Not to be confused with OxyContin.

API
Systematic (IUPAC) name
1-({(4R,7S,10S,13S,16S,19R)-19-amino-?7-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-?10-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)-?16-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)-?13-[(1S)-1-methylpropyl]-?6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-?1,2-dithia-?5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosan-4-yl}carbonyl)-?L-prolyl-?L-leucylglycinamide
Clinical data
Trade names | Pitocin
AHFS/Drugs.com | monograph
Pregnancy cat. | A (AU)
Legal status | POM (UK) ℞-only (US)
Routes | Intranasal, IV, IM
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability | nil
Protein binding | 30%
Metabolism | hepatic oxytocinases
Half-life | 1?6 min
Excretion | Biliary and renal
Identifiers
CAS number | 50-56-6 Y
ATC code | H01 BB02
PubChem | CID 439302
IUPHAR ligand | 2174
DrugBank | DB00107
ChemSpider | 388434 Y
UNII | 1JQS135EYN Y
KEGG | D00089 Y
ChEBI | CHEBI:7872 Y
ChEMBL | CHEMBL265640 N
Chemical data
Formula | C43H66N12O12S2
Mol. mass | 1007.19 g/mol
SMILES O=C(N)CNC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H]3N(C(=O)[C@H]1NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CSSC1)Cc2ccc(O)cc2)[C@@H](C)CC)CCC(=O)N)CC(=O)N)CCC3)CC(C)C
InChI InChI=1S/C43H66N12O12S2/c1-5-22(4)35-42(66)49-26(12-13-32(45)57)38(62)51-29(17-33(46)58)39(63)53-30(20-69-68-19-25(44)36(60)50-28(40(64)54-35)16-23-8-10-24(56)11-9-23)43(67)55-14-6-7-31(55)41(65)52-27(15-21(2)3)37(61)48-18-34(47)59/h8-11,21-22,25-31,35,56H,5-7,12-20,44H2,1-4H3,(H2,45,57)(H2,46,58)(H2,47,59)(H,48,61)(H,49,66)(H,50,60)(H,51,62)(H,52,65)(H,53,63)(H,54,64)/t22-,25-,26-,27-,28-,29-,30-,31-,35-/m0/s1 Y Key:XNOPRXBHLZRZKH-DSZYJQQASA-N Y
N (what is this?) (verify)

Oxytocin (Oxt) (/[unsupported input]ʔ ʔ k s ʔ ʔ t[unsupported input]s ʔ n/) is a mammalian hormone that acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain.

Oxytocin is best known for its roles in sexual reproduction, in particular during and after childbirth. It is released in large amounts after distension of the cervix and uterus during labor, facilitating birth, Maternal bonding, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating breastfeeding.

Recent studies (2009) have begun to investigate oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including orgasm, social recognition, pair bonding, anxiety, and maternal behaviors.[1] For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "love hormone". The inability to secrete oxytocin and feel empathy is linked to sociopathy, psychopathy, narcissism,[citation needed] and general manipulativeness.[2][not verified in body] However, there is some evidence that oxytocin promotes 'tribal' behaviour, incorporating the trust and empathy of in-groups with their suspicion and rejection of outsiders.[3]

## Discovery[edit]

The word oxytocin was derived from Greek ????, oxys, and ?????, tokos, meaning "quick birth", after its uterine-contracting properties were discovered by British pharmacologist Sir Henry Hallett Dale in 1906.[4] The milk ejection property of oxytocin was described by Ott and Scott in 1910[5] and by Schafer and Mackenzie in 1911.[6]

The nine amino acid sequence of oxytocin was elucidated by Vincent du Vigneaud et al. and by Tuppy in 1953[7] and synthesized biochemically soon after by du Vigneaud et al. in 1953.[8][9] Oxytocin was the first polypeptide hormone to be sequenced and synthesized.[10]

## Structure and relation to vasopressin[edit]

Oxytocin is a peptide of nine amino acids (a nonapeptide). Its systematic name is cysteine-tyrosine-isoleucine-glutamine-asparagine-cysteine-proline-leucine-glycine-amine (cys ? tyr ? ile ? gln ? asn ? cys ? pro ? leu ? gly ? NH2, or CYIQNCPLG-NH2). Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 daltons. One international unit (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of about 2 micrograms of pure peptide. While the structure of oxytocin is highly conserved in placental mammals, a novel structure of oxytocin was recently reported in marmosets, tamarins, and other new world primates. Genomic sequencing of the gene for oxytocin revealed a single in-frame mutation(thymine for cytosine) which results in a single amino acid substitution at the 8-position (proline for leucine).[11]

