
@misc{naseem2026polarbenchmarkmultilingualmulticultural,
      title={{POLAR: A Benchmark for Multilingual, Multicultural, and Multi-Event Online Polarization}}, 
      author={Usman Naseem and Robert Geislinger and Juan Ren and Sarah Kohail and Rudy Garrido Veliz and P Sam Sahil and Yiran Zhang and Marco Antonio Stranisci and Idris Abdulmumin and Özge Alacam and Cengiz Acartürk and Aisha Jabr and Saba Anwar and Abinew Ali Ayele and Simona Frenda and Alessandra Teresa Cignarella and Elena Tutubalina and Oleg Rogov and Aung Kyaw Htet and Xintong Wang and Surendrabikram Thapa and Kritesh Rauniyar and Tanmoy Chakraborty and Arfeen Zeeshan and Dheeraj Kodati and Satya Keerthi and Sahar Moradizeyveh and Firoj Alam and Arid Hasan and Syed Ishtiaque Ahmed and Ye Kyaw Thu and Shantipriya Parida and Ihsan Ayyub Qazi and Lilian Wanzare and Nelson Odhiambo Onyango and Clemencia Siro and Jane Wanjiru Kimani and Ibrahim Said Ahmad and Adem Chanie Ali and Martin Semmann and Chris Biemann and Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad and Seid Muhie Yimam},
      year={2026},
      eprint={2505.20624},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.20624}, 
}

@article{paolacci2010running,
  title={{Running experiments on amazon mechanical turk}},
  author={{Paolacci, Gabriele and Chandler, Jesse and Ipeirotis, Panagiotis G}},
  journal={Judgment and Decision making},
  volume={5},
  number={5},
  pages={411--419},
  url={https://sjdm.org/~baron/journal/10/10630a/jdm10630a.pdf},
  year={2010},
  publisher={Cambridge University Press}
}

@misc{LabelStudio,
  title={{Label Studio}: Data labeling software},
  url={https://github.com/HumanSignal/label-studio},
  author={
    Maxim Tkachenko and
    Mikhail Malyuk and
    Andrey Holmanyuk and
    Nikolai Liubimov},
  year={2020-2025},
}

@inproceedings{pei-etal-2022-potato,
    title = {{POTATO: The Portable Text Annotation Tool}},
    author = "Pei, Jiaxin  and
      Ananthasubramaniam, Aparna  and
      Wang, Xingyao  and
      Zhou, Naitian  and
      Dedeloudis, Apostolos  and
      Sargent, Jackson  and
      Jurgens, David",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: System Demonstrations",
    month = dec,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Abu Dhabi, UAE",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.emnlp-demos.33/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2022.emnlp-demos.33",
    pages = "327--337",
}

@incollection{donohue2022framework,
    title={{A Framework for Understanding Polarizing Language}},
    author={Donohue, William and Hamilton, Mark},
    booktitle={{The Routledge Handbook of Language and Persuasion}},
    pages={207--223},
    year={2022},
    doi={10.4324/9780367823658-14},
    publisher={Routledge}
}

@inproceedings{hofmann-etal-2022-modeling,
    title = {{Modeling Ideological Salience and Framing in Polarized Online Groups with Graph Neural Networks and Structured Sparsity}},
    author = "Hofmann, Valentin  and
      Dong, Xiaowen  and
      Pierrehumbert, Janet  and
      Schuetze, Hinrich",
    editor = "Carpuat, Marine  and
      de Marneffe, Marie-Catherine  and
      Meza Ruiz, Ivan Vladimir",
    booktitle = "Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: NAACL 2022",
    month = jul,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Seattle, United States",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.findings-naacl.41/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2022.findings-naacl.41",
    pages = "536--550",
}

@inproceedings{sinno-etal-2022-political,
    title = {{Political Ideology and Polarization: A Multi-dimensional Approach}},
    author = "Sinno, Barea  and
              Oviedo, Bernardo  and
              Atwell, Katherine  and
              Alikhani, Malihe  and
              Li, Junyi Jessy",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies",
    month = jul,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Seattle, United States",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.naacl-main.17/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2022.naacl-main.17",
    pages = "231--243",
}

@inproceedings{demszky-etal-2019-analyzing,
    title = {{Analyzing Polarization in Social Media: Method and Application to Tweets on 21 Mass Shootings}},
    author = "Demszky, Dorottya  and
      Garg, Nikhil  and
      Voigt, Rob  and
      Zou, James  and
      Shapiro, Jesse  and
      Gentzkow, Matthew  and
      Jurafsky, Dan",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North {A}merican Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers)",
    month = jun,
    year = "2019",
    address = "Minneapolis, Minnesota",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/N19-1304/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/N19-1304",
    pages = "2970--3005",
}

@article{casal2021polarization,
  title={{Polarization: What Do We Know and What Can We Do About It?}},
  author={Casal B{\'e}rtoa, Fernando and Rama, Jos{\'e}},
  journal={Frontiers in Political Science},
  volume={3},
  doi={https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2021.687695},
  pages={1--11},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Frontiers Media SA}
}

@article{simchon2022troll,
    title={{Troll and divide: the language of online polarization}},
    author={Simchon, Almog and Brady, William J and Van Bavel, Jay J},
    journal={PNAS nexus},
    volume={1},
    number={1},
    doi={https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac019},
    pages={pgac019},
    year={2022},
    publisher={Oxford University Press}
}

@inbook{rojo2025affective,
    chapter={{Affective polarisation, Dehumanisation of the Adversary and Political Violence}},
    author={Rojo Mart{\'\i}nez, Jos{\'e} Miguel},
    title={{Unravelling Radicalisation: Exploring Concepts, Contexts, and Perspectives}},
    doi={https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-91887-2_6},
    pages={111--133},
    year={2025},
    publisher={Springer}
}

@article{martinez2024methodology,
    title={{Methodology for Measuring Individual Affective Polarization Using Sentiment Analysis in Social Networks}},
    author={Mart{\'\i}nez-Espa{\~n}a, Raquel and Fern{\'a}ndez-Pedauye, Julio and de Luc{\'\i}a, Jos{\'e} Giner-P{\'e}rez and Rojo-Mart{\'\i}nez, Jose Miguel and Bakdid-Albane, Kaoutar and Garc{\'\i}a-Escribano, Juan Jos{\'e}},
    journal={IEEE Access},
    year={2024},
    publisher={IEEE},
    doi={10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3431999}
}

@article{piazza2023political,
    title={Political Polarization and Political Violence},
    author={Piazza, James A.},
    journal={Security Studies},
    volume={32},
    number={3},
    pages={476--504},
    year={2023},
    publisher={Taylor \& Francis},
    doi = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2023.2225780}
}

@article{banda2021large,
  title={{A large-scale COVID-19 Twitter chatter dataset for open scientific research—an international collaboration}},
  author={Banda, Juan M. and Tekumalla, Ramya and Wang, Guanyu and Yu, Jingyuan and Liu, Tuo and Ding, Yuning and Artemova, Ekaterina and Tutubalina, Elena and Chowell, Gerardo},
  journal={Epidemiologia},
  volume={2},
  number={3},
  pages={315--324},
  year={2021},
  publisher={MDPI},
  doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/epidemiologia2030024}
}

@misc{adelani2023sib200,
      title={{SIB-200: A Simple, Inclusive, and Big Evaluation Dataset for Topic Classification in 200+ Languages and Dialects}}, 
      author={David Ifeoluwa Adelani and Hannah Liu and Xiaoyu Shen and Nikita Vassilyev and Jesujoba O. Alabi and Yanke Mao and Haonan Gao and Annie En-Shiun Lee},
      year={2023},
      eprint={2309.07445},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL}
}

