"Corporate responsibility" redirects here. For other types of responsibility, see Corporate responsibilities.

| It has been suggested that corporate citizenship be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2012.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR, also called corporate conscience, corporate citizenship, social performance, or sustainable responsible business/ Responsible Business)[1] is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and international norms. CSR is a process with the aim to embrace responsibility for the company's actions and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere who may also be considered as stakeholders.

The term "corporate social responsibility" came into common use in the late 1960s and early 1970s after many multinational corporations formed the term stakeholder, meaning those on whom an organization's activities have an impact. It was used to describe corporate owners beyond shareholders as a result of an influential book by R. Edward Freeman, Strategic management: a stakeholder approach in 1984.[2] Proponents argue that corporations make more long term profits by operating with a perspective, while critics argue that CSR distracts from the economic role of businesses. Others argue CSR is merely window-dressing, or an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a watchdog over powerful multinational corporations.

CSR is titled to aid an organization's mission as well as a guide to what the company stands for and will uphold to its consumers. Development business ethics is one of the forms of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. ISO 26000 is the recognized international standard for CSR. Public sector organizations (the United Nations for example) adhere to the triple bottom line (TBL). It is widely accepted that CSR adheres to similar principles but with no formal act of legislation. The UN has developed the Principles for Responsible Investment as guidelines for investing entities.

## Approaches[edit]

Some commentators have identified a difference between the Canadian (Montreal school of CSR), the Continental European and the Anglo-Saxon approaches to CSR.[3] And even within Europe the discussion about CSR is very heterogeneous.[4]

A more common approach to CSR is corporate philanthropy. This includes monetary donations and aid given to local and non-local nonprofit organizations and communities, including donations in areas such as the arts, education, housing, health, social welfare, and the environment, among others, but excluding political contributions and commercial sponsorship of events.[5] Some organizations[who?] do not like a philanthropy-based approach as it might not help build on the skills of local populations, whereas community-based development generally leads to more sustainable development.[clarification needed Difference between local org community-dev? Cite]

Another approach to CSR is to incorporate the CSR strategy directly into the business strategy of an organization. For instance, procurement of Fair Trade tea and coffee has been adopted by various businesses including KPMG. Its CSR manager commented, "Fairtrade fits very strongly into our commitment to our communities."[6]

Another approach is garnering increasing corporate responsibility interest. This is called Creating Shared Value, or CSV. The shared value model is based on the idea that corporate success and social welfare are interdependent. A business needs a healthy, educated workforce, sustainable resources and adept government to compete effectively. For society to thrive, profitable and competitive businesses must be developed and supported to create income, wealth, tax revenues, and opportunities for philanthropy. CSV received global attention in the Harvard Business Review article Strategy Society: The Link between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility [1] by Michael E. Porter, a leading authority on competitive strategy and head of the Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness at Harvard Business School; and Mark R. Kramer, Senior Fellow at the Kennedy School at Harvard University and co-founder of FSG Social Impact Advisors. The article provides insights and relevant examples of companies that have developed deep linkages between their business strategies and corporate social responsibility. Many approaches to CSR pit businesses against society, emphasizing the costs and limitations of compliance with externally imposed social and environmental standards. CSV acknowledges trade-offs between short-term profitability and social or environmental goals, but focuses more on the opportunities for competitive advantage from building a social value proposition into corporate strategy. CSV has a limitation in that it gives the impression that only two stakeholders are important - shareholders and consumers - and belies the multi-stakeholder approach of most CSR advocates.

Many companies use the strategy of benchmarking to compete within their respective industries in CSR policy, implementation, and effectiveness. Benchmarking involves reviewing competitor CSR initiatives, as well as measuring and evaluating the impact that those policies have on society and the environment, and how customers perceive competitor CSR strategy. After a comprehensive study of competitor strategy and an internal policy review performed, a comparison can be drawn and a strategy developed for competition with CSR initiatives.

## Social accounting, auditing, and reporting[edit]

Main article: Social accounting

For a business to take responsibility for its actions, that business must be fully accountable. Social accounting, a concept describing the communication of social and environmental effects of a company's economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large, is thus an important element of CSR.[7]

Social accounting emphasizes the notion of corporate accountability. D. Crowther defines social accounting in this sense as "an approach to reporting a firm?s activities which stresses the need for the identification of socially relevant behavior, the determination of those to whom the company is accountable for its social performance and the development of appropriate measures and reporting techniques."[8] An example of social accounting, to a limited extent, is found in an annual Director's Report, under the requirements of UK company law.[9]

A number of reporting guidelines or standards have been developed to serve as frameworks for social accounting, auditing and reporting including:

