augment NAT models with evolved cross-attention. Furthermore, we explore to transfer general knowledge from four different pre-training language models to the downstream translation task. In general, we present extensive experimental results for this new translation task. Among all the participants, our German-to-English primary system is ranked the second in terms of BLEU scores.

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Tencent AI Lab Machine Translation Systems for the WMT20 Biomedical Translation Task
Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Longyue Wang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Machine Translation

This paper describes the Tencent AI Lab submission of the WMT2020 shared task on biomedical translation in four language directions: German<->English, English<->German, Chinese<->English and English<->Chinese. We implement our system with model ensemble technique on different transformer architectures (Deep, Hybrid, Big, Large Transformers). To enlarge the in-domain bilingual corpus, we use back-translation of monolingual in-domain data in the target language as additional in-domain training data. Our systems in German->English and English->German are ranked 1st and 3rd respectively according to the official evaluation results in terms of BLEU scores.

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Evaluating Explanation Methods for Neural Machine Translation
Jierui Li | Lemao Liu | Huayang Li | Guanlin Li | Guoping Huang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

Recently many efforts have been devoted to interpreting the black-box NMT models, but little progress has been made on metrics to evaluate explanation methods. Word Alignment Error Rate can be used as such a metric that matches human understanding, however, it can not measure explanation methods on those target words that are not aligned to any source word. This paper thereby makes an initial attempt to evaluate explanation methods from an alternative viewpoint. To this end, it proposes a principled metric based on fidelity in regard to the predictive behavior of the NMT model. As the exact computation for this metric is intractable, we employ an efficient approach as its approximation. On six standard translation tasks, we quantitatively evaluate several explanation methods in terms of the proposed metric and we reveal some valuable findings for these explanation methods in our experiments.

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Rigid Formats Controlled Text Generation
Piji Li | Haisong Zhang | Xiaojiang Liu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

Neural text generation has made tremendous progress in various tasks. One common characteristic of most of the tasks is that the texts are not restricted to some rigid formats when generating. However, we may confront some special text paradigms such as Lyrics (assume the music score is given), Sonnet, SongCi (classical Chinese poetry of the Song dynasty), etc. The typical characteristics of these texts are in three folds: (1) They must comply fully with the rigid predefined formats. (2) They must obey some rhyming schemes. (3) Although they are restricted to some formats, the sentence integrity must be guaranteed. To the best of our knowledge, text generation based on the predefined rigid formats has not been well investigated. Therefore, we propose a simple and elegant framework named SongNet to tackle this problem. The backbone of the framework is a Transformer-based auto-regressive language model. Sets of symbols are tailor-designed to improve the modeling performance especially on format, rhyme, and sentence integrity. We improve the attention mechanism to impel the model to capture some future information on the format. A pre-training and fine-tuning framework is designed to further improve the generation quality. Extensive experiments conducted on two collected corpora demonstrate that our proposed framework generates significantly better results in terms of both automatic metrics and the human evaluation.

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On the Inference Calibration of Neural Machine Translation
Shuo Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi | Yang Liu
Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

Confidence calibration, which aims to make model predictions equal to the true correctness measures, is important for neural machine translation (NMT) because it is able to offer useful indicators of translation errors in the generated output. While prior studies have shown that NMT models trained with label smoothing are well-calibrated on the ground-truth training data, we find that miscalibration still remains a severe challenge for NMT during inference due to the discrepancy between training and inference. By carefully designing experiments on three language pairs, our work provides in-depth analyses of the correlation between calibration and translation performance as well as linguistic properties of miscalibration and reports a number of interesting findings that might help humans better analyze, understand and improve NMT models. Based on these observations, we further propose a new graduated label smoothing method that can improve both inference calibration and translation performance.