The biologically active form of oxytocin, commonly measured by RIA and/or HPLC techniques, is also known as the octapeptide "oxytocin disulfide" (oxidized form), but oxytocin also exists as a reduced dithiol nonapeptide called oxytoceine.[12] It has been theorized that open chain oxytoceine (the reduced form of oxytocin) may also act as a free radical scavenger (by donating an electron to a free radical); oxytoceine may then be oxidized back to oxytocin via the redox potential of dehydroascorbate <---> ascorbate.[13]

Oxytocin (ball-and-stick) bound to its carrier protein neurophysin (ribbons)

The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of vasopressin (cys ? tyr ? phe ? gln ? asn ? cys ? pro ? arg ? gly ? NH2), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge, whose sequence differs from oxytocin by two amino acids. A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is present in the vasopressin article. Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953, work for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955.

Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.

## Actions[edit]

Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. Its actions are mediated by specific, high-affinity oxytocin receptors. The oxytocin receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor that requires Mg2 and cholesterol. It belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.

### Peripheral (hormonal) actions[edit]

The peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. (See oxytocin receptor for more detail on its action.)

- Letdown reflex: In lactating (breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into subareolar sinuses, from where it can be excreted via the nipple.[14] Suckling by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituitary gland.
- Uterine contraction: Important for cervical dilation before birth, oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition are normal.[15]

- Social behavior and wound healing: Oxytocin is also thought to modulate inflammation by decreasing certain cytokines. Thus, the increased release in oxytocin following positive social interactions has the potential to improve wound healing. A study by Marazziti and colleagues used heterosexual couples to address this possibility. They found increases in plasma oxytocin following a social interaction were correlated with faster wound healing. They hypothesized this was due to oxytocin reducing inflammation, thus allowing the wound to heal faster. This study provides preliminary evidence that positive social interactions may directly impact aspects of health.[16]

- The relationship between oxytocin and human sexual response is unclear. At least two uncontrolled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm ? in both men and women.[17][18] Plasma oxytocin levels are notably increased around the time of self-stimulated orgasm and are still higher than baseline when measured five minutes after self arousal.[17] The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.[17] In a study measuring oxytocin serum levels in women before and after sexual stimulation, the author suggests it serves an important role in sexual arousal. This study found genital tract stimulation resulted in increased oxytocin immediately after orgasm.[19] Another study reported increases of oxytocin during sexual arousal could be in response to nipple/areola, genital, and/or genital tract stimulation as confirmed in other mammals.[20] Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found oxytocin levels were raised throughout sexual arousal with no acute increase at orgasm.[21] A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue".[22]

Oxytocin evokes feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security around the mate.[23] Many studies have already shown a correlation of oxytocin with human bonding, increases in trust, and decreases in fear. One study confirmed a positive correlation between oxytocin plasma levels and an anxiety scale measuring the adult romantic attachment.[24] This suggests oxytocin may be important for the inhibition of the brain regions associated with behavioral control, fear, and anxiety, thus allowing orgasm to occur. Oxytocin also functions to protect against stress. Meta-analyses conducted in 2003 demonstrated that oxytocin can alleviate mood and reduce stress with alarming efficiency.[25]

- Due to its similarity to vasopressin, it can reduce the excretion of urine slightly. In several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and, in humans, high doses can result in hyponatremia.

- Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation.[26][27] However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.[15]

- Modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: Oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol and, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin.[28]

- Autism: Oxytocin may play a role in autism and may be an effective treatment for autism's repetitive and affiliative behaviors.[29] Oxytocin treatments also resulted in an increased retention of affective speech in adults with autism.[30] Two related studies in adults, in 2003 and 2007, found oxytocin decreased repetitive behaviors and improved interpretation of emotions. More recently, intranasal administration of oxytocin was found to increase emotion recognition in children as young as 12 who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders [31] Oxytocin has also been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting autism is correlated with genomic deletion of the gene containing the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). Studies involving Caucasian and Finnish samples and Chinese Han families provide support for the relationship of OXTR with autism.[30][32] Autism may also be associated with an aberrant methylation of OXTR.[30] After treatment with inhaled oxytocin, autistic patients exhibit more appropriate social behavior.[33] While this research suggests some promise, further clinical trials of oxytocin are required to demonstrate potential benefit and side effects in the treatment of autism. As such, researchers do not recommend use of oxytocin as a treatment for autism outside of clinical trials.