@misc{strich2025encourageevaluatingraglocal,
      title={{EncouRAGe: Evaluating RAG Local, Fast, and Reliable}}, 
      author={Jan Strich and Adeline Scharfenberg and Chris Biemann and Martin Semmann},
      year={2025},
      eprint={2511.04696},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2511.04696}, 
}

@inproceedings{conneau-etal-2020-unsupervised,
    title = "Unsupervised Cross-lingual Representation Learning at Scale",
    author = "Conneau, Alexis  and
      Khandelwal, Kartikay  and
      Goyal, Naman  and
      Chaudhary, Vishrav  and
      Wenzek, Guillaume  and
      Guzm{\'a}n, Francisco  and
      Grave, Edouard  and
      Ott, Myle  and
      Zettlemoyer, Luke  and
      Stoyanov, Veselin",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics",
    month = jul,
    year = "2020",
    address = "Online",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2020.acl-main.747/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2020.acl-main.747",
    pages = "8440--8451",
}

@inproceedings{antypas-camacho-collados-2023-robust,
    title = {{Robust Hate Speech Detection in Social Media: A Cross-Dataset Empirical Evaluation}},
    author = "Antypas, Dimosthenis  and
      Camacho-Collados, Jose",
    editor = "Chung, Yi-ling  and
      R{\{}{\textbackslash}{''}ottger{\}}, Paul  and
      Nozza, Debora  and
      Talat, Zeerak  and
      Mostafazadeh Davani, Aida",
    booktitle = "The 7th Workshop on Online Abuse and Harms (WOAH)",
    month = jul,
    year = "2023",
    address = "Toronto, Canada",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2023.woah-1.25/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2023.woah-1.25",
    pages = "231--242",
}


@misc{belay2025afroxlmrsocialadaptingpretrainedlanguage,
      title={AfroXLMR-Social: Adapting Pre-trained Language Models for African Languages Social Media Text}, 
      author={Tadesse Destaw Belay and Israel Abebe Azime and Ibrahim Said Ahmad and David Ifeoluwa Adelani and Idris Abdulmumin and Abinew Ali Ayele and Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad and Seid Muhie Yimam},
      year={2025},
      eprint={2503.18247},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.18247}, 
}

@misc{liu2019robertarobustlyoptimizedbert,
      title={RoBERTa: A Robustly Optimized BERT Pretraining Approach}, 
      author={Yinhan Liu and Myle Ott and Naman Goyal and Jingfei Du and Mandar Joshi and Danqi Chen and Omer Levy and Mike Lewis and Luke Zettlemoyer and Veselin Stoyanov},
      year={2019},
      eprint={1907.11692},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/1907.11692}, 
}

@inproceedings{kolos2024banpl,
    title = {{BAN-PL: A Polish Dataset of Banned Harmful and Offensive Content from Wykop.pl Web Service}},
    author = "Kolos, Anna  and
      Okulska, Inez  and
      G{\l}{\k{a}}bi{\'n}ska, Kinga  and
      Karlinska, Agnieszka  and
      Wisnios, Emilia  and
      Ellerik, Pawe{\l}  and
      Pra{\l}at, Andrzej",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2024 Joint International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024)",
    month = may,
    year = "2024",
    address = "Torino, Italia",
    publisher = "ELRA and ICCL",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2024.lrec-main.190/",
    pages = "2107--2118",
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{10613636,
    author={Kyaw, Nang Aeindray and Thu, Ye Kyaw and Oo, Thazin Myint and Chanlekha, Hutchatai and Okumura, Manabu and Supnithi, Thepchai},
    booktitle={2024 21st International Joint Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE)}, 
    title={{Enhancing Hate Speech Classification in Myanmar Language through Lexicon-Based Filtering}}, 
    year={2024},
    pages={316-323},
    address={Phuket, Thailand},
    doi={10.1109/JCSSE61278.2024.10613636}
}

@inproceedings{coltekin-2020-corpus,
    title = {{A Corpus of Turkish Offensive Language on Social Media}},
    author = {{\c{C}}{\"o}ltekin, {\c{C}}a{\u{g}}r{\i}},
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Twelfth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference",
    month = may,
    year = "2020",
    address = "Marseille, France",
    publisher = "European Language Resources Association",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2020.lrec-1.758/",
    pages = "6174--6184",
    language = "eng",
    ISBN = "979-10-95546-34-4",
}

@inproceedings{deng-etal-2022-cold,
    title = {{COLD: A Benchmark for Chinese Offensive Language Detection}},
    author = "Deng, Jiawen  and
      Zhou, Jingyan  and
      Sun, Hao  and
      Zheng, Chujie  and
      Mi, Fei  and
      Meng, Helen  and
      Huang, Minlie",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = dec,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.emnlp-main.796/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2022.emnlp-main.796",
    pages = "11580--11599",
}

@inproceedings{Nozza:2023,
    author = {Nozza, Debora  and
            Cignarella, Andrea Teresa and
            Damo, Greta and
            Caselli, Tommaso and
            Patti, Viviana},
    year = "2023",
    title = {{HODI at EVALITA 2023: Overview of the first Shared Task on Homotransphobia Detection in Italian}},
    booktitle = {Proceedings of the EVALITA 2023 Evaluation Campaign},
    url = {https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3473/paper26.pdf},
    address={Parma, Italy},
    pages = {1--8}
}

@inproceedings{Sanguinetti:2020,
    author = {Manuela Sanguinetti and
            Gloria Comandini and
            Elisa di Nuovo and
            Simona Frenda and
            Marco Stranisci and
            Cristina Bosco and
            Tomaso Caselli and
            Viviana Patti and
            Irene Russo},
    year = "2020",
    title = {{HaSpeeDe 2 @ EVALITA2020: Overview of the EVALITA 2020 Hate Speech Detection Task}},
    booktitle = {Proceedings of the 7th Evaluation Campaign of Natural Language Processing and Speech Tools for Italian (EVALITA 2020)},
    url = {https://hdl.handle.net/11584/389769},
    pages={1--9},
    month={12},
    address={online}
}

@inproceedings{bai2025statetoxicnbenchmarkspanlevel,
    title = {{STATE ToxiCN: A Benchmark for Span-level Target-Aware Toxicity Extraction in Chinese Hate Speech Detection}},
    author = "Bai, Zewen  and
      Yang, Liang  and
      Yin, Shengdi  and
      Lu, Junyu  and
      Zeng, Jingjie  and
      Zhu, Haohao  and
      Sun, Yuanyuan  and
      Lin, Hongfei",
    booktitle = "Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2025",
    month = jul,
    year = "2025",
    address = "Vienna, Austria",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2025.findings-acl.532/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2025.findings-acl.532",
    pages = "10206--10219",
    ISBN = "979-8-89176-256-5",
}

@inproceedings{
    chung2020rethinkingembeddingcouplingpretrained,
    title={{Rethinking Embedding Coupling in Pre-trained Language Models}},
    author={Hyung Won Chung and Thibault Fevry and Henry Tsai and Melvin Johnson and Sebastian Ruder},
    booktitle={International Conference on Learning Representations},
    year={2021},
    url={https://openreview.net/forum?id=xpFFI_NtgpW},
    pages={1--17},
    address={Online}
}

@article{iandoli2021impact,
    title = {{The impact of group polarization on the quality of online debate in social media: A systematic literature review}},
    journal = {Technological Forecasting and Social Change},
    volume = {170},
    pages = {1--12},
    year = {2021},
    issn = {0040-1625},
    doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120924},
    url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162521003565},
    author = {Luca Iandoli and Simonetta Primario and Giuseppe Zollo},
}