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When Hearst Is not Enough: Improving Hypernymy Detection from Corpus with Distributional Models
Changlong Yu | Jialong Han | Peifeng Wang | Yangqiu Song | Hongming Zhang | Wilfred Ng | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)

We address hypernymy detection, i.e., whether an is-a relationship exists between words (x ,y), with the help of large textual corpora. Most conventional approaches to this task have been categorized to be either pattern-based or distributional. Recent studies suggest that pattern-based ones are superior, if large-scale Hearst pairs are extracted and fed, with the sparsity of unseen (x ,y) pairs relieved. However, they become invalid in some specific sparsity cases, where x or y is not involved in any pattern. For the first time, this paper quantifies the non-negligible existence of those specific cases. We also demonstrate that distributional methods are ideal to make up for pattern-based ones in such cases. We devise a complementary framework, under which a pattern-based and a distributional model collaborate seamlessly in cases which they each prefer. On several benchmark datasets, our framework demonstrates improvements that are both competitive and explainable.

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The World is Not Binary: Learning to Rank with Grayscale Data for Dialogue Response Selection
Zibo Lin | Deng Cai | Yan Wang | Xiaojiang Liu | Haitao Zheng | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)

Response selection plays a vital role in building retrieval-based conversation systems. Despite that response selection is naturally a learning-to-rank problem, most prior works take a point-wise view and train binary classifiers for this task: each response candidate is labeled either relevant (one) or irrelevant (zero). On the one hand, this formalization can be sub-optimal due to its ignorance of the diversity of response quality. On the other hand, annotating grayscale data for learning-to-rank can be prohibitively expensive and challenging. In this work, we show that grayscale data can be automatically constructed without human effort. Our method employs off-the-shelf response retrieval models and response generation models as automatic grayscale data generators. With the constructed grayscale data, we propose multi-level ranking objectives for training, which can (1) teach a matching model to capture more fine-grained context-response relevance difference and (2) reduce the train-test discrepancy in terms of distractor strength. Our method is simple, effective, and universal. Experiments on three benchmark datasets and four state-of-the-art matching models show that the proposed approach brings significant and consistent performance improvements.

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On the Branching Bias of Syntax Extracted from Pre-trained Language Models
Huayang Li | Lemao Liu | Guoping Huang | Shuming Shi
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2020

Many efforts have been devoted to extracting constituency trees from pre-trained language models, often proceeding in two stages: feature definition and parsing. However, this kind of methods may suffer from the branching bias issue, which will inflate the performances on languages with the same branch it biases to. In this work, we propose quantitatively measuring the branching bias by comparing the performance gap on a language and its reversed language, which is agnostic to both language models and extracting methods. Furthermore, we analyze the impacts of three factors on the branching bias, namely feature definitions, parsing algorithms, and language models. Experiments show that several existing works exhibit branching biases, and some implementations of these three factors can introduce the branching bias.

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On the Sub-layer Functionalities of Transformer Decoder
Yilin Yang | Longyue Wang | Shuming Shi | Prasad Tadepalli | Stefan Lee | Zhaopeng Tu
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2020

There have been significant efforts to interpret the encoder of Transformer-based encoder-decoder architectures for neural machine translation (NMT); meanwhile, the decoder remains largely unexamined despite its critical role. During translation, the decoder must predict output tokens by considering both the source-language text from the encoder and the target-language prefix produced in previous steps. In this work, we study how Transformer-based decoders leverage information from the source and target languages – developing a universal probe task to assess how information is propagated through each module of each decoder layer. We perform extensive experiments on three major translation datasets (WMT En-De, En-Fr, and En-Zh). Our analysis provides insight on when and where decoders leverage different sources. Based on these insights, we demonstrate that the residual feed-forward module in each Transformer decoder layer can be dropped with minimal loss of performance – a significant reduction in computation and number of parameters, and consequently a significant boost to both training and inference speed.