- Increasing trust and reducing fear: In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion.[34] Nasally administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses).[35] Indeed, studies in rodents have shown oxytocin can efficiently inhibit fear responses by activating an inhibitory circuit within the amygdala. Some researchers have argued oxytocin has a general enhancing effect on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also increases envy and Schadenfreude.[36]

- Affecting generosity by increasing empathy during perspective taking: In a neuroeconomics experiment, intranasal oxytocin increased generosity in the Ultimatum Game by 80%, but has no effect in the Dictator Game that measures altruism. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants into which role they would be placed.[37] Serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regard to the role of oxytocin in trust and generosity.[38]

- Cognitive function: Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally administered oxytocin.[39] Also, systemic oxytocin administration can impair memory retrieval in certain aversive memory tasks.[40] Interestingly, oxytocin does seem to facilitate learning and memory specifically for social information. Healthy males administered intranasal oxytocin show improved memory for human faces, in particular happy faces.[41][42] They also show improved recognition for positive social cues over threatening social cues [43][44] and improved recognition of fear.[45]

Empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin[46][47] This is most likely due to the effect of oxytocin in enhancing eye gaze.[48] There is some discussion about which aspect of empathy oxytocin might alter ? for example, cognitive vs. emotional empathy.[49]

### Actions within the brain[edit]

Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the blood?brain barrier. Instead, the behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland, or that are collaterals from them.[50] Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum, nucleus accumbens, and brainstem.

- Sexual arousal: Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats,[39] reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord. Centrally administrated oxytocin receptor antagonists can prevent noncontact erections, which is a measure of sexual arousal. Studies using oxytocin antagonists in female rats provide data that oxytocin increases lordosis behavior, indicating an increase in sexual receptivity.[51]

- Bonding: In the prairie vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males.[52] Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, so it likely also does in humans. In a 2003 study, both humans and dog oxytocin levels in the blood rose after five to 24 minutes of a petting session. This possibly plays a role in the emotional bonding between humans and dogs.[53]

- Maternal behavior: Female rats given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior.[54] By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise.[55] Oxytocin is involved in the initiation of maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.[56]

- Drug interactions: According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol), and reduces withdrawal symptoms.[57] MDMA (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy, and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity via activation of serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans.[58] The anxiolytic Buspar (buspirone) also appears to produce some or all of its effect via 5-HT1A receptor-induced oxytocin stimulation.[59][60]

- Preparing fetal neurons for delivery: Crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter GABA from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to hypoxic damage.[61]

- Romantic attachment: In some studies, high levels of plasma oxytocin have been correlated with romantic attachment. For example, if a couple is separated for a long period of time, anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. Oxytocin may aid romantically attached couples by decreasing their feelings of anxiety when they are separated.[62]

## Drug forms[edit]

Synthetic oxytocin is sold as proprietary medication under the trade names Pitocin and Syntocinon, and as generic oxytocin. Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, so must be administered by injection or as nasal spray. It has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood, and given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities ? it is excluded from the brain by the blood?brain barrier. Evidence in rhesus macaques indicates oxytocin by nasal spray does enter the brain.[63] Oxytocin nasal sprays have been used to stimulate breastfeeding, but the efficacy of this approach is doubtful.[64]

Injected oxytocin analogues are used for labor induction and to support labor in case of difficult parturition. It has largely replaced ergometrine as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute postpartum hemorrhage. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to stimulate milk release. The tocolytic agent atosiban (Tractocile) acts as an antagonist of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labor between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. It has fewer side effects than drugs previously used for this purpose (ritodrine, salbutamol, and terbutaline).

The trust-inducing property of oxytocin might help those who suffer from social anxieties and mood disorders,[47] but with the potential for abuse with confidence tricks[65][66] and military applications.[67]

### Potential adverse reactions[edit]

Oxytocin is relatively safe when used at recommended doses, and side effects are uncommon.[68] The following maternal events have been reported:[68]

- Subarachnoid hemorrhage
- Increased heart rate
- Decreased blood pressure
- Cardiac arrhythmia and premature ventricular contraction
- Impaired uterine blood flow
- Pelvic hematoma
- Afibrinogenonemia, which can lead to hemorrhage and death
- Anaphylaxis
- Nausea and vomiting

Excessive dosage or long-term administration (over a period of 24 hours or longer) have been known to result in tetanic uterine contractions, uterine rupture, postpartum hemorrhage, and water intoxication, sometimes fatal.

