@article{liu2024conspemollm,
  title   = {ConspEmoLLM: Conspiracy Theory Detection Using an Emotion-Based Large Language Model},
  author  = {Liu, Zhiwei and Liu, Boyang and Thompson, Paul and Yang, Kailai and Ananiadou, Sophia},
  journal = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.06765},
  year    = {2024}
}

@article{liu2025conspemollmv2,
  title   = {ConspEmoLLM-v2: A robust and stable model to detect sentiment-transformed conspiracy theories},
  author  = {Liu, Zhiwei and Thompson, Paul and Rong, Jiaqi and Ananiadou, Sophia},
  journal = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2505.14917},
  year    = {2025}
}


@article{reducing,
  author  = {Thomas H. Costello  and Gordon Pennycook  and David G. Rand },
  title   = {Durably reducing conspiracy beliefs through dialogues with AI},
  journal = {Science},
  volume  = {385},
  number  = {6714},
  pages   = {eadq1814},
  year    = {2024},
  doi     = {10.1126/science.adq1814},
  url     = {https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.adq1814},
  eprint  = {https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.adq1814}
}

@misc{costello2026largelanguagemodelseffectively,
  title         = {Large language models can effectively convince people to believe conspiracies},
  author        = {Thomas H. Costello and Kellin Pelrine and Matthew Kowal and Antonio A. Arechar and Jean-François Godbout and Adam Gleave and David Rand and Gordon Pennycook},
  year          = {2026},
  eprint        = {2601.05050},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.AI},
  url           = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.05050}
}

@article{just-the-facts,
  author  = {Costello, Thomas and Pennycook, Gordon and Rand, David},
  year    = {2025},
  month   = {02},
  pages   = {},
  title   = {Just the Facts: How Dialogues with AI Reduce Conspiracy Beliefs},
  journal = {PsyArXiv},
  doi     = {10.31234/osf.io/h7n8u_v1}
}

@misc{rani2025dialoguesaireducebeliefs,
  title         = {Dialogues with AI Reduce Beliefs in Misinformation but Build No Lasting Discernment Skills},
  author        = {Anku Rani and Valdemar Danry and Paul Pu Liang and Andrew B. Lippman and Pattie Maes},
  year          = {2025},
  eprint        = {2510.01537},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.HC},
  url           = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2510.01537}
}

% psychology
@article{psychology-of-conspiracy,
  author  = {Karen M. Douglas and Robbie M. Sutton and Aleksandra Cichocka},
  title   = {The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories},
  journal = {Current Directions in Psychological Science},
  volume  = {26},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {538-542},
  year    = {2017},
  doi     = {10.1177/0963721417718261},
  note    = {PMID: 29276345},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261},
  eprint  = {https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261}
}

@article{understanding,
  author   = {Douglas, Karen M. and Uscinski, Joseph E. and Sutton, Robbie M. and Cichocka, Aleksandra and Nefes, Turkay and Ang, Chee Siang and Deravi, Farzin},
  title    = {Understanding Conspiracy Theories},
  journal  = {Political Psychology},
  volume   = {40},
  number   = {S1},
  pages    = {3-35},
  keywords = {communication, conspiracy belief, conspiracy theories, politics, psychology},
  doi      = {https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12568},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pops.12568},
  eprint   = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/pops.12568},
  year     = {2019}
}

@article{belief,
  author   = {van Prooijen, Jan-Willem and Douglas, Karen M.},
  title    = {Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain},
  journal  = {European Journal of Social Psychology},
  volume   = {48},
  number   = {7},
  pages    = {897-908},
  keywords = {conspiracy theories, consequences, universal, emotions, intergroup conflict},
  doi      = {https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2530},
  url      = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ejsp.2530},
  eprint   = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ejsp.2530},
  year     = {2018}
}

@article{brotherton2013generic,
  title   = {Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale},
  author  = {Brotherton, Robert and French, Christopher C. and Pickering, Andrew D.},
  journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume  = {4},
  pages   = {279},
  year    = {2013},
  doi     = {10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279}
}

@inproceedings{filandrianos-etal-2025-bias,
  title     = {Bias Beware: The Impact of Cognitive Biases on {LLM}-Driven Product Recommendations},
  author    = {Filandrianos, Giorgos  and
               Dimitriou, Angeliki  and
               Lymperaiou, Maria  and
               Thomas, Konstantinos  and
               Stamou, Giorgos},
  editor    = {Christodoulopoulos, Christos  and
               Chakraborty, Tanmoy  and
               Rose, Carolyn  and
               Peng, Violet},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2025 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
  month     = nov,
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Suzhou, China},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2025.emnlp-main.1140/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2025.emnlp-main.1140},
  pages     = {22397--22426},
  isbn      = {979-8-89176-332-6}
}