2019

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Multi-Granularity Self-Attention for Neural Machine Translation
Jie Hao | Xing Wang | Shuming Shi | Jinfeng Zhang | Zhaopeng Tu
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Current state-of-the-art neural machine translation (NMT) uses a deep multi-head self-attention network with no explicit phrase information. However, prior work on statistical machine translation has shown that extending the basic translation unit from words to phrases has produced substantial improvements, suggesting the possibility of improving NMT performance from explicit modeling of phrases. In this work, we present multi-granularity self-attention (Mg-Sa): a neural network that combines multi-head self-attention and phrase modeling. Specifically, we train several attention heads to attend to phrases in either n-gram or syntactic formalisms. Moreover, we exploit interactions among phrases to enhance the strength of structure modeling – a commonly-cited weakness of self-attention. Experimental results on WMT14 English-to-German and NIST Chinese-to-English translation tasks show the proposed approach consistently improves performance. Targeted linguistic analysis reveal that Mg-Sa indeed captures useful phrase information at various levels of granularities.

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One Model to Learn Both: Zero Pronoun Prediction and Translation
Longyue Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Xing Wang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Zero pronouns (ZPs) are frequently omitted in pro-drop languages, but should be recalled in non-pro-drop languages. This discourse phenomenon poses a significant challenge for machine translation (MT) when translating texts from pro-drop to non-pro-drop languages. In this paper, we propose a unified and discourse-aware ZP translation approach for neural MT models. Specifically, we jointly learn to predict and translate ZPs in an end-to-end manner, allowing both components to interact with each other. In addition, we employ hierarchical neural networks to exploit discourse-level context, which is beneficial for ZP prediction and thus translation. Experimental results on both Chinese-English and Japanese-English data show that our approach significantly and accumulatively improves both translation performance and ZP prediction accuracy over not only baseline but also previous works using external ZP prediction models. Extensive analyses confirm that the performance improvement comes from the alleviation of different kinds of errors especially caused by subjective ZPs.

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Towards Understanding Neural Machine Translation with Word Importance
Shilin He | Zhaopeng Tu | Xing Wang | Longyue Wang | Michael Lyu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Although neural machine translation (NMT) has advanced the state-of-the-art on various language pairs, the interpretability of NMT remains unsatisfactory. In this work, we propose to address this gap by focusing on understanding the input-output behavior of NMT models. Specifically, we measure the word importance by attributing the NMT output to every input word through a gradient-based method. We validate the approach on a couple of perturbation operations, language pairs, and model architectures, demonstrating its superiority on identifying input words with higher influence on translation performance. Encouragingly, the calculated importance can serve as indicators of input words that are under-translated by NMT models. Furthermore, our analysis reveals that words of certain syntactic categories have higher importance while the categories vary across language pairs, which can inspire better design principles of NMT architectures for multi-lingual translation.

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Towards Better Modeling Hierarchical Structure for Self-Attention with Ordered Neurons
Jie Hao | Xing Wang | Shuming Shi | Jinfeng Zhang | Zhaopeng Tu
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Recent studies have shown that a hybrid of self-attention networks (SANs) and recurrent neural networks RNNs outperforms both individual architectures, while not much is known about why the hybrid models work. With the belief that modeling hierarchical structure is an essential complementary between SANs and RNNs, we propose to further enhance the strength of hybrid models with an advanced variant of RNNs – Ordered Neurons LSTM (ON-LSTM), which introduces a syntax-oriented inductive bias to perform tree-like composition. Experimental results on the benchmark machine translation task show that the proposed approach outperforms both individual architectures and a standard hybrid model. Further analyses on targeted linguistic evaluation and logical inference tasks demonstrate that the proposed approach indeed benefits from a better modeling of hierarchical structure.