- AccountAbility's AA1000 standard, based on John Elkington's triple bottom line (3BL) reporting
- The Prince's Accounting for Sustainability Project's Connected Reporting Framework
- The Fair Labor Association conducts audits based on its Workplace Code of Conduct and posts audit results on the FLA website.
- The Fair Wear Foundation takes a unique approach to verifying labour conditions in companies' supply chains, using interdisciplinary auditing teams.
- Global Reporting Initiative's Sustainability Reporting Guidelines
- GoodCorporation's Standard developed in association with the Institute of Business Ethics
- Earthcheck www.earthcheck.org Certification / Standard
- Social Accountability International's SA8000 standard
- Standard Ethics Aei guidelines
- The ISO 14000 environmental management standard
- The United Nations Global Compact requires companies to communicate on their progress (or to produce a Communication on Progress, COP), and to describe the company's implementation of the Compact's ten universal principles. This information should be fully integrated in the participant?s main medium of stakeholder communications, for example a corporate responsibility or sustainability report and/or an integrated financial and sustainability report. If a company does not publish formal reports, a COP can be created as a stand-alone document.[10]
- The United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR) provides voluntary technical guidance on eco-efficiency indicators, corporate responsibility reporting, and corporate governance disclosure.

The FTSE Group publishes the FTSE4Good Index, an evaluation of CSR performance of companies.

In some nations, legal requirements for social accounting, auditing and reporting exist (e.g. in the French bilan social), though international or national agreement on meaningful measurements of social and environmental performance is difficult. Many companies now produce externally audited annual reports that cover Sustainable Development and CSR issues ("Triple Bottom Line Reports"), but the reports vary widely in format, style, and evaluation methodology (even within the same industry). Critics dismiss these reports as lip service, citing examples such as Enron's yearly "Corporate Responsibility Annual Report" and tobacco corporations' social reports.

In South Africa, as of June 2010, all companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) were required to produce an integrated report in place of an annual financial report and sustainability report.[11] An integrated report includes environmental, social and economic performance alongside financial performance information and is expected to provide users with a more holistic overview of a company. However, this requirement was implemented in the absence of any formal or legal standards for an integrated report. An Integrated Reporting Committee (IRC) was established to issue guidelines for good practice in this field.

## Potential business benefits[edit]

The scale and nature of the benefits of CSR for an organization can vary depending on the nature of the enterprise, and are difficult to quantify, though there is a large body of literature exhorting business to adopt measures beyond financial ones (e.g., Deming's Fourteen Points, balanced scorecards). Orlitzky, Schmidt, and Rynes[12] found a correlation between social/environmental performance and financial performance. However, businesses may not be looking at short-run financial returns when developing their CSR strategy. Intel employ a 5-year CSR planning cycle.[13]

The definition of CSR used within an organization can vary from the strict "stakeholder impacts" definition used by many CSR advocates and will often include charitable efforts and volunteering. CSR may be based within the human resources, business development or public relations departments of an organisation,[14] or may be given a separate unit reporting to the CEO or in some cases directly to the board. Some companies may implement CSR-type values without a clearly defined team or programme.

The business case for CSR[15] within a company will likely rest on one or more of these arguments:

### Human resources[edit]

A CSR program can be an aid to recruitment and retention,[16] particularly within the competitive graduate student market. Potential recruits often ask about a firm's CSR policy during an interview, and having a comprehensive policy can give an advantage. CSR can also help improve the perception of a company among its staff, particularly when staff can become involved through payroll giving, fundraising activities or community volunteering. CSR has been found to encourage customer orientation among frontline employees.[17]

### Risk management[edit]

Managing risk is a central part of many corporate strategies. Reputations that take decades to build up can be ruined in hours through incidents such as corruption scandals or environmental accidents.[18] These can also draw unwanted attention from regulators, courts, governments and media. Building a genuine culture of 'doing the right thing' within a corporation can offset these risks.[19]

### Brand differentiation[edit]

In crowded marketplaces, companies strive for a unique selling proposition that can separate them from the competition in the minds of consumers. CSR can play a role in building customer loyalty based on distinctive ethical values.[20] Several major brands, such as The Co-operative Group, The Body Shop and American Apparel[21] are built on ethical values. Business service organizations can benefit too from building a reputation for integrity and best practice.

### License to operate[edit]

Corporations are keen to avoid interference in their business through taxation or regulations. By taking substantive voluntary steps, they can persuade governments and the wider public that they are taking issues such as health and safety, diversity, or the environment seriously as good corporate citizens with respect to labour standards and impacts on the environment.