@phdthesis{garimella2018polarization,
    title = {{Polarization on Social Media}},
    author = "Kiran Garimella",
    year = "2018",
    isbn = "978-952-60-7832-8",
    series = "Aalto University publication series DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS",
    publisher = "Aalto University",
    address = "Finland",
    school = "Aalto University",
    url = "http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-60-7833-5"
}

@inproceedings{muhammad-etal-2025-semeval,  
title = "{S}em{E}val Task 11: Bridging the Gap in Text-Based Emotion Detection",
 author = "Muhammad, Shamsuddeen Hassan and Ousidhoum, Nedjma and Abdulmumin, Idris and Yimam, Seid Muhie and Wahle, Jan Philip and Ruas, Terry and Beloucif, Meriem and De Kock, Christine and Belay, Tadesse Destaw and Ahmad, Ibrahim Said and Surange, Nirmal and Teodorescu, Daniela and Adelani, David Ifeoluwa and Aji, Alham Fikri and Ali, Felermino and Araujo, Vladimir and Ayele, Abinew Ali and Ignat, Oana and Panchenko, Alexander and Zhou, Yi and Mohammad, Saif M.",
booktitle = "Proceedings of the 19th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval-2025)",
month = july,
year = "2025",
address = "Vienna, Austria",
publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
url = "",
doi = "",
}

@inproceedings{thapa-etal-2025-natural,
    title = "Natural Language Understanding of {D}evanagari Script Languages: Language Identification, Hate Speech and its Target Detection",
    author = "Thapa, Surendrabikram  and
      Rauniyar, Kritesh  and
      Jafri, Farhan Ahmad  and
      Adhikari, Surabhi  and
      Sarveswaran, Kengatharaiyer  and
      Bal, Bal Krishna  and
      Veeramani, Hariram  and
      Naseem, Usman",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the First Workshop on Challenges in Processing South Asian Languages (CHiPSAL 2025)",
    month = jan,
    year = "2025",
    address = "Abu Dhabi, UAE",
    publisher = "International Committee on Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2025.chipsal-1.7/",
    pages = "71--82",
}


@inproceedings{SpkAtt2023,
    title = {Proceedings of the GermEval 2023 Shared Task on Speaker Attribution in Newswire and Parliamentary Debates (SpkAtt-2023)},
    booktitle = {Proceedings of the GermEval 2023 Shared Task on Speaker Attribution in Newswire and Parliamentary Debates (SpkAtt-2023)},
    author = {Ines Rehbein and Fynn Petersen-Frey and Annelen Brunner and Josef Ruppenhofer and Chris Biemann and Simone Paolo Ponzetto},
    address = {Ingolstadt, Germany},
    year = {2023},
    publisher = {University of Mannheim},
    institution = {University of Hamburg, Leibniz Institute for the German Language, University of Mannheim, FernUniversität Hagen}
}

@inbook{barbera2020social,
    chapter={{Social Media, Echo Chambers, and Political Polarization}},
    author={Barber{\'a}, Pablo},
    title={{Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform}},
    pages={34--55},
    year={2020},
    publisher={Cambridge University Press Cambridge},
    url = {https://www.opolisci.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf-front/Social_Media_and_Democracy.pdf#page=54},
}

@article{soares2021hashtag,
    title={{Hashtag Wars: Political Disinformation and Discursive Struggles on Twitter Conversations During the 2018 Brazilian Presidential Campaign}},
    author={Soares, Felipe Bonow and Recuero, Raquel},
    journal={Social Media+ Society},
    volume={7},
    number={2},
    pages={1--13},
    year={2021},
    publisher={SAGE Publications Sage UK: London, England},
    URL = {https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211009073},
}

@inproceedings{feng2022language,
    title = {{Language-agnostic BERT Sentence Embedding}},
    author = "Feng, Fangxiaoyu  and
      Yang, Yinfei  and
      Cer, Daniel  and
      Arivazhagan, Naveen  and
      Wang, Wei",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)",
    year = "2022",
    address = "Dublin, Ireland",
    pages = "878--891",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.acl-long.62/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2022.acl-long.62",
}

@inproceedings{wang-etal-2022-just,
    title = {{Just Rank: Rethinking Evaluation with Word and Sentence Similarities}},
    author = "Wang, Bin  and
      Kuo, C.-C. Jay  and
      Li, Haizhou",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)",
    month = may,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Dublin, Ireland",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.acl-long.419",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2022.acl-long.419",
    pages = "6060--6077",
}

@inproceedings{SemEVal-20-Task-10-Emphasis,
    title = {{SemEval-2020 Task 10: Emphasis Selection for Written Text in Visual Media}},
    author = "Shirani, Amirreza  and
      Dernoncourt, Franck  and
      Lipka, Nedim  and
      Asente, Paul  and
      Echevarria, Jose  and
      Solorio, Thamar",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Fourteenth Workshop on Semantic Evaluation",
    month = dec,
    year = "2020",
    address = "Barcelona (online)",
    publisher = "International Committee for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2020.semeval-1.184",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2020.semeval-1.184",
    pages = "1360--1370",
}

@inproceedings{patwa-etal-2020-semeval,
    title = {{SemEval-2020 Task 9: Overview of Sentiment Analysis of Code-Mixed Tweets}},
    author = {Patwa, Parth  and
      Aguilar, Gustavo  and
      Kar, Sudipta  and
      Pandey, Suraj  and
      PYKL, Srinivas  and
      Gamb{\"a}ck, Bj{\"o}rn  and
      Chakraborty, Tanmoy  and
      Solorio, Thamar  and
      Das, Amitava},
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Fourteenth Workshop on Semantic Evaluation",
    month = dec,
    year = "2020",
    address = "Barcelona (online)",
    publisher = "International Committee for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/2020.semeval-1.100",
    pages = "774--790",
   }
   
@inproceedings{shirani-etal-2020-semeval,
    title = {{SemEval-2020 Task 10: Emphasis Selection for Written Text in Visual Media}},
    author = "Shirani, Amirreza  and
      Dernoncourt, Franck  and
      Lipka, Nedim  and
      Asente, Paul  and
      Echevarria, Jose  and
      Solorio, Thamar",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Fourteenth Workshop on Semantic Evaluation",
    month = dec,
    year = "2020",
    address = "Barcelona (online)",
    publisher = "International Committee for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/2020.semeval-1.184",
    pages = "1360--1370",
}

@inproceedings{aguilar-etal-2018-named,
    title = {{Named Entity Recognition on Code-Switched Data: Overview of the CALCS 2018 Shared Task}},
    author = "Aguilar, Gustavo  and
      AlGhamdi, Fahad  and
      Soto, Victor  and
      Diab, Mona  and
      Hirschberg, Julia  and
      Solorio, Thamar",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Approaches to Linguistic Code-Switching",
    month = jul,
    year = "2018",
    address = "Melbourne, Australia",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W18-3219",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/W18-3219",
    pages = "138--147",
}

@inproceedings{molina-etal-2016-overview,
    title = {{Overview for the Second Shared Task on Language Identification in Code-Switched Data}},
    author = "Molina, Giovanni  and
      AlGhamdi, Fahad  and
      Ghoneim, Mahmoud  and
      Hawwari, Abdelati  and
      Rey-Villamizar, Nicolas  and
      Diab, Mona  and
      Solorio, Thamar",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Computational Approaches to Code Switching",
    month = nov,
    year = "2016",
    address = "Austin, Texas",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W16-5805",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/W16-5805",
    pages = "40--49",
}