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Self-Attention with Structural Position Representations
Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Longyue Wang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Although self-attention networks (SANs) have advanced the state-of-the-art on various NLP tasks, one criticism of SANs is their ability of encoding positions of input words (Shaw et al., 2018). In this work, we propose to augment SANs with structural position representations to model the latent structure of the input sentence, which is complementary to the standard sequential positional representations. Specifically, we use dependency tree to represent the grammatical structure of a sentence, and propose two strategies to encode the positional relationships among words in the dependency tree. Experimental results on NIST Chinese-to-English and WMT14 English-to-German translation tasks show that the proposed approach consistently boosts performance over both the absolute and relative sequential position representations.

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Retrieval-guided Dialogue Response Generation via a Matching-to-Generation Framework
Deng Cai | Yan Wang | Wei Bi | Zhaopeng Tu | Xiaojiang Liu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

End-to-end sequence generation is a popular technique for developing open domain dialogue systems, though they suffer from the safe response problem. Researchers have attempted to tackle this problem by incorporating generative models with the returns of retrieval systems. Recently, a skeleton-then-response framework has been shown promising results for this task. Nevertheless, how to precisely extract a skeleton and how to effectively train a retrieval-guided response generator are still challenging. This paper presents a novel framework in which the skeleton extraction is made by an interpretable matching model and the following skeleton-guided response generation is accomplished by a separately trained generator. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our model designs.

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A Discrete CVAE for Response Generation on Short-Text Conversation
Jun Gao | Wei Bi | Xiaojiang Liu | Junhui Li | Guodong Zhou | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Neural conversation models such as encoder-decoder models are easy to generate bland and generic responses. Some researchers propose to use the conditional variational autoencoder (CVAE) which maximizes the lower bound on the conditional log-likelihood on a continuous latent variable. With different sampled latent variables, the model is expected to generate diverse responses. Although the CVAE-based models have shown tremendous potential, their improvement of generating high-quality responses is still unsatisfactory. In this paper, we introduce a discrete latent variable with an explicit semantic meaning to improve the CVAE on short-text conversation. A major advantage of our model is that we can exploit the semantic distance between the latent variables to maintain good diversity between the sampled latent variables. Accordingly, we propose a two-stage sampling approach to enable efficient diverse variable selection from a large latent space assumed in the short-text conversation task. Experimental results indicate that our model outperforms various kinds of generation models under both automatic and human evaluations and generates more diverse and informative responses.

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Semi-supervised Text Style Transfer: Cross Projection in Latent Space
Mingyue Shang | Piji Li | Zhenxin Fu | Lidong Bing | Dongyan Zhao | Shuming Shi | Rui Yan
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP)

Text style transfer task requires the model to transfer a sentence of one style to another style while retaining its original content meaning, which is a challenging problem that has long suffered from the shortage of parallel data. In this paper, we first propose a semi-supervised text style transfer model that combines the small-scale parallel data with the large-scale nonparallel data. With these two types of training data, we introduce a projection function between the latent space of different styles and design two constraints to train it. We also introduce two other simple but effective semi-supervised methods to compare with. To evaluate the performance of the proposed methods, we build and release a novel style transfer dataset that alters sentences between the style of ancient Chinese poem and the modern Chinese.

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Understanding and Improving Hidden Representations for Neural Machine Translation
Guanlin Li | Lemao Liu | Xintong Li | Conghui Zhu | Tiejun Zhao | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers)

Multilayer architectures are currently the gold standard for large-scale neural machine translation. Existing works have explored some methods for understanding the hidden representations, however, they have not sought to improve the translation quality rationally according to their understanding. Towards understanding for performance improvement, we first artificially construct a sequence of nested relative tasks and measure the feature generalization ability of the learned hidden representation over these tasks. Based on our understanding, we then propose to regularize the layer-wise representations with all tree-induced tasks. To overcome the computational bottleneck resulting from the large number of regularization terms, we design efficient approximation methods by selecting a few coarse-to-fine tasks for regularization. Extensive experiments on two widely-used datasets demonstrate the proposed methods only lead to small extra overheads in training but no additional overheads in testing, and achieve consistent improvements (up to +1.3 BLEU) compared to the state-of-the-art translation model.