## Criticisms and concerns[edit]

Critics of CSR as well as proponents debate a number of concerns related to it. These include CSR's relationship to the fundamental purpose and nature of business and questionable motives for engaging in CSR, including concerns about insincerity and hypocrisy.

### Nature of business[edit]

Milton Friedman and others have argued that a corporation's purpose is to maximize returns to its shareholders, and that since only people can have social responsibilities, corporations are only responsible to their shareholders and not to society as a whole. Although they accept that corporations should obey the laws of the countries within which they work, they assert that corporations have no other obligation to society. Some people perceive CSR as in-congruent with the very nature and purpose of business, and indeed a hindrance to free trade. Those who assert that CSR is contrasting with capitalism and are in favor of the free market argue that improvements in health, longevity and/or infant mortality have been created by economic growth attributed to free enterprise.[22]

Critics of this argument perceive the free market as opposed to the well-being of society and a hindrance to human freedom. They claim that the type of capitalism practiced in many developing countries is a form of economic and cultural imperialism, noting that these countries usually have fewer labour protections, and thus their citizens are at a higher risk of exploitation by multinational corporations.[23]

A wide variety of individuals and organizations operate in between these poles. For example, the REALeadership Alliance asserts that the business of leadership (be it corporate or otherwise) is to change the world for the better.[24] Many religious and cultural traditions hold that the economy exists to serve human beings, so all economic entities have an obligation to society (see for example Economic Justice for All). Moreover, as discussed above, many CSR proponents point out that CSR can significantly improve long-term corporate profitability because it reduces risks and inefficiencies while offering a host of potential benefits such as enhanced brand reputation and employee engagement.

### Motives[edit]

Some critics believe that CSR programs are undertaken by companies such as British American Tobacco (BAT),[25] the petroleum giant BP (well known for its high-profile advertising campaigns on environmental aspects of its operations), and McDonald's (see below) to distract the public from ethical questions posed by their core operations. They argue that some corporations start CSR programs for the commercial benefit they enjoy through raising their reputation with the public or with government. They suggest that corporations which exist solely to maximize profits are unable to advance the interests of society as a whole.[26]

Another concern is that sometimes companies claim to promote CSR and be committed to sustainable development but simultaneously engage in harmful business practices. For example, since the 1970s, the McDonald's Corporation's association with Ronald McDonald House has been viewed as CSR and relationship marketing. More recently, as CSR has become mainstream, the company has beefed up its CSR programs related to its labor, environmental and other practices[27] All the same, in McDonald's Restaurants v Morris Steel, Lord Justices Pill, May and Keane ruled that it was fair comment to say that McDonald's employees worldwide 'do badly in terms of pay and conditions'[28] and true that 'if one eats enough McDonald's food, one's diet may well become high in fat etc., with the very real risk of heart disease.'[29]

Royal Dutch Shell has a much-publicized CSR policy and was a pioneer in triple bottom line reporting, but this did not prevent the 2004 scandal concerning its misreporting of oil reserves, which seriously damaged its reputation and led to charges of hypocrisy. Since then, the Shell Foundation has become involved in many projects across the world, including a partnership with Marks and Spencer (UK) in three flower and fruit growing communities across Africa.

Critics concerned with corporate hypocrisy and insincerity generally suggest that better governmental and international regulation and enforcement, rather than voluntary measures, are necessary to ensure that companies behave in a socially responsible manner. A major area of necessary international regulation is the reduction of the capacity of corporations to sue states under investor state dispute settlement provisions in trade or investment treaties if otherwise necessary public health or environment protection legislation has impeded corporate investments.[30] Others, such as Patricia Werhane, argue that CSR should be considered more as a corporate moral responsibility, and limit the reach of CSR by focusing more on direct impacts of the organization as viewed through a systems perspective to identify stakeholders. For a commonly overlooked motive for CSR, see also Corporate Social Entrepreneurship, whereby CSR can also be driven by employees' personal values, in addition to the more obvious economic and governmental drivers.

### Ethical consumerism[edit]

The rise in popularity of ethical consumerism over the last two decades can be linked to the rise of CSR. As global population increases, so does the pressure on limited natural resources required to meet rising consumer demand (Grace and Cohen 2005, 147). Industrialization, in many developing countries, is booming as a result of both technology and globalization. Consumers are becoming more aware of the environmental and social implications of their day-to-day consumer decisions and are therefore beginning to make purchasing decisions related to their environmental and ethical concerns.[31] However, this practice is far from consistent or universal.