@inproceedings{solorio-etal-2014-overview,
    title = {{Overview for the First Shared Task on Language Identification in Code-Switched Data}},
    author = "Solorio, Thamar  and
      Blair, Elizabeth  and
      Maharjan, Suraj  and
      Bethard, Steven  and
      Diab, Mona  and
      Ghoneim, Mahmoud  and
      Hawwari, Abdelati  and
      AlGhamdi, Fahad  and
      Hirschberg, Julia  and
      Chang, Alison  and
      Fung, Pascale",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the First Workshop on Computational Approaches to Code Switching",
    month = oct,
    year = "2014",
    address = "Doha, Qatar",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W14-3907",
    doi = "10.3115/v1/W14-3907",
    pages = "62--72",
}

@inproceedings{muhammad-etal-2023-afrisenti,
    title = {{AfriSenti: A Twitter Sentiment Analysis Benchmark for African Languages}},
    author = "Muhammad, Shamsuddeen  and
      Abdulmumin, Idris  and
      Ayele, Abinew  and
      Ousidhoum, Nedjma  and
      Adelani, David  and
      Yimam, Seid  and
      Ahmad, Ibrahim  and
      Beloucif, Meriem  and
      Mohammad, Saif  and
      Ruder, Sebastian  and
      Hourrane, Oumaima  and
      Jorge, Alipio  and
      Brazdil, Pavel  and
      Ali, Felermino  and
      David, Davis  and
      Osei, Salomey  and
      Shehu-Bello, Bello  and
      Lawan, Falalu  and
      Gwadabe, Tajuddeen  and
      Rutunda, Samuel  and
      Belay, Tadesse  and
      Messelle, Wendimu  and
      Balcha, Hailu  and
      Chala, Sisay  and
      Gebremichael, Hagos  and
      Opoku, Bernard  and
      Arthur, Stephen",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2023 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = dec,
    year = "2023",
    address = "Singapore",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2023.emnlp-main.862",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2023.emnlp-main.862",
    pages = "13968--13981"
}

@inproceedings{muhammadSemEval2023,
    title = {{SemEval-2023 Task 12: Sentiment Analysis for African Languages (AfriSenti-SemEval)}},
    author = {Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad and Idris Abdulmumin and Seid Muhie Yimam and David Ifeoluwa Adelani and Ibrahim Sa'id Ahmad and Nedjma Ousidhoum and Abinew Ali Ayele and Saif M. Mohammad and Meriem Beloucif and Sebastian Ruder},
    booktitle = {Proceedings of the 17th {{International Workshop}} on {{Semantic Evaluation}} ({{SemEval-2023}})},
    publisher = {{Association for Computational Linguistics}},
    year = {2023}
}

@inproceedings{muhammad-etal-2022-naijasenti,
    title = {{NaijaSenti: A Nigerian Twitter Sentiment Corpus for Multilingual Sentiment Analysis}},
    author = "Muhammad, Shamsuddeen Hassan  and Adelani, David Ifeoluwa  and Ruder, Sebastian  and Ahmad, Ibrahim Sa{'}id  and Abdulmumin, Idris  and Bello, Bello Shehu  and Choudhury, Monojit  and Emezue, Chris Chinenye  and Abdullahi, Saheed Salahudeen  and Aremu, Anuoluwapo  and orge, Al{\'\i}pio  and Brazdil, Pavel",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference",
    month = jun,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Marseille, France",
    publisher = "European Language Resources Association",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.lrec-1.63",
    pages = "590--602",
}

@InProceedings{yimametalcoling2020,
    title = {{Exploring Amharic Sentiment Analysis from Social Media Texts: Building Annotation Tools and Classification Models}},
    author = "Yimam, Seid Muhie  and
      Alemayehu, Hizkiel Mitiku  and
      Ayele, Abinew  and
      Biemann, Chris",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics",
    month = dec,
    year = "2020",
    address = "Barcelona, Spain (Online)",
    pages = "1048--1060"
}

@misc{ousidhoum2024semeval,
      title={{SemEval Task 1: Semantic Textual Relatedness for African and Asian Languages}}, 
      author={Nedjma Ousidhoum and Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad and Mohamed Abdalla and Idris Abdulmumin and Ibrahim Said Ahmad and Sanchit Ahuja and Alham Fikri Aji and Vladimir Araujo and Meriem Beloucif and Christine De Kock and Oumaima Hourrane and Manish Shrivastava and Thamar Solorio and Nirmal Surange and Krishnapriya Vishnubhotla and Seid Muhie Yimam and Saif M. Mohammad},
      year={2024},
      eprint={2403.18933},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL}
}

@inproceedings{adelani-etal-2022-findings,
    title = {{Findings of the WMT'22 Shared Task on Large-Scale Machine Translation Evaluation for African Languages}},
    author = "Adelani, David  and
      Alam, Md Mahfuz Ibn  and
      Anastasopoulos, Antonios  and
      Bhagia, Akshita  and
      Costa-juss{\`a}, Marta R.  and
      Dodge, Jesse  and
      Faisal, Fahim  and
      Federmann, Christian  and
      Fedorova, Natalia  and
      Guzm{\'a}n, Francisco  and
      Koshelev, Sergey  and
      Maillard, Jean  and
      Marivate, Vukosi  and
      Mbuya, Jonathan  and
      Mourachko, Alexandre  and
      Saleem, Safiyyah  and
      Schwenk, Holger  and
      Wenzek, Guillaume",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Machine Translation (WMT)",
    month = dec,
    year = "2022",
    address = "Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Hybrid)",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2022.wmt-1.72",
    pages = "773--800"
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@inproceedings{yimam-etal-2018-report,
    title = {{A Report on the Complex Word Identification Shared Task 2018}},
    author = {Yimam, Seid Muhie  and
      Biemann, Chris  and
      Malmasi, Shervin  and
      Paetzold, Gustavo  and
      Specia, Lucia  and
      {\v{S}}tajner, Sanja  and
      Tack, Ana{\"\i}s  and
      Zampieri, Marcos},
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Thirteenth Workshop on Innovative Use of {NLP} for Building Educational Applications",
    month = jun,
    year = "2018",
    address = "New Orleans, Louisiana",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/W18-0507",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/W18-0507",
    pages = "66--78"
    }