Increased uterine motility has led to the following complications in the fetus/neonate:[68]

- Decreased heart rate or heart rate decelerations
- Cardiac arrhythmia
- Brain damage
- Seizures
- Death

## Synthesis, storage, and release[edit]

Oxytocin/neurophysin I prepropeptide
Identifiers
Symbols | OXT; OT; OT-NPI; OXT-NPI
External IDs | OMIM: 167050 MGI: 97453 HomoloGene: 55494 GeneCards: OXT Gene
Gene Ontology
Molecular function | • neurohypophyseal hormone activity • oxytocin receptor binding
Cellular component | • extracellular region • extracellular space • secretory granule • terminal bouton
Biological process | • response to amphetamine • regulation of heart rate • maternal aggressive behavior • signal transduction • elevation of cytosolic calcium ion concentration • heart development • female pregnancy • memory • grooming behavior • response to sucrose stimulus • positive regulation of norepinephrine secretion • response to activity • sleep • positive regulation of prostaglandin secretion • response to estradiol stimulus • response to retinoic acid • response to progesterone stimulus • response to prostaglandin E stimulus • social behavior • negative regulation of urine volume • positive regulation of renal sodium excretion • response to cocaine • hyperosmotic salinity response • maternal behavior • sperm ejaculation • eating behavior • drinking behavior • response to peptide hormone stimulus • response to ether • negative regulation of blood pressure • positive regulation of blood pressure • positive regulation of ossification • positive regulation of female receptivity • positive regulation of synaptic transmission • response to glucocorticoid stimulus • response to cAMP • response to electrical stimulus • regulation of sensory perception of pain • positive regulation of synapse assembly • male mating behavior • positive regulation of penile erection • positive regulation of hindgut contraction • negative regulation of gastric acid secretion • positive regulation of uterine smooth muscle contraction
Sources: Amigo / QuickGO
Orthologs
Species | Human | Mouse |
Entrez | 5020 | 18429 |
Ensembl | ENSG00000101405 | ENSMUSG00000027301 |
UniProt | P01178 | P35454 |
RefSeq (mRNA) | NM_000915 | NM_011025 |
RefSeq (protein) | NP_000906 | NP_035155 |
Location (UCSC) | Chr 20: 3.05 – 3.05 Mb | Chr 2: 130.58 – 130.58 Mb |
PubMed search | [1] | [2] |

The oxytocin peptide is synthesized as an inactive precursor protein from the OXT gene.[69][70][71] This precursor protein also includes the oxytocin carrier protein neurophysin I.[72] The inactive precursor protein is progressively hydrolyzed into smaller fragments (one of which is neurophysin I) via a series of enzymes. The last hydrolysis that releases the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed by peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM).[73]

The activity of the PAM enzyme system is dependent upon vitamin C (ascorbate), which is a necessary vitamin cofactor. By chance, sodium ascorbate by itself was found to stimulate the production of oxytocin from ovarian tissue over a range of concentrations in a dose-dependent manner.[74] Many of the same tissues (e.g. ovaries, testes, eyes, adrenals, placenta, thymus, pancreas) where PAM (and oxytocin by default) is found are also known to store higher concentrations of vitamin C.[75]

### Neural sources[edit]

In the hypothalamus, oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, and is stored in Herring bodies at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland. These axons (likely, but dendrites have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate oxytocin receptors in the nucleus accumbens.[50] The peripheral hormonal and behavioral brain effects of oxytocin are thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals.[50] Oxytocin is also made by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.[76] Depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin I as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the larger precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage.

Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised.

### Non-neural sources[edit]

Outside the brain, oxytocin-containing cells have been identified in several diverse tissues, including the corpus luteum,[77][78] the interstitial cells of Leydig,[79] the retina,[80] the adrenal medulla,[81] the placenta,[82] the thymus[83] and the pancreas.[84] The finding of significant amounts of this classically "neurohypophysial" hormone outside the central nervous system raises many questions regarding its possible importance in these different tissues.

#### Female[edit]

Oxytocin is synthesized by corpora lutea of several species, including ruminants and primates. Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of prostaglandin?F2? to cause regression of the corpus luteum.

#### Male[edit]

The Leydig cells in some species have also been shown to possess the biosynthetic machinery to manufacture testicular oxytocin de novo, to be specific, in rats (which can synthesize vitamin C endogenously), and in guinea pigs, which, like humans, require an exogenous source of vitamin C (ascorbate) in their diets.[85]

## Oxytocin receptor polymorphism[edit]

The oxytocin receptor in humans has several alleles, which differ in their effectiveness. Individuals homozygous for the "G" allele, when compared to carriers of the "A" allele, show higher empathy and lower stress response,[86] as well as lower prevalence of autism and of poor parenting skills.[87]

## Evolution[edit]

Virtually all vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are usually located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome, and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, in fugu,[88] the homologs are further apart and transcribed in the same direction).