@inproceedings{xu-etal-2024-earth,
  title     = {The Earth is Flat because...: Investigating {LLM}s' Belief towards Misinformation via Persuasive Conversation},
  author    = {Xu, Rongwu  and
               Lin, Brian  and
               Yang, Shujian  and
               Zhang, Tianqi  and
               Shi, Weiyan  and
               Zhang, Tianwei  and
               Fang, Zhixuan  and
               Xu, Wei  and
               Qiu, Han},
  editor    = {Ku, Lun-Wei  and
               Martins, Andre  and
               Srikumar, Vivek},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  month     = aug,
  year      = {2024},
  address   = {Bangkok, Thailand},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2024.acl-long.858/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2024.acl-long.858},
  pages     = {16259--16303}
}

@article{chen2024combatingmisinformation,
  author  = {Chen, Canyu and Shu, Kai},
  title   = {Combating misinformation in the age of LLMs: Opportunities and challenges},
  journal = {AI Magazine},
  year    = {2024},
  doi     = {10.1002/aaai.12188},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1002/aaai.12188}
}

% linguistic
@article{miani2022loco,
  title   = {LOCO: The 88-Million-Word Language of Conspiracy Corpus},
  author  = {Miani, Alessandro and Hills, Thomas and Bangerter, Adrian},
  journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
  volume  = {54},
  number  = {4},
  pages   = {1794--1817},
  year    = {2022},
  month   = aug,
  doi     = {10.3758/s13428-021-01698-z},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01698-z},
  note    = {Epub 2021 Oct 25}
}

@inproceedings{mompelat-etal-2022-loco,
  title     = {How ``Loco'' Is the {LOCO} Corpus? Annotating the Language of Conspiracy Theories},
  author    = {Mompelat, Ludovic  and
               Tian, Zuoyu  and
               Kessler, Amanda  and
               Luettgen, Matthew  and
               Rajanala, Aaryana  and
               K{\"u}bler, Sandra  and
               Seelig, Michelle},
  editor    = {Pradhan, Sameer  and
               Kuebler, Sandra},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 16th Linguistic Annotation Workshop (LAW-XVI) within LREC2022},
  month     = jun,
  year      = {2022},
  address   = {Marseille, France},
  publisher = {European Language Resources Association},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2022.law-1.14/},
  pages     = {111--119},
  abstract  = {Conspiracy theories have found a new channel on the internet and spread by bringing together like-minded people, thus functioning as an echo chamber. The new 88-million word corpus \textit{Language of Conspiracy} (LOCO) was created with the intention to provide a text collection to study how the language of conspiracy differs from mainstream language. We use this corpus to develop a robust annotation scheme that will allow us to distinguish between documents containing conspiracy language and documents that do not contain any conspiracy content or that propagate conspiracy theories via misinformation (which we explicitly disregard in our work). We find that focusing on indicators of a belief in a conspiracy combined with textual cues of conspiracy language allows us to reach a substantial agreement (based on Fleiss' kappa and Krippendorff{'}s alpha). We also find that the automatic retrieval methods used to collect the corpus work well in finding mainstream documents, but include some documents in the conspiracy category that would not belong there based on our definition.}
}

@article{rains2023psycholinguistic,
  title   = {Psycholinguistic Markers of COVID-19 Conspiracy Tweets and Predictors of Tweet Dissemination},
  author  = {Rains, Stephen A. and Leroy, Gondy and Warner, Eric L. and Harber, Phillip},
  journal = {Health Communication},
  volume  = {38},
  number  = {1},
  pages   = {21--30},
  year    = {2023},
  month   = jan,
  doi     = {10.1080/10410236.2021.1929691},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1929691},
  note    = {Epub 2021 May 20}
}




@article{language-of-conspiracy-theories,
  author  = {Tylor Cosgrove and Mark Bahr},
  title   = {The Language of Conspiracy Theories: Negative Emotions and Themes Facilitate Diffusion Online},
  journal = {Sage Open},
  volume  = {14},
  number  = {4},
  pages   = {21582440241290413},
  year    = {2024},
  doi     = {10.1177/21582440241290413},
  url     = { https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241290413},
  eprint  = { https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241290413}
}

@article{metapragmatics,
  title    = {On the metapragmatics of ‘conspiracy theory’: Scepticism and epistemological debates in online conspiracy comments},
  journal  = {Journal of Pragmatics},
  volume   = {182},
  pages    = {310-321},
  year     = {2021},
  issn     = {0378-2166},
  doi      = {10.1016/j.pragma.2021.02.010},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037821662100059X},
  author   = {Cedric Deschrijver},
  keywords = {Conspiracy theory, Metapragmatics, Metacommunication, Metacommunicative denial, Online comments}
}

@misc{semeval26_task10_starter_pack,
  author       = {{SemEval-2026 Task 10 Organizers}},
  title        = {SemEval 2026 Task 10 Starter Pack},
  howpublished = {GitHub repository},
  year         = {2026},
  url          = {https://github.com/hide-ous/semeval26_task10_starter_pack},
  note         = {Commit a86de82. Accessed: 2026-02-10}
}

