Naomi Saphra


2023

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Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP 2023)
Burcu Can | Maximilian Mozes | Samuel Cahyawijaya | Naomi Saphra | Nora Kassner | Shauli Ravfogel | Abhilasha Ravichander | Chen Zhao | Isabelle Augenstein | Anna Rogers | Kyunghyun Cho | Edward Grefenstette | Lena Voita
Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP 2023)

2022

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Benchmarking Compositionality with Formal Languages
Josef Valvoda | Naomi Saphra | Jonathan Rawski | Adina Williams | Ryan Cotterell
Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Computational Linguistics

Recombining known primitive concepts into larger novel combinations is a quintessentially human cognitive capability. Whether large neural models in NLP acquire this ability while learning from data is an open question. In this paper, we look at this problem from the perspective of formal languages. We use deterministic finite-state transducers to make an unbounded number of datasets with controllable properties governing compositionality. By randomly sampling over many transducers, we explore which of their properties (number of states, alphabet size, number of transitions etc.) contribute to learnability of a compositional relation by a neural network. In general, we find that the models either learn the relations completely or not at all. The key is transition coverage, setting a soft learnability limit at 400 examples per transition.

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Proceedings of the Fifth BlackboxNLP Workshop on Analyzing and Interpreting Neural Networks for NLP
Jasmijn Bastings | Yonatan Belinkov | Yanai Elazar | Dieuwke Hupkes | Naomi Saphra | Sarah Wiegreffe
Proceedings of the Fifth BlackboxNLP Workshop on Analyzing and Interpreting Neural Networks for NLP

2021

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Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP-2021)
Anna Rogers | Iacer Calixto | Ivan Vulić | Naomi Saphra | Nora Kassner | Oana-Maria Camburu | Trapit Bansal | Vered Shwartz
Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP-2021)

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A Non-Linear Structural Probe
Jennifer C. White | Tiago Pimentel | Naomi Saphra | Ryan Cotterell
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies

Probes are models devised to investigate the encoding of knowledge—e.g. syntactic structure—in contextual representations. Probes are often designed for simplicity, which has led to restrictions on probe design that may not allow for the full exploitation of the structure of encoded information; one such restriction is linearity. We examine the case of a structural probe (Hewitt and Manning, 2019), which aims to investigate the encoding of syntactic structure in contextual representations through learning only linear transformations. By observing that the structural probe learns a metric, we are able to kernelize it and develop a novel non-linear variant with an identical number of parameters. We test on 6 languages and find that the radial-basis function (RBF) kernel, in conjunction with regularization, achieves a statistically significant improvement over the baseline in all languages—implying that at least part of the syntactic knowledge is encoded non-linearly. We conclude by discussing how the RBF kernel resembles BERT’s self-attention layers and speculate that this resemblance leads to the RBF-based probe’s stronger performance.

2020

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Pareto Probing: Trading Off Accuracy for Complexity
Tiago Pimentel | Naomi Saphra | Adina Williams | Ryan Cotterell
Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)

The question of how to probe contextual word representations in a way that is principled and useful has seen significant recent attention. In our contribution to this discussion, we argue, first, for a probe metric that reflects the trade-off between probe complexity and performance: the Pareto hypervolume. To measure complexity, we present a number of parametric and non-parametric metrics. Our experiments with such metrics show that probe’s performance curves often fail to align with widely accepted rankings between language representations (with, e.g., non-contextual representations outperforming contextual ones). These results lead us to argue, second, that common simplistic probe tasks such as POS labeling and dependency arc labeling, are inadequate to evaluate the properties encoded in contextual word representations. We propose full dependency parsing as an example probe task, and demonstrate it with the Pareto hypervolume. In support of our arguments, the results of this illustrative experiment conform closer to accepted rankings among contextual word representations.

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LSTMs Compose—and Learn—Bottom-Up
Naomi Saphra | Adam Lopez
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2020

Recent work in NLP shows that LSTM language models capture compositional structure in language data. In contrast to existing work, we consider the learning process that leads to compositional behavior. For a closer look at how an LSTM’s sequential representations are composed hierarchically, we present a related measure of Decompositional Interdependence (DI) between word meanings in an LSTM, based on their gate interactions. We support this measure with experiments on English language data, where DI is higher on pairs of words with lower syntactic distance. To explore the inductive biases that cause these compositional representations to arise during training, we conduct simple experiments on synthetic data. These synthetic experiments support a specific hypothesis about how hierarchical structures are discovered over the course of training: that LSTM constituent representations are learned bottom-up, relying on effective representations of their shorter children, rather than on learning the longer-range relations independently.

2019

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Understanding Learning Dynamics Of Language Models with SVCCA
Naomi Saphra | Adam Lopez
Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers)

Research has shown that neural models implicitly encode linguistic features, but there has been no research showing how these encodings arise as the models are trained. We present the first study on the learning dynamics of neural language models, using a simple and flexible analysis method called Singular Vector Canonical Correlation Analysis (SVCCA), which enables us to compare learned representations across time and across models, without the need to evaluate directly on annotated data. We probe the evolution of syntactic, semantic, and topic representations, finding, for example, that part-of-speech is learned earlier than topic; that recurrent layers become more similar to those of a tagger during training; and embedding layers less similar. Our results and methods could inform better learning algorithms for NLP models, possibly to incorporate linguistic information more effectively.

2018

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Language Models Learn POS First
Naomi Saphra | Adam Lopez
Proceedings of the 2018 EMNLP Workshop BlackboxNLP: Analyzing and Interpreting Neural Networks for NLP

A glut of recent research shows that language models capture linguistic structure. Such work answers the question of whether a model represents linguistic structure. But how and when are these structures acquired? Rather than treating the training process itself as a black box, we investigate how representations of linguistic structure are learned over time. In particular, we demonstrate that different aspects of linguistic structure are learned at different rates, with part of speech tagging acquired early and global topic information learned continuously.

2016

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Evaluating Informal-Domain Word Representations With UrbanDictionary
Naomi Saphra | Adam Lopez
Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Evaluating Vector-Space Representations for NLP

2015

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AMRICA: an AMR Inspector for Cross-language Alignments
Naomi Saphra | Adam Lopez
Proceedings of the 2015 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Demonstrations

2013

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A Framework for (Under)specifying Dependency Syntax without Overloading Annotators
Nathan Schneider | Brendan O’Connor | Naomi Saphra | David Bamman | Manaal Faruqui | Noah A. Smith | Chris Dyer | Jason Baldridge
Proceedings of the 7th Linguistic Annotation Workshop and Interoperability with Discourse