The two genes are believed to result from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomata (modern members of the Agnatha).[39]

## See also[edit]

- Carbetocin
- Demoxytocin
- Sexual motivation and hormones
- WAY-267,464

## References[edit]

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2. ^ O'Callaghan T (7, June 2010). "Thanks, Mom!". Time Magazine (Time, Inc.). Retrieved 2010-06-08. Check date values in: `|date=` (help)
3. ^ De Dreu CK, Greer LL, Van Kleef GA, Shalvi S, Handgraaf MJ (January 2011). "Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 (4): 1262?6. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015316108. PMC 3029708. PMID 21220339.
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8. ^ du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG, Gordon S (1953). "The synthesis of an octapeptide amide with the hormonal activity of oxytocin". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 75 (19): 4879?80. doi:10.1021/ja01115a553.
9. ^ du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG (June 1954). "The synthesis of oxytocin". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76 (12): 3115?3121. doi:10.1021/ja01641a004.
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14. ^ http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/976504-overview
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17. ^ a b c Carmichael MS, Humbert R, Dixen J, Palmisano G, Greenleaf W, Davidson JM (January 1987). "Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 64 (1): 27?31. doi:10.1210/jcem-64-1-27. PMID 3782434.
18. ^ Carmichael MS, Warburton VL, Dixen J, Davidson JM (February 1994). "Relationships among cardiovascular, muscular, and oxytocin responses during human sexual activity". Archives of Sexual Behavior 23 (1): 59?79. doi:10.1007/BF01541618. PMID 8135652.
19. ^ Blaicher W, Gruber D, Bieglmayer C, Blaicher AM, Knogler W, Huber JC (1999). "The role of oxytocin in relation to female sexual arousal". Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation 47 (2): 125?6. doi:10.1159/000010075. PMID 9949283.
20. ^ Anderson-Hunt M, Dennerstein L (1995). "Oxytocin and female sexuality". Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation 40 (4): 217?21. doi:10.1159/000292340. PMID 8586300.
21. ^ Murphy MR, Seckl JR, Burton S, Checkley SA, Lightman SL (October 1987). "Changes in oxytocin and vasopressin secretion during sexual activity in men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 65 (4): 738?41. doi:10.1210/jcem-65-4-738. PMID 3654918.
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## Further reading[edit]

- Lee HJ, Macbeth AH, Pagani JH, Young WS (June 2009). "Oxytocin: the Great Facilitator of Life". Progress in Neurobiology 88 (2): 127?51. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.04.001. PMC 2689929. PMID 19482229.
- Caldwell HK, Young WS III (2006). "Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Genetics and Behavioral Implications". In Abel L, Lim R. Handbook of neurochemistry and molecular neurobiology. Berlin: Springer. pp. 573?607. ISBN 0-387-30348-0.

## External links[edit]

- Hug the Monkey ? A weblog devoted entirely to oxytocin
- The Soft Machine ? Review of oxytocin and bonding in animal and human research (.pdf)
- A Neurophysiologic Model of the Circuitry of Oxytocin in Arousal, Female Distress and Depression ? Rainer K. Liedtke, MD (2004)
- Oxytocin.org ? 'I get a kick out of you: Scientists are finding that, after all, love really is down to a chemical addiction between people', The Economist (February 12, 2004)
- NewScientist.com ? 'Release of Oxytocin due to penetrative sex reduces stress and neurotic tendencies', New Scientist (January 26, 2006)
- SMH.com.au ? 'To sniff at danger: Inhalable oxytocin could become a cure for social fears', Boston Globe (January 12, 2006)
- 'Cuddle chemical' could treat mental illness (14 May 2008) New Scientist
- Molecular neurobiology of social bonding: Implications for autism spectrum disorders a lecture by Prof. Larry Young, Jan. 4, 2010.
- A TED talk by Prof.Paul Zak on Trust,Morality Oxytocin