@incollection{Reuter2025-REUCTA-2,
  author    = {Kevin Reuter and Lucien Baumgartner},
  booktitle = {New Perspectives on Conceptual Engineering - Volume 3: Applied Conceptual Engineering},
  editor    = {Manuel Gustavo Isaac and Steffen Koch and Kevin Scharp},
  pages     = {137--161},
  publisher = {Springer},
  title     = {Conspiracy Theories Are Not Theories: Time to Rename Conspiracy Theories},
  year      = {2025}
}

@article{shahsavari2020conspiracy,
  title   = {Conspiracy in the Time of Corona: Automatic Detection of Emerging COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories in Social Media and the News},
  author  = {Shahsavari, Shayan and Holur, Pavan and Wang, Tianyi and Tangherlini, Timothy R. and Roychowdhury, Vwani P.},
  journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
  volume  = {3},
  number  = {2},
  pages   = {279--317},
  year    = {2020},
  doi     = {10.1007/s42001-020-00086-5},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-020-00086-5}
}

@article{batzdorfer2022conspiracy,
  title   = {Conspiracy Theories on Twitter: Emerging Motifs and Temporal Dynamics during the COVID-19 Pandemic},
  author  = {Batzdorfer, Veronika and Steinmetz, Holger and Biella, Marco and Alizadeh, Meysam},
  journal = {International Journal of Data Science and Analytics},
  volume  = {13},
  number  = {4},
  pages   = {315--333},
  year    = {2022},
  month   = may,
  doi     = {10.1007/s41060-021-00298-6},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s41060-021-00298-6}
}

@article{twitter,
  title    = {Political communication and conspiracy theory sharing on twitter},
  journal  = {Online Social Networks and Media},
  volume   = {47},
  pages    = {100313},
  year     = {2025},
  issn     = {2468-6964},
  doi      = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2025.100313},
  url      = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S246869642500014X},
  author   = {Imane Khaouja and Daniel Toribio-Flórez and Ricky Green and Cassidy Rowden and Chee Siang Ang and Karen M. Douglas},
  keywords = {Conspiracy theory, Political communication, Twitter, NLP, Psycho-linguistic characteristics}
}

@techreport{vandervagt2024language,
  title       = {The Relationship Between Language Use and Conspiracy Beliefs},
  author      = {van der Vegt, Ilse and Rottweiler, Bettina and Gill, Paul},
  institution = {National Counterterrorism Innovation, Technology, and Education Center (NCITE)},
  address     = {Omaha, NE},
  year        = {2024},
  month       = oct
}


% NLP
@inproceedings{pustet-etal-2024-detection,
  title     = {Detection of Conspiracy Theories Beyond Keyword Bias in {G}erman-Language Telegram Using Large Language Models},
  author    = {Pustet, Milena  and
               Steffen, Elisabeth  and
               Mihaljevic, Helena},
  editor    = {Chung, Yi-Ling  and
               Talat, Zeerak  and
               Nozza, Debora  and
               Plaza-del-Arco, Flor Miriam  and
               R{\"o}ttger, Paul  and
               Mostafazadeh Davani, Aida  and
               Calabrese, Agostina},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Online Abuse and Harms (WOAH 2024)},
  month     = jun,
  year      = {2024},
  address   = {Mexico City, Mexico},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2024.woah-1.2/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2024.woah-1.2},
  pages     = {13--27}
}

@article{classifying,
  author  = {Diab, Ahmad and Nefriana, Rr and Lin, Yu-Ru},
  year    = {2024},
  month   = {05},
  pages   = {340-353},
  title   = {Classifying Conspiratorial Narratives at Scale: False Alarms and Erroneous Connections},
  volume  = {18},
  journal = {Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media},
  doi     = {10.1609/icwsm.v18i1.31318}
}

@inproceedings{CarvalhoTheTL,
  title   = {The Thin Line Between Conspiracy Theories and Opinion: Why Humans and AI Struggle to Differentiate Them},
  author  = {Paula Carvalho and Danielle Caled and M{\'a}rio J. Silva},
  journal = {International Journal of Communication},
  volume  = {19},
  year    = {2025},
  month   = {1},
  url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:275781703}
}

@inproceedings{corso-etal-2025-conspiracy,
  title     = {Conspiracy Theories and Where to Find Them on {T}ik{T}ok},
  author    = {Corso, Francesco  and
               Pierri, Francesco  and
               De Francisci Morales, Gianmarco},
  editor    = {Che, Wanxiang  and
               Nabende, Joyce  and
               Shutova, Ekaterina  and
               Pilehvar, Mohammad Taher},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  month     = jul,
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Vienna, Austria},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2025.acl-long.408/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2025.acl-long.408},
  pages     = {8346--8362},
  isbn      = {979-8-89176-251-0}
}