### Globalization and market forces[edit]

As corporations pursue growth through globalization, they have encountered new challenges that impose limits to their growth and potential profits. Government regulations, tariffs, environmental restrictions and varying standards of what constitutes "labor exploitation" are problems that can cost organizations millions of dollars. Some view ethical issues as simply a costly hindrance, while some companies use CSR methodologies as a strategic tactic to gain public support for their presence in global markets, helping them sustain a competitive advantage by using their social contributions to provide a subconscious level of advertising. (Fry, Keim, Meiners 1986, 105) Global competition places a particular pressure on multinational corporations to examine not only their own labor practices, but those of their entire supply chain, from a CSR perspective. that all government is controlling.

### Social awareness and education[edit]

The role among corporate stakeholders is to work collectively to pressure corporations that are changing. Shareholders and investors themselves, through socially responsible investing are exerting pressure on corporations to behave responsibly. Non-governmental organizations are also taking an increasing role, leveraging the power of the media and the Internet to increase their scrutiny and collective activism around corporate behavior. Through education and dialogue, the development of community awareness in holding businesses responsible for their actions is growing.[32] In recent years, the traditional conception of CSR is being challenged by the more community-conscious Creating Shared Value concept (CSV), and several companies are refining their collaboration with stakeholders accordingly.

### Ethics training[edit]

The rise of ethics training inside corporations, some of it required by government regulation, is another driver credited with changing the behavior and culture of corporations. The aim of such training is to help employees make ethical decisions when the answers are unclear. Tullberg believes that humans are built with the capacity to cheat and manipulate, a view taken from Trivers (1971, 1985), hence the need for learning normative values and rules in human behavior.[33] The most direct benefit is reducing the likelihood of "dirty hands" (Grace and Cohen 2005), fines and damaged reputations for breaching laws or moral norms. Organizations also see secondary benefit in increasing employee loyalty and pride in the organization[citation needed]. Caterpillar and Best Buy are examples of organizations that have taken such steps.[34]

Increasingly, companies are becoming interested in processes that can add visibility to their CSR policies and activities. One method that is gaining increasing popularity is the use of well-grounded training programs, where CSR is a major issue, and business simulations can play a part in this.[citation needed]

One relevant documentary is The Corporation, the history of organizations and their growth in power is discussed. Corporate social responsibility, what a company does in trying to benefit society, versus corporate moral responsibility (CMR), what a company should morally do, are both important topics to consider when looking at ethics in CSR. For example, Ray Anderson, in The Corporation, takes a CMR perspective in order to do what is moral and he begins to shift his company's focus towards the biosphere by utilizing carpets in sections so that they will sustain for longer periods. This is Anderson thinking in terms of Garret Hardin's "The Tragedy of the Commons," where if people do not pay attention to the private ways in which we use public resources, people will eventually lose those public resources.

### Laws and regulation[edit]

Another driver of CSR is the role of independent mediators, particularly the government, in ensuring that corporations are prevented from harming the broader social good, including people and the environment. CSR critics such as Robert Reich argue that governments should set the agenda for social responsibility by the way of laws and regulation that will allow a business to conduct themselves responsibly.

The issues surrounding government regulation pose several problems. Regulation in itself is unable to cover every aspect in detail of a corporation's operations. This leads to burdensome legal processes bogged down in interpretations of the law and debatable grey areas (Sacconi 2004). For example, General Electric failed to clean up the Hudson River after contaminating it with organic pollutants. The company continues to argue via the legal process on assignment of liability, while the cleanup remains stagnant. (Sullivan Schiafo 2005).

The second issue is the financial burden that regulation can place on a nation's economy. This view shared by Bulkeley, who cites the Australian federal government's actions to avoid compliance with the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, on the concerns of economic loss and national interest. The Australian government took the position that signing the Kyoto Pact would have caused more significant economic losses for Australia than for any other OECD nation (Bulkeley 2001, pg 436). On the change of government following the election in November 2007, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd signed the ratification immediately after assuming office on 3 December 2007, just before the meeting of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Critics of CSR also point out that organisations pay taxes to government to ensure that society and the environment are not adversely affected by business activities.

Denmark has a law on CSR. On 16 December 2008, the Danish parliament adopted a bill making it mandatory for the 1100 largest Danish companies, investors and state-owned companies to include information on corporate social responsibility (CSR) in their annual financial reports. The reporting requirements became effective on 1 January 2009.[35] The required information includes:

- information on the companies? policies for CSR or socially responsible investments (SRI)
- information on how such policies are implemented in practice, and
- information on what results have been obtained so far and managements expectations for the future with regard to CSR/SRI.