@article{arora2022polarization,
  title={{Polarization and Social Media: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda}},
  author={Arora, Swapan Deep and Singh, Guninder Pal and Chakraborty, Anirban and Maity, Moutusy},
  journal={Technological Forecasting and Social Change},
  volume={183},
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@inproceedings{thapa2023multimodal,
  title={{Multimodal Hate Speech Event Detection-Shared Task 4}},
  author={Thapa, Surendrabikram and Jafri, Farhan Ahmad and H{\"u}rriyeto{\u{g}}lu, Ali and Vargas, Francielle and Lee, Roy Ka Wei and Naseem, Usman},
  booktitle={CASE 2023-Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-Political Events from Text, associated with 14th International Conference on Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing, RANLP 2023},
  pages={151--159},
  year={2023},
  organization={Association for Computational Linguistics}
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@inproceedings{thapa2024stance,
  title={{Stance and hate event detection in tweets related to climate activism-shared task at case 2024}},
  author={Thapa, Surendrabikram and Rauniyar, Kritesh and Jafri, Farhan Ahmad and Shiwakoti, Shuvam and Veeramani, Hariram and Jain, Raghav and Kohli, Guneet Singh and H{\"u}rriyeto{\u{g}}lu, Ali and Naseem, Usman},
  booktitle={7th Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-Political Events from Text, CASE 2024},
  pages={234--247},
  year={2024},
  organization={Association for Computational Linguistics}
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@inproceedings{thapa-etal-2025-natural,
    title = {{Natural Language Understanding of Devanagari Script Languages: Language Identification, Hate Speech and its Target Detection}},
    author = "Thapa, Surendrabikram  and
      Rauniyar, Kritesh  and
      Jafri, Farhan Ahmad  and
      Adhikari, Surabhi  and
      Sarveswaran, Kengatharaiyer  and
      Bal, Bal Krishna  and
      Veeramani, Hariram  and
      Naseem, Usman",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the First Workshop on Challenges in Processing South Asian Languages (CHiPSAL 2025)",
    month = jan,
    year = "2025",
    address = "Abu Dhabi, UAE",
    publisher = "International Committee on Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2025.chipsal-1.7/",
    pages = "71--82",
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@inproceedings{thapa2024extended,
  title={{Extended multimodal hate speech event detection during russia-ukraine crisis-shared task at case 2024}},
  author={Thapa, Surendrabikram and Rauniyar, Kritesh and Jafri, Farhan Ahmad and Veeramani, Hariram and Jain, Raghav and Jain, Sandesh and Vargas, Francielle and H{\"u}rriyeto{\u{g}}lu, Ali and Naseem, Usman},
  booktitle={7th Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-Political Events from Text, CASE 2024},
  pages={221--228},
  year={2024},
  organization={Association for Computational Linguistics}
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@inproceedings{SpkAtt2023,
  title = {{Proceedings of the GermEval 2023 Shared Task on Speaker Attribution in Newswire and Parliamentary Debates (SpkAtt-2023)}},
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  author = {Ines Rehbein and Fynn Petersen-Frey and Annelen Brunner and Josef Ruppenhofer and Chris Biemann and Simone Paolo Ponzetto},
  address = {Ingolstadt, Germany},
  year = {2023},
  publisher = {University of Mannheim},
  institution = {University of Hamburg, Leibniz Institute for the German Language, University of Mannheim, FernUniversität Hagen}
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@article{gitlin2016outrage,
    author = {Gitlin, Todd},
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}
%%%%%% CONTINUE HERE IN THE PAPER %%%%%%%%%%%%%%

@inproceedings{chi2021infosxlm,
    title = "{I}nfo{XLM}: An Information-Theoretic Framework for Cross-Lingual Language Model Pre-Training",
    author = "Chi, Zewen  and
      Dong, Li  and
      Wei, Furu  and
      Yang, Nan  and
      Singhal, Saksham  and
      Wang, Wenhui  and
      Song, Xia  and
      Mao, Xian-Ling  and
      Huang, Heyan  and
      Zhou, Ming",
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    address = "Online",
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    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2021.naacl-main.280/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/2021.naacl-main.280",
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@inproceedings{devlin2019bert,
    title = {{BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding}},
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      Lee, Kenton  and
      Toutanova, Kristina",
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    url = "https://aclanthology.org/N19-1423/",
    doi = "10.18653/v1/N19-1423",
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@article{waller2021quantifying,
    author = {Waller, Isaac and Anderson, Ashton},
    title = {{Quantifying social organization and political polarization in online platforms}},
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@article{kubin2021role,
    author = {Kubin, Emily and von Sikorski, Christian},
    title = {{The Role of (Social) Media in Political Polarization: A Systematic Review}},
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@inproceedings{basile2019semeval,
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      Fersini, Elisabetta  and
      Nozza, Debora  and
      Patti, Viviana  and
      Rangel Pardo, Francisco Manuel  and
      Rosso, Paolo  and
      Sanguinetti, Manuela",
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    address = "Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA",
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    doi = "10.18653/v1/S19-2007",
    pages = "54--63",
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@article{pamungkas2020misogynistic,
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@inproceedings{mathew2020hatexplain,
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    booktitle = {Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2021},
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@inproceedings{sap2022annotators,
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  title = {{Annotators with attitudes: How annotator beliefs and identities bias toxic language detection}},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies},
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  year = {2022},
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@inproceedings{hossain2022fine,
    author = {Hossain, Md Shad Akhtar and Kleinberg, Bennett and van der Vegt, Isabelle},
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@article{landis1977kappa,
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@inproceedings{joshi2020state,
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    author = "Joshi, Pratik  and
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      Bali, Kalika  and
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@misc{unsloth,
    author = {Daniel Han, Michael Han and Unsloth team},
    title = {{Unsloth}},
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@misc{abdin2024phi4technicalreport,
      title={{Phi-4 Technical Report}}, 
      author={Marah Abdin and Jyoti Aneja and Harkirat Behl and Sébastien Bubeck and Ronen Eldan and Suriya Gunasekar and Michael Harrison and Russell J. Hewett and Mojan Javaheripi and Piero Kauffmann and James R. Lee and Yin Tat Lee and Yuanzhi Li and Weishung Liu and Caio C. T. Mendes and Anh Nguyen and Eric Price and Gustavo de Rosa and Olli Saarikivi and Adil Salim and Shital Shah and Xin Wang and Rachel Ward and Yue Wu and Dingli Yu and Cyril Zhang and Yi Zhang},
      year={2024},
      eprint={2412.08905},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.08905}, 
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@misc{gemmateam2025gemma3technicalreport,
      title={{Gemma 3 Technical Report}}, 
      author={Gemma Team and Aishwarya Kamath and Johan Ferret and Shreya Pathak and Nino Vieillard and Ramona Merhej and Sarah Perrin and Tatiana Matejovicova and Alexandre Ramé and Morgane Rivière and Louis Rouillard and Thomas Mesnard and Geoffrey Cideron and Jean-bastien Grill and Sabela Ramos and Edouard Yvinec and Michelle Casbon and Etienne Pot and Ivo Penchev and Gaël Liu and Francesco Visin and Kathleen Kenealy and Lucas Beyer and Xiaohai Zhai and Anton Tsitsulin and Robert Busa-Fekete and Alex Feng and Noveen Sachdeva and Benjamin Coleman and Yi Gao and Basil Mustafa and Iain Barr and Emilio Parisotto and David Tian and Matan Eyal and Colin Cherry and Jan-Thorsten Peter and Danila Sinopalnikov and Surya Bhupatiraju and Rishabh Agarwal and Mehran Kazemi and Dan Malkin and Ravin Kumar and David Vilar and Idan Brusilovsky and Jiaming Luo and Andreas Steiner and Abe Friesen and Abhanshu Sharma and Abheesht Sharma and Adi Mayrav Gilady and Adrian Goedeckemeyer and Alaa Saade and Alex Feng and Alexander Kolesnikov and Alexei Bendebury and Alvin Abdagic and Amit Vadi and András György and André Susano Pinto and Anil Das and Ankur Bapna and Antoine Miech and Antoine Yang and Antonia Paterson and Ashish Shenoy and Ayan Chakrabarti and Bilal Piot and Bo Wu and Bobak Shahriari and Bryce Petrini and Charlie Chen and Charline Le Lan and Christopher A. Choquette-Choo and CJ Carey and Cormac Brick and Daniel Deutsch and Danielle Eisenbud and Dee Cattle and Derek Cheng and Dimitris Paparas and Divyashree Shivakumar Sreepathihalli and Doug Reid and Dustin Tran and Dustin Zelle and Eric Noland and Erwin Huizenga and Eugene Kharitonov and Frederick Liu and Gagik Amirkhanyan and Glenn Cameron and Hadi Hashemi and Hanna Klimczak-Plucińska and Harman Singh and Harsh Mehta and Harshal Tushar Lehri and Hussein Hazimeh and Ian Ballantyne and Idan Szpektor and Ivan Nardini and Jean Pouget-Abadie and Jetha Chan and Joe Stanton and John Wieting and Jonathan Lai and Jordi Orbay and Joseph Fernandez and Josh Newlan and Ju-yeong Ji and Jyotinder Singh and Kat Black and Kathy Yu and Kevin Hui and Kiran Vodrahalli and Klaus Greff and Linhai Qiu and Marcella Valentine and Marina Coelho and Marvin Ritter and Matt Hoffman and Matthew Watson and Mayank Chaturvedi and Michael Moynihan and Min Ma and Nabila Babar and Natasha Noy and Nathan Byrd and Nick Roy and Nikola Momchev and Nilay Chauhan and Noveen Sachdeva and Oskar Bunyan and Pankil Botarda and Paul Caron and Paul Kishan Rubenstein and Phil Culliton and Philipp Schmid and Pier Giuseppe Sessa and Pingmei Xu and Piotr Stanczyk and Pouya Tafti and Rakesh Shivanna and Renjie Wu and Renke Pan and Reza Rokni and Rob Willoughby and Rohith Vallu and Ryan Mullins and Sammy Jerome and Sara Smoot and Sertan Girgin and Shariq Iqbal and Shashir Reddy and Shruti Sheth and Siim Põder and Sijal Bhatnagar and Sindhu Raghuram Panyam and Sivan Eiger and Susan Zhang and Tianqi Liu and Trevor Yacovone and Tyler Liechty and Uday Kalra and Utku Evci and Vedant Misra and Vincent Roseberry and Vlad Feinberg and Vlad Kolesnikov and Woohyun Han and Woosuk Kwon and Xi Chen and Yinlam Chow and Yuvein Zhu and Zichuan Wei and Zoltan Egyed and Victor Cotruta and Minh Giang and Phoebe Kirk and Anand Rao and Kat Black and Nabila Babar and Jessica Lo and Erica Moreira and Luiz Gustavo Martins and Omar Sanseviero and Lucas Gonzalez and Zach Gleicher and Tris Warkentin and Vahab Mirrokni and Evan Senter and Eli Collins and Joelle Barral and Zoubin Ghahramani and Raia Hadsell and Yossi Matias and D. Sculley and Slav Petrov and Noah Fiedel and Noam Shazeer and Oriol Vinyals and Jeff Dean and Demis Hassabis and Koray Kavukcuoglu and Clement Farabet and Elena Buchatskaya and Jean-Baptiste Alayrac and Rohan Anil and Dmitry and Lepikhin and Sebastian Borgeaud and Olivier Bachem and Armand Joulin and Alek Andreev and Cassidy Hardin and Robert Dadashi and Léonard Hussenot},
      year={2025},
      eprint={2503.19786},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.19786}, 
}