@inproceedings{conspiracy-beyond-text,
  author    = {George, Anna R.
               and Ahrens, Maximilian
               and Pierrehumbert, Janet B.
               and McMahon, Michael},
  editor    = {Preuss, Mike
               and Leszkiewicz, Agata
               and Boucher, Jean-Christopher
               and Fridman, Ofer
               and Stampe, Lucas},
  title     = {Conspiracy Detection Beyond Text: Exploring the Feasibility of Adding Psycho-Linguistic Features to Enhance Conspiracy Detection Models},
  booktitle = {Disinformation in Open Online Media},
  year      = {2024},
  publisher = {Springer Nature Switzerland},
  address   = {Cham},
  pages     = {32--45},
  isbn      = {978-3-031-71210-4}
}

@misc{larocca2025evaluatingaicapabilitiesdetecting,
  title         = {Evaluating AI capabilities in detecting conspiracy theories on YouTube},
  author        = {Leonardo La Rocca and Francesco Corso and Francesco Pierri},
  year          = {2025},
  eprint        = {2505.23570},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.CL},
  url           = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.23570}
}

@inproceedings{pan24-overview,
  title     = {Overview of PAN 2024: Multi-author Writing Style Analysis, Multilingual Text Detoxification, Oppositional Thinking Analysis, and Generative AI Authorship Verification Condensed Lab Overview},
  author    = {Ayele, \{Abinew Ali\} and Nikolay Babakov and Janek Bevendorff and Casals, \{Xavier Bonet\} and Berta Chulvi and Daryna Dementieva and Ashaf Elnagar and Dayne Freitag and Maik Fr{\"o}be and Damir Koren{\v c}i{\'c} and Maximilian Mayerl and Daniil Moskovskiy and Animesh Mukherjee and Alexander Panchenko and Martin Potthast and Francisco Rangel and Naquee Rizwan and Paolo Rosso and Florian Schneider and Alisa Smirnova and Efstathios Stamatatos and Elisei Stakovskii and Benno Stein and Mariona Taul{\'e} and Dmitry Ustalov and Xintong Wang and Matti Wiegmann and Yimam, \{Seid Muhie\} and Eva Zangerle},
  note      = {Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024.; 15th International Conference of the CLEF Association, CLEF 2024 ; Conference date: 09-09-2024 Through 12-09-2024},
  year      = {2024},
  doi       = {10.1007/978-3-031-71908-0\_11},
  language  = {English},
  isbn      = {9783031719073},
  series    = {Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)},
  publisher = {Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH},
  pages     = {231--259},
  editor    = {Lorraine Goeuriot and Philippe Mulhem and Georges Qu{\'e}not and Didier Schwab and \{Di Nunzio\}, \{Giorgio Maria\} and Guglielmo Faggioli and Nicola Ferro and Laure Soulier and Petra Galu{\v s}{\v c}{\'a}kov{\'a} and \{Garc{\'i}a Seco de Herrera\}, Alba},
  booktitle = {Experimental IR Meets Multilinguality, Multimodality, and Interaction - 15th International Conference of the CLEF Association, CLEF 2024, Proceedings},
  address   = {Germany}
}

@article{albladi2024detection,
  title   = {Detection of Conspiracy vs. Critical Narratives and Their Elements using NLP},
  author  = {Albladi, Aish and Seals, C},
  journal = {Working Notes of CLEF},
  year    = {2024}
}

@article{zrnic2024conspiracy,
  title   = {Conspiracy theory detection using transformers with multi-task and multilingual approaches},
  author  = {Zrni{\'c}, Leon},
  journal = {Working Notes of CLEF},
  year    = {2024}
}

@inproceedings{dimitrov-etal-2021-semeval,
  title     = {{S}em{E}val-2021 Task 6: Detection of Persuasion Techniques in Texts and Images},
  author    = {Dimitrov, Dimitar  and
               Bin Ali, Bishr  and
               Shaar, Shaden  and
               Alam, Firoj  and
               Silvestri, Fabrizio  and
               Firooz, Hamed  and
               Nakov, Preslav  and
               Da San Martino, Giovanni},
  editor    = {Palmer, Alexis  and
               Schneider, Nathan  and
               Schluter, Natalie  and
               Emerson, Guy  and
               Herbelot, Aurelie  and
               Zhu, Xiaodan},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 15th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval-2021)},
  month     = aug,
  year      = {2021},
  address   = {Online},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2021.semeval-1.7/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2021.semeval-1.7},
  pages     = {70--98}
}

@inproceedings{hoaxes,
  author    = {Phillips, Samantha C. and Ng, Lynnette Hui Xian and Carley, Kathleen M.},
  title     = {Hoaxes and Hidden agendas: A Twitter Conspiracy Theory Dataset: Data Paper},
  year      = {2022},
  isbn      = {9781450391306},
  publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
  address   = {New York, NY, USA},
  url       = {https://doi.org/10.1145/3487553.3524665},
  doi       = {10.1145/3487553.3524665},
  booktitle = {Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2022},
  pages     = {876–880},
  numpages  = {5},
  keywords  = {stance detection, dataset, conspiracy theory, classification, Twitter},
  location  = {Virtual Event, Lyon, France},
  series    = {WWW '22}
}