Endocrine system: hormones (Peptide hormones · Steroid hormones)
Endocrine glands |
Hypothalamic- pituitary |
Hypothalamus | GnRH · TRH · Dopamine · CRH · GHRH/Somatostatin · Melanin concentrating hormone
Posterior pituitary | Vasopressin · Oxytocin
Anterior pituitary | α (FSH FSHB, LH LHB, TSH TSHB, CGA) · Prolactin · POMC (CLIP, ACTH, MSH, Endorphins, Lipotropin) · GH
Adrenal axis | Adrenal cortex: aldosterone · cortisol · DHEA Adrenal medulla: epinephrine · norepinephrine
Thyroid axis | Thyroid: thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) · calcitonin Parathyroid: PTH
Gonadal axis | Testis: testosterone · AMH · inhibin Ovary: estradiol · progesterone · activin and inhibin · relaxin (pregnancy) Placenta: hCG · HPL · estrogen · progesterone
Islet-Acinar Axis | Pancreas: glucagon · insulin · amylin · somatostatin · pancreatic polypeptide
Pineal gland | Pineal gland: melatonin
Non-end. glands | Thymus: Thymosin (Thymosin α1, Thymosin beta) · Thymopoietin · Thymulin Digestive system: Stomach: gastrin · ghrelin · Duodenum: CCK · Incretins (GIP, GLP-1) · secretin · motilin · VIP · Ileum: enteroglucagon · peptide YY · Liver/other: Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1, IGF-2) Adipose tissue: leptin · adiponectin · resistin Skeleton: Osteocalcin Kidney: JGA (renin) · peritubular cells (EPO) · calcitriol · prostaglandin Heart: Natriuretic peptide (ANP, BNP)
M: END | anat/phys/devp/horm | noco (d)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon | proc, drug (A10/H1/H2/H3/H5)

Anxiolytics (N05B)
GABAA PAMs |
non-N05B | Alcohols (2M2B, Ethanol (beverage), Ethchlorvynol, Methylpentynol) Chlormezanone Etifoxine Inhalants Kavalactones (Kava) Skullcap Valerenic acid (Valerian)
Benzodiazepine | Adinazolam Alprazolam Bretazenil Bromazepam Camazepam Chlordiazepoxide Clobazam Clonazepam Clorazepate Clotiazepam Cloxazolam Diazepam# Ethyl Loflazepate Etizolam Fludiazepam Halazepam Imidazenil Ketazolam Lorazepam# Medazepam Nordazepam Oxazepam Pinazepam Prazepam
Carbamates | Difebarbamate Emylcamate Febarbamate Mebutamate Meprobamate (Carisoprodol, Tybamate) Phenprobamate Procymate
Nonbenzodiazepines | Abecarnil Adipiplon Alpidem CGS-8216 CGS-9896 CGS-13767 CGS-20625 Divaplon ELB-139 Fasiplon GBLD-345 Gedocarnil L-838,417 NS-2664 NS-2710 Ocinaplon Pagoclone Panadiplon Pipequaline RWJ-51204 SB-205,384 SL-651,498 Taniplon TP-003 TP-13 TPA-023 Y-23684 ZK-93423
Pyrazolopyridines | Cartazolate Etazolate ICI-190,622 Tracazolate
α2δ VDCC Blockers | Atagabalin Gabapentin Imagabalin PD-217,014 Pregabalin 4-methylpregabalin
5-HT1A Agonists | Azapirones: Buspirone Gepirone Tandospirone; Others: Flesinoxan Naluzotan Oxaflozane
H1 Antagonists | Diphenylmethanes: Captodiame Hydroxyzine; Others: Brompheniramine Chlorphenamine Pheniramine
CRH1 Antagonists | Antalarmin CP-154,526 Pexacerfont Pivagabine
NK2 Antagonists | GR-159,897 Saredutant Ibodutant
MCH1 antagonists | ATC-0175 SNAP-94847
mGluR2/3 Agonists | Biphenylindanone A DCG-IV Eglumegad HYDIA LY-379,268 LY-404,039
mGluR5 NAMs | Fenobam GRN-529 MPEP MTEP
TSPO agonists | DAA-1097 DAA-1106 Emapunil FGIN-127 FGIN-143
σ1 agonists | Afobazole BD1031 BD1052 L-687,384 Opipramol Pentoxyverine PRE-084 SA-4503 4-PPBP
Antidepressants | Clomipramine Duloxetine Escitalopram Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Imipramine Lofepramine Maprotiline Moclobemide Nefazodone Paroxetine Phenelzine Sertraline Venlafaxine
Others | Benzoctamine Cannabidiol Carbetocin Clozapine Cycloserine Demoxytocin Emoxypine Kava Mephenoxalone Mepiprazole Oxanamide Oxytocin Periciazine Promoxolane Quetiapine Risperidone Tofisopam Tramadol Trimetozine Valproate WAY-267,464
#WHO-EM ‡Withdrawn from market Clinical trials: †Phase III §Never to phase III
M: PSO/PSI | mepr | dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo | proc (eval/thrp), drug (N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)