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Skeleton-to-Response: Dialogue Generation Guided by Retrieval Memory
Deng Cai | Yan Wang | Wei Bi | Zhaopeng Tu | Xiaojiang Liu | Wai Lam | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers)

Traditional generative dialogue models generate responses solely from input queries. Such information is insufficient for generating a specific response since a certain query could be answered in multiple ways. Recently, researchers have attempted to fill the information gap by exploiting information retrieval techniques. For a given query, similar dialogues are retrieved from the entire training data and considered as an additional knowledge source. While the use of retrieval may harvest extensive information, the generative models could be overwhelmed, leading to unsatisfactory performance. In this paper, we propose a new framework which exploits retrieval results via a skeleton-to-response paradigm. At first, a skeleton is extracted from the retrieved dialogues. Then, both the generated skeleton and the original query are used for response generation via a novel response generator. Experimental results show that our approach significantly improves the informativeness of the generated responses

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Microblog Hashtag Generation via Encoding Conversation Contexts
Yue Wang | Jing Li | Irwin King | Michael R. Lyu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers)

Automatic hashtag annotation plays an important role in content understanding for microblog posts. To date, progress made in this field has been restricted to phrase selection from limited candidates, or word-level hashtag discovery using topic models. Different from previous work considering hashtags to be inseparable, our work is the first effort to annotate hashtags with a novel sequence generation framework via viewing the hashtag as a short sequence of words. Moreover, to address the data sparsity issue in processing short microblog posts, we propose to jointly model the target posts and the conversation contexts initiated by them with bidirectional attention. Extensive experimental results on two large-scale datasets, newly collected from English Twitter and Chinese Weibo, show that our model significantly outperforms state-of-the-art models based on classification. Further studies demonstrate our ability to effectively generate rare and even unseen hashtags, which is however not possible for most existing methods.

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On the Word Alignment from Neural Machine Translation
Xintong Li | Guanlin Li | Lemao Liu | Max Meng | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

Prior researches suggest that neural machine translation (NMT) captures word alignment through its attention mechanism, however, this paper finds attention may almost fail to capture word alignment for some NMT models. This paper thereby proposes two methods to induce word alignment which are general and agnostic to specific NMT models. Experiments show that both methods induce much better word alignment than attention. This paper further visualizes the translation through the word alignment induced by NMT. In particular, it analyzes the effect of alignment errors on translation errors at word level and its quantitative analysis over many testing examples consistently demonstrate that alignment errors are likely to lead to translation errors measured by different metrics.

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Topic-Aware Neural Keyphrase Generation for Social Media Language
Yue Wang | Jing Li | Hou Pong Chan | Irwin King | Michael R. Lyu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

A huge volume of user-generated content is daily produced on social media. To facilitate automatic language understanding, we study keyphrase prediction, distilling salient information from massive posts. While most existing methods extract words from source posts to form keyphrases, we propose a sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) based neural keyphrase generation framework, enabling absent keyphrases to be created. Moreover, our model, being topic-aware, allows joint modeling of corpus-level latent topic representations, which helps alleviate data sparsity widely exhibited in social media language. Experiments on three datasets collected from English and Chinese social media platforms show that our model significantly outperforms both extraction and generation models without exploiting latent topics. Further discussions show that our model learns meaningful topics, which interprets its superiority in social media keyphrase generation.

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Fine-Grained Sentence Functions for Short-Text Conversation
Wei Bi | Jun Gao | Xiaojiang Liu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

Sentence function is an important linguistic feature referring to a user’s purpose in uttering a specific sentence. The use of sentence function has shown promising results to improve the performance of conversation models. However, there is no large conversation dataset annotated with sentence functions. In this work, we collect a new Short-Text Conversation dataset with manually annotated SEntence FUNctions (STC-Sefun). Classification models are trained on this dataset to (i) recognize the sentence function of new data in a large corpus of short-text conversations; (ii) estimate a proper sentence function of the response given a test query. We later train conversation models conditioned on the sentence functions, including information retrieval-based and neural generative models. Experimental results demonstrate that the use of sentence functions can help improve the quality of the returned responses.