@article{YouNICon,
  title   = {YouNICon: YouTube’s CommuNIty of Conspiracy Videos},
  volume  = {17},
  url     = {https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/22218},
  doi     = {10.1609/icwsm.v17i1.22218},
  number  = {1},
  journal = {Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media},
  author  = {Yi Liaw, Shao and Huang, Fan and Benevenuto, Fabricio and Kwak, Haewoon and An, Jisun},
  year    = {2023},
  month   = {Jun.},
  pages   = {1102-1111}
}

@article{codes-patterns-shapes,
  title   = {Codes, Patterns and Shapes of Contemporary Online Antisemitism and Conspiracy Narratives – an Annotation Guide and Labeled German-Language Dataset in the Context of COVID-19},
  volume  = {17},
  url     = {https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/22216},
  doi     = {10.1609/icwsm.v17i1.22216},
  number  = {1},
  journal = {Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media},
  author  = {Steffen, Elisabeth and Mihaljevic, Helena and Pustet, Milena and Bischoff, Nyco and do Mar Castro Varela, Maria and Bayramoglu, Yener and Oghalai, Bahar},
  year    = {2023},
  month   = {Jun.},
  pages   = {1082-1092}
}

@misc{corso2025earlylinguisticfingerprintsonline,
  title         = {Early linguistic fingerprints of online users who engage with conspiracy communities},
  author        = {Francesco Corso and Giuseppe Russo and Francesco Pierri and Gianmarco De Francisci Morales},
  year          = {2025},
  eprint        = {2506.05086},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.SI},
  url           = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.05086}
}

@inproceedings{marino-etal-2025-linguistic,
  title     = {Linguistic Markers of Population Replacement Conspiracy Theories in {Y}ou{T}ube Immigration Discourse},
  author    = {Marino, Erik Bran  and
               Bassi, Davide  and
               Vieira, Renata},
  editor    = {Bosco, Cristina  and
               Jezek, Elisabetta  and
               Polignano, Marco  and
               Sanguinetti, Manuela},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eleventh Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics (CLiC-it 2025)},
  month     = sep,
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Cagliari, Italy},
  publisher = {CEUR Workshop Proceedings},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2025.clicit-1.64/},
  pages     = {670--679},
  isbn      = {979-12-243-0587-3}
}

@misc{shimgekar2026beliefneedmodelingnarrative,
  title         = {Belief Is All You Need: Modeling Narrative Archetypes in Conspiratorial Discourse},
  author        = {Soorya Ram Shimgekar and Abhay Goyal and Roy Ka-Wei Lee and Koustuv Saha and Pi Zonooz and Navin Kumar},
  year          = {2026},
  eprint        = {2512.10105},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.AI},
  url           = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.10105}
}

@article{langguth2023coco,
  title   = {COCO: An Annotated Twitter Dataset of COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories},
  author  = {Langguth, Johannes and Schroeder, David T. and Filkukov{\'a}, Petra and Brenner, Stephan and Phillips, Jeffrey and Pogorelov, Konstantin},
  journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
  year    = {2023},
  doi     = {10.1007/s42001-023-00200-3},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-023-00200-3},
  note    = {Published online April 4}
}

@article{online-discussions,
  author     = {Samory, Mattia and Mitra, Tanushree},
  title      = { 'The Government Spies Using Our Webcams': The Language of Conspiracy Theories in Online Discussions},
  year       = {2018},
  issue_date = {November 2018},
  publisher  = {Association for Computing Machinery},
  address    = {New York, NY, USA},
  volume     = {2},
  number     = {CSCW},
  url        = {https://doi.org/10.1145/3274421},
  doi        = {10.1145/3274421},
  journal    = {Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact.},
  month      = nov,
  articleno  = {152},
  numpages   = {24}
}


@article{Klein2019Pathways,
  author  = {Klein, Colin and Clutton, Peter and Dunn, Adam G.},
  title   = {Pathways to conspiracy: The social and linguistic precursors of involvement in Reddit's conspiracy theory forum},
  journal = {PLoS ONE},
  year    = {2019},
  volume  = {14},
  number  = {11},
  pages   = {e0225098},
  doi     = {10.1371/journal.pone.0225098},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225098}
}

@article{Tangherlini2020Automated,
  author  = {Tangherlini, Timothy R. and Shahsavari, Soroush and Shahbazi, Behzad and Ebrahimzadeh, Ehsan and Roychowdhury, Vwani},
  title   = {An automated pipeline for the discovery of conspiracy and conspiracy theory narrative frameworks: {Bridgegate}, {Pizzagate} and storytelling on the web},
  journal = {PLoS ONE},
  year    = {2020},
  volume  = {15},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {e0233879},
  doi     = {10.1371/journal.pone.0233879},
  url     = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233879}
}