Uterotonics/labor inducers/oxytocics (G02A)
Cervical ripening |
Ergot alkaloids | Ergometrine# (+oxytocin) Methylergometrine
Prostaglandins and analogues | E: Misoprostol/E1# Gemeprost/E1 Dinoprostone/E2 Sulprostone/E2 F: Dinoprost/F2α Carboprost/F2α
Contraction induction | Oxytocin# Carbetocin Demoxytocin WAY-267,464
#WHO-EM ‡Withdrawn from market Clinical trials: †Phase III §Never to phase III
M: OBS | phys/devp/memb | mthr/fetu/infc, epon | proc, drug (2A/G2C)

Hypothalamic-pituitary hormones and analogues (H01)
Hypothalamic |
GNRH | Agonists: Gonadorelin Nafarelin Histrelin Antagonists: Cetrorelix Ganirelix
Somatostatin | Agonists: Lanreotide Octreotide Pasireotide Vapreotide
Anterior pituitary |
ACTH | Agonists: Corticotropin Cosyntropin Tetracosactide
GH | Agonists: IGF-1 (Mecasermin/Mecasermin rinfabate) Sermorelin Somatrem Antagonists: Pegvisomant
TSH | Agonists: Thyrotropin
Posterior pituitary |
Oxytocin | Agonists: Carbetocin Demoxytocin Antagonists: Atosiban
Vasopressin | Agonists: Argipressin Desmopressin Felypressin Lypressin Ornipressin Terlipressin Antagonists: Conivaptan Demeclocycline Lixivaptan Mozavaptan Nelivaptan Relcovaptan Satavaptan Tolvaptan
M: END | anat/phys/devp/horm | noco (d)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon | proc, drug (A10/H1/H2/H3/H5)

Neuropeptidergics
Cholecystokinin |
CCKA | Agonists: Cholecystokinin CCK-4 Antagonists: Asperlicin Proglumide Lorglumide Devazepide Dexloxiglumide
CCKB | Agonists: Cholecystokinin CCK-4 Gastrin Antagonists: Proglumide CI-988
CRH |
CRF1 | Agonists: Corticotropin releasing hormone Antagonists: Antalarmin CP-154,526 Pexacerfont
CRF2 | Agonists: Corticotropin releasing hormone
Galanin |
GAL1 | Agonists: Galanin Galanin-like peptide Galmic Galnon
GAL2 | Agonists: Galanin Galanin-like peptide Galmic Galnon
GAL3 | Agonists: Galanin Galmic Galnon
Ghrelin | Agonists: Ghrelin Capromorelin MK-677 Sermorelin SM-130,686 Tabimorelin
GnRH | Agonists: Buserelin Deslorelin GnRH Goserelin Histrelin Leuprorelin Nafarelin Triptorelin Antagonists: Abarelix Cetrorelix Degarelix Ganirelix
MCH |
MCH1 | Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone Antagonists: ATC-0175 GW-803,430 NGD-4715 SNAP-7941 SNAP-94847
MCH2 | Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Melanocortin |
MC1 | Agonists: alpha-MSH Afamelanotide BMS-470,539 Bremelanotide Melanotan II Antagonists: Agouti signalling peptide
MC2 | Agonists: ACTH Cosyntropin Tetracosactide
MC3 | Agonists: alpha-MSH Bremelanotide Melanotan II
MC4 | Agonists: alpha-MSH Bremelanotide Melanotan II PF-00446687 THIQ Antagonists: Agouti-related peptide
MC5 | Agonists: alpha-MSH Melanotan II
Neuropeptide S | Agonists: Neuropeptide S Antagonists: SHA-68
Neuropeptide Y |
Y1 | Agonists: Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY Antagonists: BIBP-3226
Y2 | Agonists: Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY Antagonists: BIIE-0246
Y4 | Agonists: Neuropeptide Y Pancreatic polypeptide Peptide YY Antagonists: UR-AK49
Y5 | Agonists: Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY Antagonists: Lu AA-33810
Neurotensin |
NTS1 | Agonists: Neurotensin Neuromedin N Antagonists: SR-48692 SR-142,948
NTS2 | Agonists: Neurotensin Antagonists: Levocabastine SR-142,948
Orexin |
OX1 | Agonists: Orexin-A Antagonists: Almorexant SB-334,867 SB-408,124 SB-649,868 Suvorexant
OX2 | Agonists: Orexin-A Antagonists: Almorexant SB-649,868 Suvorexant TCS-OX2-29
Oxytocin | Agonists: Carbetocin Demoxytocin Oxytocin WAY-267,464 Antagonists: Atosiban Epelsiban L-371,257 L-368,899 Retosiban
Tachykinin |
NK1 | Agonists: Substance P Antagonists: Aprepitant Befetupitant Casopitant CI-1021 CP-96,345 CP-99,994 CP-122,721 Dapitant Ezlopitant FK-888 Fosaprepitant GR-203,040 GW-597,599 HSP-117 L-733,060 L-741,671 L-743,310 L-758,298 Lanepitant LY-306,740 Maropitant Netupitant NKP-608 Nolpitantium Orvepitant RP-67,580 SDZ NKT 343 Vestipitant Vofopitant
NK2 | Agonists: Neurokinin A Antagonists: GR-159,897 Ibodutant Saredutant
NK3 | Agonists: Neurokinin B Antagonists: Osanetant Talnetant
Vasopressin |
V1A | Agonists: Desmopressin Felypressin Ornipressin Terlipressin Vasopressin Antagonists: Conivaptan Demeclocycline Relcovaptan
V1B | Agonists: Felypressin Ornipressin Terlipressin Vasopressin Antagonists: Demeclocycline Nelivaptan
V2 | Agonists: Desmopressin Ornipressin Vasopressin Antagonists: Conivaptan Demeclocycline Lixivaptan Mozavaptan Satavaptan Tolvaptan