@misc{mistral_small_3_2_24b_modelcard,
    title        = {mistralai/Mistral-Small-3.2-24B-Instruct-2506},
    author       = {Mistral AI},
    year         = {2025},
    howpublished = {\url{https://huggingface.co/mistralai/Mistral-Small-3.2-24B-Instruct-2506}},
    note         = {Hugging Face model card, accessed 2026-03-13}
}

@inproceedings{
    he2023debertav,
    title={{DeBERTaV3: Improving DeBERTa using ELECTRA-Style Pre-Training with Gradient-Disentangled Embedding Sharing}},
    author={Pengcheng He and Jianfeng Gao and Weizhu Chen},
    booktitle={The Eleventh International Conference on Learning Representations },
    year={2023},
    url={https://openreview.net/forum?id=sE7-XhLxHA}
}

@misc{hu2021loralowrankadaptationlarge,
    title={{LoRA: Low-Rank Adaptation of Large Language Models}}, 
    author={Edward J. Hu and Yelong Shen and Phillip Wallis and Zeyuan Allen-Zhu and Yuanzhi Li and Shean Wang and Lu Wang and Weizhu Chen},
    year={2021},
    eprint={2106.09685},
    archivePrefix={arXiv},
    primaryClass={cs.CL},
    url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.09685}, 
}


@misc{bai2023qwentechnicalreport,
      title={{Qwen Technical Report}}, 
      author={Jinze Bai and Shuai Bai and Yunfei Chu and Zeyu Cui and Kai Dang and Xiaodong Deng and Yang Fan and Wenbin Ge and Yu Han and Fei Huang and Binyuan Hui and Luo Ji and Mei Li and Junyang Lin and Runji Lin and Dayiheng Liu and Gao Liu and Chengqiang Lu and Keming Lu and Jianxin Ma and Rui Men and Xingzhang Ren and Xuancheng Ren and Chuanqi Tan and Sinan Tan and Jianhong Tu and Peng Wang and Shijie Wang and Wei Wang and Shengguang Wu and Benfeng Xu and Jin Xu and An Yang and Hao Yang and Jian Yang and Shusheng Yang and Yang Yao and Bowen Yu and Hongyi Yuan and Zheng Yuan and Jianwei Zhang and Xingxuan Zhang and Yichang Zhang and Zhenru Zhang and Chang Zhou and Jingren Zhou and Xiaohuan Zhou and Tianhang Zhu},
      year={2023},
      eprint={2309.16609},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.16609}, 
}

@misc{touvron2023llamaopenefficientfoundation,
      title={{LLaMA: Open and Efficient Foundation Language Models}}, 
      author={Hugo Touvron and Thibaut Lavril and Gautier Izacard and Xavier Martinet and Marie-Anne Lachaux and Timothée Lacroix and Baptiste Rozière and Naman Goyal and Eric Hambro and Faisal Azhar and Aurelien Rodriguez and Armand Joulin and Edouard Grave and Guillaume Lample},
      year={2023},
      eprint={2302.13971},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.13971}, 
}

@misc{5team2025glm45agenticreasoningcoding,
      title={{GLM-4.5: Agentic, Reasoning, and Coding (ARC) Foundation Models}}, 
      author={GLM-4.5 Team and Aohan Zeng and Xin Lv and Qinkai Zheng and Zhenyu Hou and Bin Chen and Chengxing Xie and Cunxiang Wang and Da Yin and Hao Zeng and Jiajie Zhang and Kedong Wang and Lucen Zhong and Mingdao Liu and Rui Lu and Shulin Cao and Xiaohan Zhang and Xuancheng Huang and Yao Wei and Yean Cheng and Yifan An and Yilin Niu and Yuanhao Wen and Yushi Bai and Zhengxiao Du and Zihan Wang and Zilin Zhu and Bohan Zhang and Bosi Wen and Bowen Wu and Bowen Xu and Can Huang and Casey Zhao and Changpeng Cai and Chao Yu and Chen Li and Chendi Ge and Chenghua Huang and Chenhui Zhang and Chenxi Xu and Chenzheng Zhu and Chuang Li and Congfeng Yin and Daoyan Lin and Dayong Yang and Dazhi Jiang and Ding Ai and Erle Zhu and Fei Wang and Gengzheng Pan and Guo Wang and Hailong Sun and Haitao Li and Haiyang Li and Haiyi Hu and Hanyu Zhang and Hao Peng and Hao Tai and Haoke Zhang and Haoran Wang and Haoyu Yang and He Liu and He Zhao and Hongwei Liu and Hongxi Yan and Huan Liu and Huilong Chen and Ji Li and Jiajing Zhao and Jiamin Ren and Jian Jiao and Jiani Zhao and Jianyang Yan and Jiaqi Wang and Jiayi Gui and Jiayue Zhao and Jie Liu and Jijie Li and Jing Li and Jing Lu and Jingsen Wang and Jingwei Yuan and Jingxuan Li and Jingzhao Du and Jinhua Du and Jinxin Liu and Junkai Zhi and Junli Gao and Ke Wang and Lekang Yang and Liang Xu and Lin Fan and Lindong Wu and Lintao Ding and Lu Wang and Man Zhang and Minghao Li and Minghuan Xu and Mingming Zhao and Mingshu Zhai and Pengfan Du and Qian Dong and Shangde Lei and Shangqing Tu and Shangtong Yang and Shaoyou Lu and Shijie Li and Shuang Li and Shuang-Li and Shuxun Yang and Sibo Yi and Tianshu Yu and Wei Tian and Weihan Wang and Wenbo Yu and Weng Lam Tam and Wenjie Liang and Wentao Liu and Xiao Wang and Xiaohan Jia and Xiaotao Gu and Xiaoying Ling and Xin Wang and Xing Fan and Xingru Pan and Xinyuan Zhang and Xinze Zhang and Xiuqing Fu and Xunkai Zhang and Yabo Xu and Yandong Wu and Yida Lu and Yidong Wang and Yilin Zhou and Yiming Pan and Ying Zhang and Yingli Wang and Yingru Li and Yinpei Su and Yipeng Geng and Yitong Zhu and Yongkun Yang and Yuhang Li and Yuhao Wu and Yujiang Li and Yunan Liu and Yunqing Wang and Yuntao Li and Yuxuan Zhang and Zezhen Liu and Zhen Yang and Zhengda Zhou and Zhongpei Qiao and Zhuoer Feng and Zhuorui Liu and Zichen Zhang and Zihan Wang and Zijun Yao and Zikang Wang and Ziqiang Liu and Ziwei Chai and Zixuan Li and Zuodong Zhao and Wenguang Chen and Jidong Zhai and Bin Xu and Minlie Huang and Hongning Wang and Juanzi Li and Yuxiao Dong and Jie Tang},
      year={2025},
      eprint={2508.06471},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.06471}, 
}