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Exploiting Sentential Context for Neural Machine Translation
Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Longyue Wang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

In this work, we present novel approaches to exploit sentential context for neural machine translation (NMT). Specifically, we show that a shallow sentential context extracted from the top encoder layer only, can improve translation performance via contextualizing the encoding representations of individual words. Next, we introduce a deep sentential context, which aggregates the sentential context representations from all of the internal layers of the encoder to form a more comprehensive context representation. Experimental results on the WMT14 English-German and English-French benchmarks show that our model consistently improves performance over the strong Transformer model, demonstrating the necessity and effectiveness of exploiting sentential context for NMT.

2018

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hyperdoc2vec: Distributed Representations of Hypertext Documents
Jialong Han | Yan Song | Wayne Xin Zhao | Shuming Shi | Haisong Zhang
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Hypertext documents, such as web pages and academic papers, are of great importance in delivering information in our daily life. Although being effective on plain documents, conventional text embedding methods suffer from information loss if directly adapted to hyper-documents. In this paper, we propose a general embedding approach for hyper-documents, namely, hyperdoc2vec, along with four criteria characterizing necessary information that hyper-document embedding models should preserve. Systematic comparisons are conducted between hyperdoc2vec and several competitors on two tasks, i.e., paper classification and citation recommendation, in the academic paper domain. Analyses and experiments both validate the superiority of hyperdoc2vec to other models w.r.t. the four criteria.

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Automatic Article Commenting: the Task and Dataset
Lianhui Qin | Lemao Liu | Wei Bi | Yan Wang | Xiaojiang Liu | Zhiting Hu | Hai Zhao | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)

Comments of online articles provide extended views and improve user engagement. Automatically making comments thus become a valuable functionality for online forums, intelligent chatbots, etc. This paper proposes the new task of automatic article commenting, and introduces a large-scale Chinese dataset with millions of real comments and a human-annotated subset characterizing the comments’ varying quality. Incorporating the human bias of comment quality, we further develop automatic metrics that generalize a broad set of popular reference-based metrics and exhibit greatly improved correlations with human evaluations.

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Target Foresight Based Attention for Neural Machine Translation
Xintong Li | Lemao Liu | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi | Max Meng
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long Papers)

In neural machine translation, an attention model is used to identify the aligned source words for a target word (target foresight word) in order to select translation context, but it does not make use of any information of this target foresight word at all. Previous work proposed an approach to improve the attention model by explicitly accessing this target foresight word and demonstrated the substantial gains in alignment task. However, this approach is useless in machine translation task on which the target foresight word is unavailable. In this paper, we propose a new attention model enhanced by the implicit information of target foresight word oriented to both alignment and translation tasks. Empirical experiments on Chinese-to-English and Japanese-to-English datasets show that the proposed attention model delivers significant improvements in terms of both alignment error rate and BLEU.

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Directional Skip-Gram: Explicitly Distinguishing Left and Right Context for Word Embeddings
Yan Song | Shuming Shi | Jing Li | Haisong Zhang
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 2 (Short Papers)

In this paper, we present directional skip-gram (DSG), a simple but effective enhancement of the skip-gram model by explicitly distinguishing left and right context in word prediction. In doing so, a direction vector is introduced for each word, whose embedding is thus learned by not only word co-occurrence patterns in its context, but also the directions of its contextual words. Theoretical and empirical studies on complexity illustrate that our model can be trained as efficient as the original skip-gram model, when compared to other extensions of the skip-gram model. Experimental results show that our model outperforms others on different datasets in semantic (word similarity measurement) and syntactic (part-of-speech tagging) evaluations, respectively.