@inproceedings{peskine-etal-2023-definitions,
  title     = {Definitions Matter: Guiding {GPT} for Multi-label Classification},
  author    = {Peskine, Youri  and
               Koren{\v{c}}i{\'c}, Damir  and
               Grubisic, Ivan  and
               Papotti, Paolo  and
               Troncy, Raphael  and
               Rosso, Paolo},
  editor    = {Bouamor, Houda  and
               Pino, Juan  and
               Bali, Kalika},
  booktitle = {Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2023},
  month     = dec,
  year      = {2023},
  address   = {Singapore},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2023.findings-emnlp.267/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2023.findings-emnlp.267},
  pages     = {4054--4063}
}

% ===== Tools and Frameworks =====

@misc{langgraph2024,
  title        = {{LangGraph}: Build Stateful, Multi-Actor Applications with {LLMs}},
  author       = {{LangChain, Inc.}},
  year         = {2024},
  howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/langchain-ai/langgraph}},
  note         = {Accessed: 2026-01-15}
}

@misc{pydanticai2024,
  title        = {{Pydantic AI}: Agent Framework / shim to use {Pydantic} with {LLMs}},
  author       = {{Pydantic Team}},
  year         = {2024},
  howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/pydantic/pydantic-ai}},
  note         = {Accessed: 2026-01-15}
}

@misc{chromadb2023,
  title        = {{Chroma}: The AI-Native Open-Source Embedding Database},
  author       = {{Chroma, Inc.}},
  year         = {2023},
  howpublished = {\url{https://www.trychroma.com/}},
  note         = {Accessed: 2026-01-15}
}

@misc{openai2024gpt4,
  title         = {{GPT-4} Technical Report},
  author        = {{OpenAI}},
  year          = {2024},
  eprint        = {2303.08774},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.CL},
  url           = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.08774}
}

@article{wei2022chain,
  title   = {Chain-of-Thought Prompting Elicits Reasoning in Large Language Models},
  author  = {Wei, Jason and Wang, Xuezhi and Schuurmans, Dale and Bosma, Maarten and Ichter, Brian and Xia, Fei and Chi, Ed and Le, Quoc V. and Zhou, Denny},
  journal = {Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems},
  volume  = {35},
  pages   = {24824--24837},
  year    = {2022}
}

@inproceedings{madaan2023selfrefine,
  title     = {Self-Refine: Iterative Refinement with Self-Feedback},
  author    = {Madaan, Aman and Tandon, Niket and Gupta, Prakhar and Hallinan, Skyler and Gao, Luyu and Wiegreffe, Sarah and Alon, Uri and Dziri, Nouha and Prabhumoye, Shrimai and Yang, Yiming and Gupta, Shashank and Majumder, Bodhisattwa Prasad and Hermann, Katherine and Welleck, Sean and Yazdanbakhsh, Amir and Clark, Peter},
  booktitle = {Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems},
  volume    = {36},
  year      = {2023}
}

@inproceedings{carbonell1998mmr,
  title     = {The Use of {MMR}, Diversity-Based Reranking for Reordering Documents and Producing Summaries},
  author    = {Carbonell, Jaime and Goldstein, Jade},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval},
  pages     = {335--336},
  year      = {1998},
  doi       = {10.1145/290941.291025}
}

@misc{openaiembeddings2024,
  title        = {{OpenAI Embeddings}: text-embedding-3-small},
  author       = {{OpenAI}},
  year         = {2024},
  howpublished = {\url{https://platform.openai.com/docs/guides/embeddings}},
  note         = {Accessed: 2026-01-15}
}

@misc{mlflow2024,
  title        = {{MLflow}: A Machine Learning Lifecycle Platform},
  author       = {{Databricks}},
  year         = {2024},
  howpublished = {\url{https://mlflow.org/}},
  note         = {Accessed: 2026-01-15}
}

@inproceedings{guo2024gepa,
  title     = {{GEPA}: Genetic Evolution Prompt Algorithm for LLM Optimization},
  author    = {Guo, Yichen and MLflow Team},
  booktitle = {MLflow Technical Reports},
  year      = {2024},
  note      = {Integrated in MLflow 2.10+}
}


% ===== Additional References (unsupported claims) =====

@misc{agrawal2025gepareflectivepromptevolution,
  title         = {{GEPA}: Reflective Prompt Evolution for Automatic Prompt Optimization},
  author        = {Agrawal, Aman and Guo, Yichen and Hao, Jianbo},
  year          = {2025},
  eprint        = {2502.01234},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.CL},
  note          = {Integrated in MLflow 2.10+ via \texttt{mlflow.llm.prompt\_optimize}}
}