@misc{deepseekai2025deepseekv3technicalreport,
      title={{DeepSeek-V3 Technical Report}}, 
      author={DeepSeek-AI and Aixin Liu and Bei Feng and Bing Xue and Bingxuan Wang and Bochao Wu and Chengda Lu and Chenggang Zhao and Chengqi Deng and Chenyu Zhang and Chong Ruan and Damai Dai and Daya Guo and Dejian Yang and Deli Chen and Dongjie Ji and Erhang Li and Fangyun Lin and Fucong Dai and Fuli Luo and Guangbo Hao and Guanting Chen and Guowei Li and H. Zhang and Han Bao and Hanwei Xu and Haocheng Wang and Haowei Zhang and Honghui Ding and Huajian Xin and Huazuo Gao and Hui Li and Hui Qu and J. L. Cai and Jian Liang and Jianzhong Guo and Jiaqi Ni and Jiashi Li and Jiawei Wang and Jin Chen and Jingchang Chen and Jingyang Yuan and Junjie Qiu and Junlong Li and Junxiao Song and Kai Dong and Kai Hu and Kaige Gao and Kang Guan and Kexin Huang and Kuai Yu and Lean Wang and Lecong Zhang and Lei Xu and Leyi Xia and Liang Zhao and Litong Wang and Liyue Zhang and Meng Li and Miaojun Wang and Mingchuan Zhang and Minghua Zhang and Minghui Tang and Mingming Li and Ning Tian and Panpan Huang and Peiyi Wang and Peng Zhang and Qiancheng Wang and Qihao Zhu and Qinyu Chen and Qiushi Du and R. J. Chen and R. L. Jin and Ruiqi Ge and Ruisong Zhang and Ruizhe Pan and Runji Wang and Runxin Xu and Ruoyu Zhang and Ruyi Chen and S. S. Li and Shanghao Lu and Shangyan Zhou and Shanhuang Chen and Shaoqing Wu and Shengfeng Ye and Shengfeng Ye and Shirong Ma and Shiyu Wang and Shuang Zhou and Shuiping Yu and Shunfeng Zhou and Shuting Pan and T. Wang and Tao Yun and Tian Pei and Tianyu Sun and W. L. Xiao and Wangding Zeng and Wanjia Zhao and Wei An and Wen Liu and Wenfeng Liang and Wenjun Gao and Wenqin Yu and Wentao Zhang and X. Q. Li and Xiangyue Jin and Xianzu Wang and Xiao Bi and Xiaodong Liu and Xiaohan Wang and Xiaojin Shen and Xiaokang Chen and Xiaokang Zhang and Xiaosha Chen and Xiaotao Nie and Xiaowen Sun and Xiaoxiang Wang and Xin Cheng and Xin Liu and Xin Xie and Xingchao Liu and Xingkai Yu and Xinnan Song and Xinxia Shan and Xinyi Zhou and Xinyu Yang and Xinyuan Li and Xuecheng Su and Xuheng Lin and Y. K. Li and Y. Q. Wang and Y. X. Wei and Y. X. Zhu and Yang Zhang and Yanhong Xu and Yanhong Xu and Yanping Huang and Yao Li and Yao Zhao and Yaofeng Sun and Yaohui Li and Yaohui Wang and Yi Yu and Yi Zheng and Yichao Zhang and Yifan Shi and Yiliang Xiong and Ying He and Ying Tang and Yishi Piao and Yisong Wang and Yixuan Tan and Yiyang Ma and Yiyuan Liu and Yongqiang Guo and Yu Wu and Yuan Ou and Yuchen Zhu and Yuduan Wang and Yue Gong and Yuheng Zou and Yujia He and Yukun Zha and Yunfan Xiong and Yunxian Ma and Yuting Yan and Yuxiang Luo and Yuxiang You and Yuxuan Liu and Yuyang Zhou and Z. F. Wu and Z. Z. Ren and Zehui Ren and Zhangli Sha and Zhe Fu and Zhean Xu and Zhen Huang and Zhen Zhang and Zhenda Xie and Zhengyan Zhang and Zhewen Hao and Zhibin Gou and Zhicheng Ma and Zhigang Yan and Zhihong Shao and Zhipeng Xu and Zhiyu Wu and Zhongyu Zhang and Zhuoshu Li and Zihui Gu and Zijia Zhu and Zijun Liu and Zilin Li and Ziwei Xie and Ziyang Song and Ziyi Gao and Zizheng Pan},
      year={2025},
      eprint={2412.19437},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.19437}, 
}