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Learning to Remember Translation History with a Continuous Cache
Zhaopeng Tu | Yang Liu | Shuming Shi | Tong Zhang
Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Volume 6

Existing neural machine translation (NMT) models generally translate sentences in isolation, missing the opportunity to take advantage of document-level information. In this work, we propose to augment NMT models with a very light-weight cache-like memory network, which stores recent hidden representations as translation history. The probability distribution over generated words is updated online depending on the translation history retrieved from the memory, endowing NMT models with the capability to dynamically adapt over time. Experiments on multiple domains with different topics and styles show the effectiveness of the proposed approach with negligible impact on the computational cost.

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Towards Less Generic Responses in Neural Conversation Models: A Statistical Re-weighting Method
Yahui Liu | Wei Bi | Jun Gao | Xiaojiang Liu | Jian Yao | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Sequence-to-sequence neural generation models have achieved promising performance on short text conversation tasks. However, they tend to generate generic/dull responses, leading to unsatisfying dialogue experience. We observe that in the conversation tasks, each query could have multiple responses, which forms a 1-to-n or m-to-n relationship in the view of the total corpus. The objective function used in standard sequence-to-sequence models will be dominated by loss terms with generic patterns. Inspired by this observation, we introduce a statistical re-weighting method that assigns different weights for the multiple responses of the same query, and trains the common neural generation model with the weights. Experimental results on a large Chinese dialogue corpus show that our method improves the acceptance rate of generated responses compared with several baseline models and significantly reduces the number of generated generic responses.

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QuaSE: Sequence Editing under Quantifiable Guidance
Yi Liao | Lidong Bing | Piji Li | Shuming Shi | Wai Lam | Tong Zhang
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

We propose the task of Quantifiable Sequence Editing (QuaSE): editing an input sequence to generate an output sequence that satisfies a given numerical outcome value measuring a certain property of the sequence, with the requirement of keeping the main content of the input sequence. For example, an input sequence could be a word sequence, such as review sentence and advertisement text. For a review sentence, the outcome could be the review rating; for an advertisement, the outcome could be the click-through rate. The major challenge in performing QuaSE is how to perceive the outcome-related wordings, and only edit them to change the outcome. In this paper, the proposed framework contains two latent factors, namely, outcome factor and content factor, disentangled from the input sentence to allow convenient editing to change the outcome and keep the content. Our framework explores the pseudo-parallel sentences by modeling their content similarity and outcome differences to enable a better disentanglement of the latent factors, which allows generating an output to better satisfy the desired outcome and keep the content. The dual reconstruction structure further enhances the capability of generating expected output by exploiting the couplings of latent factors of pseudo-parallel sentences. For evaluation, we prepared a dataset of Yelp review sentences with the ratings as outcome. Extensive experimental results are reported and discussed to elaborate the peculiarities of our framework.

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Generating Classical Chinese Poems via Conditional Variational Autoencoder and Adversarial Training
Juntao Li | Yan Song | Haisong Zhang | Dongmin Chen | Shuming Shi | Dongyan Zhao | Rui Yan
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

It is a challenging task to automatically compose poems with not only fluent expressions but also aesthetic wording. Although much attention has been paid to this task and promising progress is made, there exist notable gaps between automatically generated ones with those created by humans, especially on the aspects of term novelty and thematic consistency. Towards filling the gap, in this paper, we propose a conditional variational autoencoder with adversarial training for classical Chinese poem generation, where the autoencoder part generates poems with novel terms and a discriminator is applied to adversarially learn their thematic consistency with their titles. Experimental results on a large poetry corpus confirm the validity and effectiveness of our model, where its automatic and human evaluation scores outperform existing models.