CSR/SRI is still voluntary in Denmark, but if a company has no policy on this it must state its positioning on CSR in their annual financial report. More on the Danish law can be found at CSRgov.dk

### Crises and their consequences[edit]

Often it takes a crisis to precipitate attention to CSR. One of the most active stands against environmental mismanagement is the CERES Principles that resulted after the Exxon Valdez incident in Alaska in 1989 (Grace and Cohen 2006). Other examples include the lead poisoning paint used by toy giant Mattel, which required a recall of millions of toys globally and caused the company to initiate new risk management and quality control processes. In another example, Magellan Metals in the West Australian town of Esperance was responsible for lead contamination killing thousands of birds in the area. The company had to cease business immediately and work with independent regulatory bodies to execute a cleanup. Odwalla also experienced a crisis with sales dropping 90%, and the company's stock price dropping 34% due to several cases of E. coli spread through Odwalla apple juice. The company ordered a recall of all apple or carrot juice products and introduced a new process called "flash pasteurization" as well as maintaining lines of communication constantly open with customers.

### Stakeholder priorities[edit]

Increasingly, corporations are motivated to become more socially responsible because their most important stakeholders expect them to understand and address the social and community issues that are relevant to them. Understanding what causes are important to employees is usually the first priority because of the many interrelated business benefits that can be derived from increased employee engagement (i.e. more loyalty, improved recruitment, increased retention, higher productivity, and so on). Key external stakeholders include customers, consumers, investors (particularly institutional investors), communities in the areas where the corporation operates its facilities, regulators, academics, and the media.

Branco and Rodrigues (2007) describe the stakeholder perspective of CSR as the inclusion of all groups or constituents (rather than just shareholders) in managerial decision making related to the organization?s portfolio of socially responsible activities.[36] This normative model implies that the CSR collaborations are positively accepted when they are in the interests of stakeholders and may have no effect or be detrimental to the organization if they are not directly related to stakeholder interests. The stakeholder perspective suffers from a wheel and spoke network metaphor that does not acknowledge the complexity of network interactions that can occur in cross sector partnerships. It also relegates communication to a maintenance function, similar to the exchange perspective.[37]

### Industries Considered Void of CSR[edit]

Several industries are often absent from CSR research. The absence is due to the presumption that these particular industries fail to achieve ethical considerations of their consumers. Typical industries include tobacco and alcohol producers ("sin industry" manufacturers), as well as defense firms[38]

## Arguments for Including Disability in CSR[edit]

| The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2012)

In recent years CSR is increasingly becoming a part of a large number of companies. It is becoming an important activity for businesses throughout the globe.

Basically, CSR means that a company's business model should be socially responsible and environmentally sustainable. By socially responsible, it means that the company's activities should benefit the society and by environmentally sustainable it means that the activities of the company should not harm the environment.

But currently what we can see is that there is an outburst of enthusiasm for environmental causes only[citation needed]. For example, controlling pollution, global warming, deforestation, mitigate carbon emissions, etc. Whereas it can be said that the same enthusiasm is not seen for social welfare[citation needed]. This is because most of the social welfare activities of the companies contribute to the welfare of us able bodied people but do not take into account the disabled people who are also a part of the society in which the company exists and who amount to at least 10% of the population. Therefore, disability must be made a part of CSR policies of the companies and people with disabilities must be allowed to become stakeholders.

There should be non-discrimination or diversity management awareness-raising and training for employees in the companies, that include disability treatment. They should include the disability factor in employment/HR indicators (age distribution, gender, contract type, professional categories and/or activity areas, rotation) so that the situation of people with disabilities can be compared with that of other employees. The companies should take into account the characteristics of people with disabilities when managing human resources (recruitment, selection, contracting and induction, promotion, training, prevention of risks at work). Customer care staff training should be carried out by the companies aimed at guaranteeing appropriate treatment of people with disabilities. They should have a policy or directive aimed at considering or favouring suppliers and subcontractors that employ people with disabilities, including Sheltered Workshops.

Thus, carrying out business practice which includes disabled people will help improve the company's reputation and image in an increasingly competitive environment.