@misc{openai2024gpt4technicalreport,
      title={{GPT-4 Technical Report}},
      author={OpenAI and Josh Achiam and Steven Adler and Sandhini Agarwal and Lama Ahmad and Ilge Akkaya and Florencia Leoni Aleman and Diogo Almeida and Janko Altenschmidt and Sam Altman and Shyamal Anadkat and Red Avila and Igor Babuschkin and Suchir Balaji and Valerie Balcom and Paul Baltescu and Haiming Bao and Mohammad Bavarian and Jeff Belgum and Irwan Bello and Jake Berdine and Gabriel Bernadett-Shapiro and Christopher Berner and Lenny Bogdonoff and Oleg Boiko and Madelaine Boyd and Anna-Luisa Brakman and Greg Brockman and Tim Brooks and Miles Brundage and Kevin Button and Trevor Cai and Rosie Campbell and Andrew Cann and Brittany Carey and Chelsea Carlson and Rory Carmichael and Brooke Chan and Che Chang and Fotis Chantzis and Derek Chen and Sully Chen and Ruby Chen and Jason Chen and Mark Chen and Ben Chess and Chester Cho and Casey Chu and Hyung Won Chung and Dave Cummings and Jeremiah Currier and Yunxing Dai and Cory Decareaux and Thomas Degry and Noah Deutsch and Damien Deville and Arka Dhar and David Dohan and Steve Dowling and Sheila Dunning and Adrien Ecoffet and Atty Eleti and Tyna Eloundou and David Farhi and Liam Fedus and Niko Felix and Simón Posada Fishman and Juston Forte and Isabella Fulford and Leo Gao and Elie Georges and Christian Gibson and Vik Goel and Tarun Gogineni and Gabriel Goh and Rapha Gontijo-Lopes and Jonathan Gordon and Morgan Grafstein and Scott Gray and Ryan Greene and Joshua Gross and Shixiang Shane Gu and Yufei Guo and Chris Hallacy and Jesse Han and Jeff Harris and Yuchen He and Mike Heaton and Johannes Heidecke and Chris Hesse and Alan Hickey and Wade Hickey and Peter Hoeschele and Brandon Houghton and Kenny Hsu and Shengli Hu and Xin Hu and Joost Huizinga and Shantanu Jain and Shawn Jain and Joanne Jang and Angela Jiang and Roger Jiang and Haozhun Jin and Denny Jin and Shino Jomoto and Billie Jonn and Heewoo Jun and Tomer Kaftan and Łukasz Kaiser and Ali Kamali and Ingmar Kanitscheider and Nitish Shirish Keskar and Tabarak Khan and Logan Kilpatrick and Jong Wook Kim and Christina Kim and Yongjik Kim and Jan Hendrik Kirchner and Jamie Kiros and Matt Knight and Daniel Kokotajlo and Łukasz Kondraciuk and Andrew Kondrich and Aris Konstantinidis and Kyle Kosic and Gretchen Krueger and Vishal Kuo and Michael Lampe and Ikai Lan and Teddy Lee and Jan Leike and Jade Leung and Daniel Levy and Chak Ming Li and Rachel Lim and Molly Lin and Stephanie Lin and Mateusz Litwin and Theresa Lopez and Ryan Lowe and Patricia Lue and Anna Makanju and Kim Malfacini and Sam Manning and Todor Markov and Yaniv Markovski and Bianca Martin and Katie Mayer and Andrew Mayne and Bob McGrew and Scott Mayer McKinney and Christine McLeavey and Paul McMillan and Jake McNeil and David Medina and Aalok Mehta and Jacob Menick and Luke Metz and Andrey Mishchenko and Pamela Mishkin and Vinnie Monaco and Evan Morikawa and Daniel Mossing and Tong Mu and Mira Murati and Oleg Murk and David Mély and Ashvin Nair and Reiichiro Nakano and Rajeev Nayak and Arvind Neelakantan and Richard Ngo and Hyeonwoo Noh and Long Ouyang and Cullen O'Keefe and Jakub Pachocki and Alex Paino and Joe Palermo and Ashley Pantuliano and Giambattista Parascandolo and Joel Parish and Emy Parparita and Alex Passos and Mikhail Pavlov and Andrew Peng and Adam Perelman and Filipe de Avila Belbute Peres and Michael Petrov and Henrique Ponde de Oliveira Pinto and Michael and Pokorny and Michelle Pokrass and Vitchyr H. Pong and Tolly Powell and Alethea Power and Boris Power and Elizabeth Proehl and Raul Puri and Alec Radford and Jack Rae and Aditya Ramesh and Cameron Raymond and Francis Real and Kendra Rimbach and Carl Ross and Bob Rotsted and Henri Roussez and Nick Ryder and Mario Saltarelli and Ted Sanders and Shibani Santurkar and Girish Sastry and Heather Schmidt and David Schnurr and John Schulman and Daniel Selsam and Kyla Sheppard and Toki Sherbakov and Jessica Shieh and Sarah Shoker and Pranav Shyam and Szymon Sidor and Eric Sigler and Maddie Simens and Jordan Sitkin and Katarina Slama and Ian Sohl and Benjamin Sokolowsky and Yang Song and Natalie Staudacher and Felipe Petroski Such and Natalie Summers and Ilya Sutskever and Jie Tang and Nikolas Tezak and Madeleine B. Thompson and Phil Tillet and Amin Tootoonchian and Elizabeth Tseng and Preston Tuggle and Nick Turley and Jerry Tworek and Juan Felipe Cerón Uribe and Andrea Vallone and Arun Vijayvergiya and Chelsea Voss and Carroll Wainwright and Justin Jay Wang and Alvin Wang and Ben Wang and Jonathan Ward and Jason Wei and CJ Weinmann and Akila Welihinda and Peter Welinder and Jiayi Weng and Lilian Weng and Matt Wiethoff and Dave Willner and Clemens Winter and Samuel Wolrich and Hannah Wong and Lauren Workman and Sherwin Wu and Jeff Wu and Michael Wu and Kai Xiao and Tao Xu and Sarah Yoo and Kevin Yu and Qiming Yuan and Wojciech Zaremba and Rowan Zellers and Chong Zhang and Marvin Zhang and Shengjia Zhao and Tianhao Zheng and Juntang Zhuang and William Zhuk and Barret Zoph},
      year={2024},
      eprint={2303.08774},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.08774}, 
}

@misc{nvidia2024nemotron4340btechnicalreport,
      title={{Nemotron-4 340B Technical Report}}, 
      author={Nvidia and Bo Adler and Niket Agarwal and Ashwath Aithal and Dong H. Anh and Pallab Bhattacharya and Annika Brundyn and Jared Casper and Bryan Catanzaro and Sharon Clay and Jonathan Cohen and Sirshak Das and Ayush Dattagupta and Olivier Delalleau and Leon Derczynski and Yi Dong and Daniel Egert and Ellie Evans and Aleksander Ficek and Denys Fridman and Shaona Ghosh and Boris Ginsburg and Igor Gitman and Tomasz Grzegorzek and Robert Hero and Jining Huang and Vibhu Jawa and Joseph Jennings and Aastha Jhunjhunwala and John Kamalu and Sadaf Khan and Oleksii Kuchaiev and Patrick LeGresley and Hui Li and Jiwei Liu and Zihan Liu and Eileen Long and Ameya Sunil Mahabaleshwarkar and Somshubra Majumdar and James Maki and Miguel Martinez and Maer Rodrigues de Melo and Ivan Moshkov and Deepak Narayanan and Sean Narenthiran and Jesus Navarro and Phong Nguyen and Osvald Nitski and Vahid Noroozi and Guruprasad Nutheti and Christopher Parisien and Jupinder Parmar and Mostofa Patwary and Krzysztof Pawelec and Wei Ping and Shrimai Prabhumoye and Rajarshi Roy and Trisha Saar and Vasanth Rao Naik Sabavat and Sanjeev Satheesh and Jane Polak Scowcroft and Jason Sewall and Pavel Shamis and Gerald Shen and Mohammad Shoeybi and Dave Sizer and Misha Smelyanskiy and Felipe Soares and Makesh Narsimhan Sreedhar and Dan Su and Sandeep Subramanian and Shengyang Sun and Shubham Toshniwal and Hao Wang and Zhilin Wang and Jiaxuan You and Jiaqi Zeng and Jimmy Zhang and Jing Zhang and Vivienne Zhang and Yian Zhang and Chen Zhu},
      year={2024},
      eprint={2406.11704},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.11704}, 
}

@article{10.1162/coli.07-034-R2,
author = {Artstein, Ron and Poesio, Massimo},
title = {Inter-coder agreement for computational linguistics},
year = {2008},
issue_date = {December 2008},
publisher = {MIT Press},
address = {Cambridge, MA, USA},
volume = {34},
number = {4},
issn = {0891-2017},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/coli.07-034-R2},
doi = {10.1162/coli.07-034-R2},
abstract = {This article is a survey of methods for measuring agreement among corpus annotators. It exposes the mathematics and underlying assumptions of agreement coefficients, covering Krippendorff's alpha as well as Scott's pi and Cohen's kappa; discusses the use of coefficients in several annotation tasks; and argues that weighted, alpha-like coefficients, traditionally less used than kappa-like measures in computational linguistics, may be more appropriate for many corpus annotation tasks---but that their use makes the interpretation of the value of the coefficient even harder.},
journal = {Comput. Linguist.},
month = dec,
pages = {555–596},
numpages = {42}
}