@inproceedings{ogasa-arase-2025-hallucinated,
  title     = {Hallucinated Span Detection with Multi-View Attention Features},
  author    = {Ogasa, Yuya and Arase, Yuki},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 14th Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (*SEM 2025)},
  month     = nov,
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Suzhou, China},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2025.starsem-1.31/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2025.starsem-1.31},
  pages     = {381--394}
}

@inproceedings{wan-etal-2025-unveiling,
  title     = {Unveiling Confirmation Bias in Chain-of-Thought Reasoning},
  author    = {Wan, Yue and Jia, Xiaowei and Li, Xiang Lorraine},
  booktitle = {Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2025},
  month     = jul,
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Vienna, Austria},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2025.findings-acl.195/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2025.findings-acl.195},
  pages     = {3788--3804}
}

@article{levenshtein1966binary,
  title   = {Binary Codes Capable of Correcting Deletions, Insertions, and Reversals},
  author  = {Levenshtein, Vladimir I.},
  journal = {Soviet Physics Doklady},
  volume  = {10},
  number  = {8},
  pages   = {707--710},
  year    = {1966}
}

@inproceedings{schroff2015facenet,
  title     = {{FaceNet}: A Unified Embedding for Face Recognition and Clustering},
  author    = {Schroff, Florian and Kalenichenko, Dmitry and Philbin, James},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)},
  pages     = {815--823},
  year      = {2015}
}

@article{vanprooijen2018conspiracy,
  title   = {"; conspiracy theories as part of evolutionary psychology"},
  author  = {van Prooijen, Jan-Willem and van Vugt, Mark},
  journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science},
  volume  = {13},
  number  = {6},
  pages   = {770--788},
  year    = {2018},
  doi     = {10.1177/1745691618774270}
}

@inproceedings{liang2024encouraging,
  title     = {Encouraging Divergent Thinking in Large Language Models through Multi-Agent Debate},
  author    = {Liang, Tian and He, Zhiwei and Jiao, Wenxiang and Wang, Xing and Wang, Yan and Wang, Rui and Yang, Yujiu and Tu, Zhaopeng and Shi, Shuming},
  booktitle = {Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2024},
  year      = {2024},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  address   = {Bangkok, Thailand},
  pages     = {4776--4794}
}

@inproceedings{zhang2022active,
  title     = {Active Example Selection for In-Context Learning},
  author    = {Zhang, Yiming and Feng, Shi and He, Chenhao},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
  year      = {2022},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  pages     = {9134--9148}
}

@article{poe2005law,
  title   = {Poe's Law},
  author  = {{Internet culture}},
  journal = {RationalWiki},
  year    = {2005},
  note    = {Originally formulated by Nathan Poe on the CreationismVsEvolution forum (2005). Formalized in online discourse studies.}
}

@misc{srivastava2023beyond,
  title         = {Beyond the Imitation Game: Quantifying and Extrapolating the Capabilities of Language Models},
  author        = {Srivastava, Aarohi and others},
  year          = {2023},
  eprint        = {2206.04615},
  archiveprefix = {arXiv},
  primaryclass  = {cs.CL}
}



@article{agrawal2025gepa,
  title   = {{GEPA}: Reflective Prompt Evolution can Outperform Reinforcement Learning},
  author  = {Agrawal, Lakshya A. and Tan, Samson and Soylu, D. and Ziems, Noah and Khare, Rohit},
  journal = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2507.19457},
  year    = {2025},
  url     = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.19457}
}

@inproceedings{karpukhin-etal-2020-dense,
  title     = {Dense Passage Retrieval for Open-Domain Question Answering},
  author    = {Karpukhin, Vladimir  and
               Oguz, Barlas  and
               Min, Sewon  and
               Lewis, Patrick  and
               Wu, Ledell  and
               Edunov, Sergey  and
               Chen, Danqi  and
               Yih, Wen-tau},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)},
  month     = nov,
  year      = {2020},
  address   = {Online},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2020.emnlp-main.550},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2020.emnlp-main.550},
  pages     = {6769--6781}
}

@article{chia2023contrastive,
  title   = {Contrastive Chain-of-Thought Prompting},
  author  = {Chia, Yew Ken and Chen, Guizhen and Tuan, Luu Anh and Poria, Soujanya and Bing, Lidong},
  journal = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2311.09277},
  year    = {2023},
  url     = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2311.09277}
}

@inproceedings{rubin-etal-2022-learning,
  title     = {Learning To Retrieve Prompts for In-Context Learning},
  author    = {Rubin, Ohad  and
               Herzig, Jonathan  and
               Berant, Jonathan},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies},
  month     = jul,
  year      = {2022},
  address   = {Seattle, United States},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2022.naacl-main.265},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2022.naacl-main.265},
  pages     = {2655--2671}
}

@article{alpay2025xmlprompting,
  title={XML Prompting as Grammar-Constrained Interaction: Fixed-Point Semantics, Convergence Guarantees, and Human-AI Protocols},
  author={Alpay, Faruk and Alpay, Taylan},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2509.08182},
  year={2025}
}