Peptides: neuropeptides
Hormones | see hormones
Opioid peptides |
Dynorphin | Big dynorphin Dynorphin A Dynorphin B
Endorphins | Beta-endorphin Alpha-endorphin Gamma-endorphin α-neo-endorphin β-neo-endorphin
Enkephalin | Met-enkephalin Leu-enkephalin
Others | Adrenorphin Amidorphin Leumorphin Nociceptin Opiorphin Spinorphin
Other neuropeptides |
Kinins | Bradykinin Tachykinins: mammal Substance P Neurokinin A Neurokinin B amphibian Kassinin Physalaemin
Neuromedins | B N S U
Other | Angiotensin Bombesin Calcitonin gene-related peptide Carnosine Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript Delta sleep-inducing peptide FMRFamide Galanin Galanin-like peptide Gastrin releasing peptide Neuropeptide S Neuropeptide Y Neurophysins Neurotensin Pancreatic polypeptide Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide RVD-Hpα VGF
B trdu: iter (nrpl/grfl/cytl/horl), csrc (lgic, enzr, gprc, igsr, intg, nrpr/grfr/cytr), itra (adap, gbpr, mapk), calc, lipd; path (hedp, wntp, tgfp+mapp, notp, jakp, fsap, hipp, tlrp)

Neurotransmitters
Amino acids | Alanine Aspartate Cycloserine DMG GABA Glutamate Glycine Hypotaurine Kynurenic acid (Transtorine) NAAG (Spaglumic acid) NMG (Sarcosine) Serine Taurine TMG (Betaine)
Endocannabinoids | 2-AG 2-AGE (Noladin ether) AEA (Anandamide) NADA OAE (Virodhamine) Oleamide PEA (Palmitoylethanolamide) RVD-Hpα Hp (Hemopressin)
Gasotransmitters | Carbon monoxide Hydrogen sulfide Nitric oxide Nitrous oxide
Monoamines | Dopamine Epinephrine (Adrenaline) Melatonin NAS (Normelatonin) Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) Serotonin (5-HT)
Purines | Adenosine ADP AMP ATP
Trace amines | 3-ITA 5-MeO-DMT Bufotenin DMT m-Octopamine p-Octopamine m-Tyramine p-Tyramine NMT Phenethylamine Synephrine Thyronamine Tryptamine
Others | 1,4-BD Acetylcholine GBL GHB Histamine
See also Template:Neuropeptides
M: PNS | anat (h/r/t/c/b/l/s/a)/phys (r)/devp/prot/nttr/nttm/ntrp | noco/auto/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr | proc, drug (N1B)

Tocolytics/labor repressants (G02CA)
β2-agonists | Ritodrine Buphenine Fenoterol Terbutaline
Oxytocin antagonist | Atosiban
NSAID | Indometacin
Calcium channel blocker | Nifedipine
Myosin inhibitor | Magnesium sulfate
M: OBS | phys/devp/memb | mthr/fetu/infc, epon | proc, drug (2A/G2C)