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Exploiting Deep Representations for Neural Machine Translation
Zi-Yi Dou | Zhaopeng Tu | Xing Wang | Shuming Shi | Tong Zhang
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Advanced neural machine translation (NMT) models generally implement encoder and decoder as multiple layers, which allows systems to model complex functions and capture complicated linguistic structures. However, only the top layers of encoder and decoder are leveraged in the subsequent process, which misses the opportunity to exploit the useful information embedded in other layers. In this work, we propose to simultaneously expose all of these signals with layer aggregation and multi-layer attention mechanisms. In addition, we introduce an auxiliary regularization term to encourage different layers to capture diverse information. Experimental results on widely-used WMT14 English-German and WMT17 Chinese-English translation data demonstrate the effectiveness and universality of the proposed approach.

2017

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Learning Fine-Grained Expressions to Solve Math Word Problems
Danqing Huang | Shuming Shi | Chin-Yew Lin | Jian Yin
Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

This paper presents a novel template-based method to solve math word problems. This method learns the mappings between math concept phrases in math word problems and their math expressions from training data. For each equation template, we automatically construct a rich template sketch by aggregating information from various problems with the same template. Our approach is implemented in a two-stage system. It first retrieves a few relevant equation system templates and aligns numbers in math word problems to those templates for candidate equation generation. It then does a fine-grained inference to obtain the final answer. Experiment results show that our method achieves an accuracy of 28.4% on the linear Dolphin18K benchmark, which is 10% (54% relative) higher than previous state-of-the-art systems while achieving an accuracy increase of 12% (59% relative) on the TS6 benchmark subset.

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Deep Neural Solver for Math Word Problems
Yan Wang | Xiaojiang Liu | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

This paper presents a deep neural solver to automatically solve math word problems. In contrast to previous statistical learning approaches, we directly translate math word problems to equation templates using a recurrent neural network (RNN) model, without sophisticated feature engineering. We further design a hybrid model that combines the RNN model and a similarity-based retrieval model to achieve additional performance improvement. Experiments conducted on a large dataset show that the RNN model and the hybrid model significantly outperform state-of-the-art statistical learning methods for math word problem solving.

2016

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How well do Computers Solve Math Word Problems? Large-Scale Dataset Construction and Evaluation
Danqing Huang | Shuming Shi | Chin-Yew Lin | Jian Yin | Wei-Ying Ma
Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

2015

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Automatically Solving Number Word Problems by Semantic Parsing and Reasoning
Shuming Shi | Yuehui Wang | Chin-Yew Lin | Xiaojiang Liu | Yong Rui
Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

2014

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Unsupervised Template Mining for Semantic Category Understanding
Lei Shi | Shuming Shi | Chin-Yew Lin | Yi-Dong Shen | Yong Rui
Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)

2012

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Ensemble Semantics for Large-scale Unsupervised Relation Extraction
Bonan Min | Shuming Shi | Ralph Grishman | Chin-Yew Lin
Proceedings of the 2012 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning

2011

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Nonlinear Evidence Fusion and Propagation for Hyponymy Relation Mining
Fan Zhang | Shuming Shi | Jing Liu | Shuqi Sun | Chin-Yew Lin
Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies

2010

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Corpus-based Semantic Class Mining: Distributional vs. Pattern-Based Approaches
Shuming Shi | Huibin Zhang | Xiaojie Yuan | Ji-Rong Wen
Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics (Coling 2010)

2009

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Employing Topic Models for Pattern-based Semantic Class Discovery
Huibin Zhang | Mingjie Zhu | Shuming Shi | Ji-Rong Wen
Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the 47th Annual Meeting of the ACL and the 4th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing of the AFNLP

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Anchor Text Extraction for Academic Search
Shuming Shi | Fei Xing | Mingjie Zhu | Zaiqing Nie | Ji-Rong Wen
Proceedings of the 2009 Workshop on Text and Citation Analysis for Scholarly Digital Libraries (NLPIR4DL)

2008

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Applications of MT during Olympic Games 2008
Chengqing Zong | Heyan Huang | Shuming Shi
Proceedings of the 8th Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas: Government and Commercial Uses of MT

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