Finally, disability is one of the factors that can contribute to "Diversity" and Diversity is a rising value within companies? management[citation needed]. However, disability is often pushed behind in favour of other diversity criteria[citation needed], thus disability needs to be specifically included within the CSR. [39]

## See also[edit]

- Accountability
- Beneficiation
- Business in the Community
- Business ethics
- Business philosophy
- The Business for Peace Foundation
- Carbon neutrality
- Carbon offset
- Chief Green Officer
- Civil society
- Corporate behaviour
- Corporate benefit
- Corporate citizenship
- Corporate governance
- Corporate personhood
- Corporate Social Entrepreneurship
- Corporate sustainability
- Corporation
- Csrwire Canada
- Customer engagement
- Ethical banking
- Ethical job
- Green economy
- Green job
- Inclusive business
- ISO 26000
- Integrity Management
- Life cycle assessment
- Matching gift
- Not Just For Profit
- OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises
- Organizational Justice
- Principles for Responsible Investment (PRI)
- Public Eye Awards
- Responsible mining
- Shareholder primacy
- Sustainability
- The Corporation
- Volunteer grant
- Voluntary compliance

## Notes[edit]

1. ^ D Wood, 'Corporate Social Performance Revisited' (1991) 16(4) The Academy of Management Review
2. ^ R Freeman, Strategic management :a stakeholder approach (Pitman 1984) ISBN 978-0-273-01913-8, on management :a stakeholder approachots=6ZkgH5ObRIsig=blXypqsI33PKbEs4Tzk0RBQ-tfg#v=onepageqf=false books.google.com
3. ^ Saether, Kim T.; Ruth V. Aguilera (2008). Aguilera OUPfinal dec 2006.pdf "Corporate Social Responsibility in a Comparative Perspective" (PDF). In Crane, A., et al. The Oxford Handbook of Corporate Social Responsibility. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-921159-0. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
4. ^ Habisch, Andr?; Jan Jonker, Martina Wegner, R. Schmidpeter (eds.) (2005). Corporate Social Responsibility across the Europe. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-23251-3.
5. ^ Tilcsik, A. Marquis, C. 2013. ?Punctuated Generosity: Events, Communities, and Corporate Philanthropy in the U.S., 1980-?2006.? Administrative Science Quarterly
6. ^ http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/work/case_studies/read_a_case_study/default.aspx?ID=40
7. ^ R.H. Gray, D.L.Owen K.T.Maunders, Corporate Social Reporting: Accounting and accountability (Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall, 1987) p. IX.
8. ^ D. Crowther, "Social and Environmental Accounting" (London: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2000), p. 20
9. ^ See Companies Act 2006 section 417 ff
10. ^ http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/communication_on_progress/COP_Policy_Feb11.pdf
11. ^ https://www.saica.co.za/tabid/695/itemid/2344/language/en-ZA/An-integrated-report-is-a-new-requirement-for-list.aspx
12. ^ Orlitzky, Marc; Frank L. Schmidt, Sara L. Rynes (2003). "Corporate Social and Financial Performance: A Meta-analysis" (PDF). Organization Studies (London: SAGE Publications) 24 (3): 403?441. doi:10.1177/0170840603024003910. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
13. ^ E. Curry, B. Guyon, C. Sheridan, and B. Donnellan, ?Developing an Sustainable IT Capability: Lessons From Intel?s Journey,? MIS Quarterly Executive, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 61?74, 2012.
14. ^ Social Responsibility and Ethical Careers.html "Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethical Careers". University of Edinburgh Careers Service. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
15. ^ Bhattacharya, CB, Sankar Sen and Daniel Korschun (2011) Leveraging Corporate Social Responsibility: The Stakeholder Route to Business and Societal Value, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: UK.