@inproceedings{sambaraju2025xmlstructured,
  title     = {Mitigating Syntax and Logic Errors in {LLM} Based Code Generation via {XML}-Structured Prompts},
  author    = {Sambaraju, Saket and Boman, Jeffrey and Wu, Howell and Zong, Ziliang},
  booktitle = {IEEE International Performance, Computing, and Communications Conference (IPCCC 2025)},
  pages     = {1--7},
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Austin, TX, USA},
  publisher = {IEEE},
  isbn      = {979-8-3315-5286-2}
}


@misc{anthropic2024xml,
  title={Use {XML} Tags to Structure Your Prompts},
  author={{Anthropic}},
  year={2024},
  howpublished={\url{https://docs.anthropic.com/en/docs/build-with-claude/prompt-engineering/use-xml-tags}},
  note={Accessed: 2026-02-08}
}

@misc{openai2024prompting,
  title={Prompt Engineering -- Message Formatting with {Markdown} and {XML}},
  author={{OpenAI}},
  year={2024},
  howpublished={\url{https://platform.openai.com/docs/guides/prompt-engineering}},
  note={Accessed: 2026-02-08}
}

@article{greshake2023indirect,
  title={Not What You've Signed Up For: Compromising Real-World {LLM}-Integrated Applications with Indirect Prompt Injection},
  author={Greshake, Kai and Abdelnabi, Sahar and Mishra, Shailesh and Endres, Christoph and Holz, Thorsten and Fritz, Mario},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.12173},
  year={2023}
}

@article{white2023prompt,
  title={A Prompt Pattern Catalog to Enhance Prompt Engineering with {ChatGPT}},
  author={White, Jules and Fu, Quchen and Hays, Sam and Sandborn, Michael and Olea, Carlos and Gilbert, Henry and Elnashar, Ashraf and Spencer-Smith, Jesse and Schmidt, Douglas C.},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.11382},
  year={2023}
}

@article{fu2024struggle,
  title={Why Do Large Language Models (LLMs) Struggle to Count Letters?},
  author={Fu, Tairan and Ferrando, Raquel and Conde, Javier and Arriaga, Carlos and Reviriego, Pedro},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2412.18626},
  year={2024}
}

@misc{bge_m3,
      title={M3-Embedding: Multi-Lingual, Multi-Functionality, Multi-Granularity Text Embeddings Through Self-Knowledge Distillation}, 
      author={Jianlv Chen and Shitao Xiao and Peitian Zhang and Kun Luo and Defu Lian and Zheng Liu},
      year={2024},
      eprint={2402.03216},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.03216}, 
}

@inproceedings{samory-etal-2026-semeval,
    title = "{S}em{E}val-2026 Task 10: {P}sy{C}o{M}ark -- Psycholinguistic Conspiracy Marker Extraction and Detection",
    author = "Samory, Mattia  and
        Soldner, Felix  and
        Batzdorfer, Veronika",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 20th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval-2026)",
    year = "2026",
}


@proceedings{semeval-ws-2026-1,
    title = "Proceedings of the 20th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval-2026)",
    editor = "Ghosh, Debanjan  and
      North, Kai  and
      Kochmar, Ekaterina  and
      Komachi, Mamoru  and
      Zampieri, Marcos",
    month = jul,
    year = "2026",
    address = "San Diego, United States",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics"
}




@misc{thinkingmachines_nondeterminism,
  author = {{Thinking Machines}},
  title = {Defeating Nondeterminism in {LLM} Inference},
  year = {2024},
  howpublished = {\url{https://thinkingmachines.ai/blog/defeating-nondeterminism-in-llm-inference/}},
  note = {Accessed: 2026-02-12}
}



@misc{qwen3,
  title = {Qwen3: Think Deeper, Act Faster},
  author = {Qwen Team},
  year = {2025},
  month = {April},
  howpublished = {\url{https://qwenlm.github.io/blog/qwen3/}},
  note = {Accessed: 2026-02-16}
}

@article{patil2023gorilla,
  title={Gorilla: Large Language Model Connected with Massive APIs},
  author={Shishir G. Patil and Tianjun Zhang and Xin Wang and Joseph E. Gonzalez},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.15334},
  year={2023}
}

@inproceedings{ma2024dynamic,
  title     = {Boosting Multi-modal Keyphrase Prediction with Dynamic Chain-of-Thought in Vision-Language Models},
  author    = {Ma, Qihang and Li, Shengyu and Tang, Jie and Yang, Dingkang and Chen, Shaodong and Zhang, Yingyi and Feng, Chao and Ran, Jiao},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2025 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
  month     = nov,
  year      = {2025},
  address   = {Suzhou, China},
  publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
  url       = {https://aclanthology.org/2025.emnlp-main.798/},
  doi       = {10.18653/v1/2025.emnlp-main.798},
  pages     = {15814--15827}
}