16. ^ Bhattacharya, C.B., Sankar Sen and Daniel Korschun (2008), "Using Corporate Social Responsibility to Win the War for Talent," MIT Sloan Management Review, 49 (2), 37-44; "The Good Company". The Economist. 2005-01-20. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
17. ^ Korschun, Daniel, C.B. Bhattacharya and Scott Swain (2011), When and How Does Corporate Social Responsibility Encourage Customer Orientation? Working Paper. |url= http://www.esmt.org/en/310145
18. ^ Eisingerich, A.B.; Ghardwaj, G. (2011). "Corporate Social Responsibility: Does Social Responsibility Help Protect a Company's Reputation?". MIT Sloan Management Review. 52 (March): 18?18.
19. ^ Kytle, Beth; paramveer singh (2005). "Corporate Social Responsibility as Risk Management: A Model for Multinationals" (PDF). Social Responsibility Initiative Working Paper No. 10. Cambridge, MA: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
20. ^ Paluszek, John (April 6?7, 2005). "Ethics and Brand Value: Strategic Differentiation" (PowerPoint). Business and Organizational Ethics Partnership Meeting. Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University. Retrieved 2008-03-07. Check date values in: `|date=` (help)
21. ^ "Dr. Tantillo?s 30-Second 'How To': How To Brand CSR The American Apparel Way" Marketing Doctor Blog. March 28, 2008.
22. ^ Friedman, Milton (1970-09-13). "The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
23. ^ c.f., Aquino, M.P., Nuestro Clamor por la Vida. Teolog?a Latinoamericana desde la Perspectiva de la Mujer (San Jos?, Costa Rica: Departamento Ecum?nico de Investigaciones, 1992), et al.
24. ^ Real Leadership Alliance
25. ^ "British American Tobacco Report Shows Truth Behind Greenwash" (Press release). Friends of the Earth. 2005-04-28. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
26. ^ McKibben, Bill (November/December 2006). "Hope vs. Hype". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
27. ^ McDonald's Corporation CSR information
28. ^ [Appeal Judgment p247]
29. ^ [Judgment p264]
30. ^ Ganguly, S (1999) The Investor-State Dispute Mechanism (ISDM) and a Sovereign?s power to protect public health. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 38:113
31. ^ Eisingerich, A.B.; Rubera, G.; Seifert, M.; Bhardwaj, G. (2011). "Doing Good and Doing Better Despite Negative Information? The Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Consumer Resistance to Negative Information". Journal of Service Research. 14 (February): 60?75. doi:10.1177/1094670510389164.
32. ^ Roux, M. (2007). "Climate conducive to corporate action: 1 All-round Country Edition". The Australian: 14.
33. ^ Tullberg, J.; Tullberg, S. (1996). "On Human Altruism: The Discrepancy between Normative and Factual Conclusions". Oikos 75 (2): 327?329. doi:10.2307/3546259. JSTOR 3546259.
34. ^ Thilmany, J. (2007). "Supporting Ethical Employees". HR Magazine 52 (2).
35. ^ Danish Centre for CSR's official website CSRgov.dk
36. ^ Branco, M.C.; Rodrigues, L.L. (2007). "Positioning stakeholder theory within the debate on corporate social responsibility". Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies 12: 5?15. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
37. ^ Shumate, M; O'Conner, A. (2010). "The symbiotic sustainability model: Conceptualizing NGO-corporate alliance communication". Journal of Communication 60 (3): 577?609. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01498.x.
38. ^ Halpern, Barton; Keith F. Snider (2012). "Products that Kill and Corporate Social Responsibility: The Case of US Defense Firms". Armed Forces Society 38 (4): 604–624.
39. ^ [rsed.fundaciononce.es/en/introduccion_RSED.htmlCached- "CSR and disability"] Check `|url=` scheme (help). Retrieved 1/10/2011. Check date values in: `|accessdate=` (help)

## References[edit]

| This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2009)

- Baker, M. "[1]". "Companies in Crisis- What to do when it all goes wrong."
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- Bhattacharya, CB, Sankar Sen and Daniel Korschun (2011) Leveraging Corporate Social Responsibility: The Stakeholder Route to Business and Social Value, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: UK.
- Bulkeley, H. (2001). "<430:GCCTPO>2.0.CO;2-4 Governing Climate Change: The Politics and Risk Society". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol.26, No.4, pp.?430?447.
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## External links[edit]

- Foundation for Corporate Social Responsibility [2]

## Further reading[edit]

| This article's further reading may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive, less relevant or many publications with the same point of view; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations. (August 2010)

- Baker, Mallen. "Arguments against Corporate Social Responsibility". Business Respect. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- Carroll, A.; A. Buchholtz (2006). Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management, 6th ed. Mason, OH: Thomson/South-Western. ISBN 0-324-22581-4.
- Carroll, A. (1998). "The Four Faces of Corporate Citizenship". Business and Society Review. September, vol. 100, no. 1, pp.?1?7
- Cavett-Goodwin, David (2007-12-03). "Making the Case for Corporate Social Responsibility". Cultural Shifts. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- Clarkson, M. (1995). "A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance". Academy of Management Review 20 (1): 92?117. doi:10.2307/258888.
- Commission of the European Communities (2006): IMPLEMENTING THE PARTNERSHIP FOR GROWTH AND JOBS: MAKING EUROPE A POLE OF EXCELLENCE ON CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
- Davis, K.; R. Blomstrom (1975). Business and Society: Environment and Responsibility, New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-015524-0.
- Davis, Kevin R. (2007). "The Compliance Racket". The Chronicle of Higher Education 53 (20): B11.
- Farnham Castle. "Corporate Social Responsibility: New Fad or Necessity". Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- "Ian Davis on business and society". The Economist. 2005-05-26. Retrieved 2008-03-07. - advantages and limitations of CSR
- Feltus, C.; Petit, M. (2009). "Building a Responsibility Model Including Accountability, Capability and Commitment", Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ), Fukuoka, 2009. Building a Responsibility Model Including Accountability, Capability and Commitment
- Fombrun, C. (2000). "The value to be found in corporate reputation". Financial Times, December 4, 2000.
- Griffin, J.; Mahon, J. (1997). "The Corporate Social Performance and Corporate Financial Performance Debate". Business and Society 36: 5?31.
- Holton, Glyn A. "Investor Suffrage Movement" (PDF). Financial Analysts Journal 62 (6). Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- Habisch, A; Jonker, J.; Wagner, M; Schmidpeter, R.(2005): Corporate Social Responsibility Across Europe. Springer. ISBN 3-540-23251-6.
- Hemingway, C.A. (2005). "Personal Values as a Catalyst for Corporate Social Entrepreneurship". Journal of Business Ethics 60 (3): 233?249. doi:10.1007/s10551-005-0132-5.
- Halpern, Barton H. and Keith F. Snider. (2012) Products that Kill and Corporate Social Responsibility: The Case of U.S. Defense Firms, Armed Forces Society, Vol. 38, No. 4
- International Business Report (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility: a necessity not a choice, Grant Thornton.
- Jastram, Sarah (2007). "The Link Between Corporate Social Responsibility and Strategic Management". CIS Papers No.17. Centre of International Studies, Hamburg.
- Joseph, Amita (2010). "A Picture of CSR in India", CSR360 Global Partner Network.
- Lin-Hi, Nick (2008). "Corporate Social Responsibility: An Investment in Social Cooperation for Mutual Advantage", Wittenberg Center for Global Ethics Discussion Paper 2008-6.
- Maignan, I.; Ferrell, O.; Tomas, G. (1999). "Corporate Citizenship: Cultural Antecedents and Business Benefits". Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 27 (4): 455?469. doi:10.1177/0092070399274005.
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- Matten, D.; Crane, A.; Chapple, W. (2003). "Behind the mask: Revealing the true face of corporate citizenship". Journal Business Ethics 45 (1): 109.
- Menon, A.; Menon, A. (1997). "Enviropreneurial marketing strategy: the emergence of corporate environmentalism as marketing strategy". Journal of Marketing 61 (1): 51?67. doi:10.2307/1252189.
- "Millennium Poll on Corporate Responsibility", Environics International Ltd., in cooperation with The Prince of Wales Trust, September 1999.
- Jones, I., M. Pollitt, D. Bek (2006). "Multinationals in their communities: A social capital approach to corporate citizenship projects", University of Cambridge Working Paper 337.
- Manne, Henry G. (2006-11-24). "Milton Friedman Was Right". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- Milchen, Jeff (May, 2000). "Inherent Rules of Corporate Behavior". ReclaimDemocracy.org. Retrieved 2008-03-07. Check date values in: `|date=` (help)
- Norman, Wayne; Chris MacDonald. "Triple Bottom Line: a Critique". Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- Porter, Michael; Mark Kramer. "The Link Between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility" (PDF). Harvard Business Review.
- Rowe, James (2005-01-01). "Corporate Social Responsibility as Business Strategy". CGIRS-Reprint-2005-08. Center for Global, International, and Regional Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
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- SMEs Focus. "Making Europe a Pole of Excellence on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)".

- Spence, L.; Habisch, A.; Schmidpeter R. (Editors) (2004). Responsibility and Social Capital. The World of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises. Palgrave. ISBN 0-333-71459-8.

- Totikidis, V. Heenitigala, K. (2008) "Corporate Social Responsibility in a Troubled World: Keeping Sight of Local and Global Community Problems". Poster presented at: Managing in the Pacific Century: The Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 22nd Annual Conference. The University of Auckland Business School. 2?5 December 2008.

- Visser, Wayne, Dirk Matten, Manfred Pohl, and Nick Tolhurst (Editors) (2007). The A to Z of Corporate Social Responsibility. London, England; New York, NY: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-72395-1.

- Waddell, S. (2000). "New institutions for the practice of corporate citizenship: Historical Intersectoral, and Developmental Perspectives". Business and Society Review 105: 323?345.
- Wartick, S.; Cochran, P. (1985). "The Evolution of the Corporate Social Performance Model". Academy of Management Review 10: 767.
- Wheeler, David; Maria Sillanp?? (1997). The Stakeholder Corporation: a blueprint for maximizing stakeholder value. London: Pitman. ISBN 0-273-62661-2.
- Wood, D. (1991). "Corporate Social Performance Revisited". Academy of Management Review 4: 691?718.
- World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2001), The Business Case for Sustainable Development: Making a difference toward the Johannesburg Summit 2002 and beyond.
- World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000), Corporate Social Responsibility: Making good business sense.
- World Business Council for Sustainable Development (1999), Corporate Social Responsibility: Meeting changing expectations.

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